(微观经济学英文课件)Chap 1 Introduction
《微观经济学》PPT课件
〔2〕比较静态分析法：只分析 始点和终点的经济变量的 状 况
〔3〕动态分析法 引入时间因 素,分析某一时期内经济变量 的过程状况 .
三、经济模型
1、 经 济 模 型 〔economic
model>：用来表述经济
P price
变量之间的依存关系的理
李嘉图发展了亚当、斯密的思想,建立起了以劳动价 值论为基础,以分配论为中心的理论体系.并提出了 比较成本学说.他认为：每个国家都可以通过生产具 有相对优势的商品,通过国际贸易获得利益.
３、萨伊<Say>〔法〕 〔1767-1832〕
让·巴蒂斯特·萨伊
代表作《政治经济学概论》1803年
他认为：供给创造需求,储蓄必然转化 为投资,生产就是消费,供给就是需求, 生产过剩的危机是不会发生的.一个 国家生产者越多,产品越多,企业越多, 贸易越多社会财富越多.主张发展生 产.
2、按研究经济问题判断标准的不同可分为：
• 实证经济学<positive economics>：用事 实说明经济现象的现状如何？回答是什么 〔What is>如：某一时期的经济增长率为 8%,失业率是6%.
•规范经济学<normative economics>：以一 定的判断标准为出发点,力求回答应该是 什么〔What ought to be>.如：要实现8%的 年经济增长速度,政府应采取什么样的财 政政策和货币政策.某国的收入分配是不 是公平.
亚当、斯密的《国富论》
在《国富论》的序论中的第一句话就是： "被看作政治家或立法家的一门政治经济学 提出两个目标： 第一,给人民提供充足的收入或生计, 第二,给国家或社会提供充足的收入. 总之,其目的在于富国裕民".
迈克尔版本微观经济第一章ppt (英文版)
Two Big Economic Questions
Figure 1.1 shows the trends in what the Canadian economy has produced over the past 60 years. It shows the decline of agriculture, mining, construction, and manufacturing, and the expansion of services.
Chapter 1
What is Economics?
© 2010 Pearson Education Canada
In this lecture, we will learn:
• What is Economics all about? • What are the two major branches of economics?
Choices that individuals, businesses and the entire society make in order to allocate their limited resources, determine their economic future and their economic well-being.
© 2010 Pearson Education Canada
The Economic Way of Thinking
Choosing at the Margin
People make choices at the margin, which means that they evaluate the consequences of making incremental changes in the use of their resources. The benefit from pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal benefit. The opportunity cost of pursuing an incremental increase in an activity is its marginal cost.
微观经济学microeconomics Chapter1PPT课件
• Whether to go to college or to work? • Whether to study or go out on a date? • Whether to go to class or sleep in?
Principle #1: People Face Trade-offs.
• To get one thing, we usually have to give up another thing.
• Bicycle v. butter • Food v. clothing • Leisure time v. work • Efficiency v. equity
© 22000171ThCoemnsgoangSeoSutohu-Wthe-sWterenstern
TEN PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS
Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources.
© 22000171ThCoemnsgoangSeoSutohu-Wthe-sWterenstern
© 20©1120C0e7nTghaogmesoSnoSuotuht-hW-Weesstteernn
Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It. • Decisions require comparing costs and benefits
• Efficiency means society gets the most that it can from its scarce resources.
平狄克微观经济学课件英文01精品文档19页
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 7e.
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1.1 THE THEMES OF MICROECONOMICS
Theories and Models
In economics, explanation and prediction are based on theories. Theories are developed to explain observed phenomena in terms of a set of basic rules and assumptions.
Workers Workers also face constraints and make trade-offs. First, people must decide whether and when to enter the workforce. Second, workers face trade-offs in their choice of employment. Finally, workers must sometimes decide how many hours per week they wish to work, thereby trading off labor for leisure.
In a market economy, prices are determined by the interactions of consumers, workers, and firms. These interactions occur in markets—collections of buyers and sellers that together determine the price of a good.
微观经济学英文课件
Edited by Yong, E.L.
Continuously,
Microeconomics is also used for evaluating broad question in regards to government policy (although this is more to macroeconomics).
Edited by Yong, E.L.
Continuously,
If the firm produces 6 units of apple and 12 units of apple pie wants to increase the production of apple pie by one unit to the 13th unit. It has to forgo 2 units of apple so that resources can be shifted to produce the additional apple pie; Opportunity Cost is thus 2.
Edited by Yong, E.L.
Continuously,
If the firm produces 10 units of apple and 6 units of apple pie wants to increase the production of apple pie by one unit to the 7th unit. It has to forgo 1 unit of apple so that resources can be shifted to produce the additional apple pie; Opportunity Cost is thus 1.
微观经济学英文版PPT课件
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2.2 the definition of microeconomics
The starting point of economics searching The definition of Microeconomics People how to make decision Why need to bargain Why need to build market economics
Economics is a study, learning selection of scarce resources with different uses; The goal is effective allocation of scarce resources to produce goods and services, and in the present or future, let them reasonable allocated to social members or group for consumption.
8
Production possibilities curve
PPC is a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology.
微观经济学英文版精品PPT课件
Chapter 1: The Fundamentals of Economics（A. Introduction）
1.2 Microeconomics and Macroeconomics
What is Microeconomics ?
It is concerned with the behavior of individual entities such as markets, firms and households.
You want to buy a computer which is $2510. while it is $2500 in the supermarket in downtown. Wherever you buy the computer, it would return to the producer if there is any problem. Where would you buy it？
There are three types of economies:
Market economy Command economy Mixed economy
Chapter 1: The Fundamentals of Economics (C. Society’s technological possibilities)
Chapter 1: The Fundamentals of Economics（A. Introduction）
1.1 Scarcity and Efficiency
What is economics ?
Economics is the study f how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people.
《微观经济学(甲)》第一章_绪论
3．经济模型（Economic Model）
① Economic Model 经济模型是指用来描述与所研究的经济现象有关的 经济变量之间相互关系的理论结构
② Forms of Economic Model： (Ⅰ)文字（words） (Ⅱ)方程式（Equation） (Ⅲ)图表与图形（Figure and Graph）
1．微观经济学（Microeconomics） ① Microeconomics研究市场经济中单个经济主体的行 为及相应的经济变量 ② Microeconomics研究的基本问题 （i）What：what products should be produced？ （ii）How：How to produce？OR which means should be used to produce？ （iii）For whom：How to distribute? （三个基本问题间的相互关系：举例）
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§3 经济变量与经济模型 （Economic Variables and Economic Model）
1. 存量与流量（Stock and Flow） ① 存量：定义、变量举例 ② 流量：定义、变量举例 ③ Stock and Flow的基本关系
2. 内生变量与外生变量 ① 内生（Endogenous）变量与外生（Exogenous）变量 ② 方程组：变量举例说明 X＋Y＝10; X－Y=4 X+Y+Z=20; X－Y－Z=5
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2．宏观经济学（Macroeconomics）
① Macroeconomics研究国民经济总体运行及相应的经 济变量
② Macroeconomics的基本问题： （Ⅰ）Full－Employment（充分就业及闲置资源的 利用） （Ⅱ）Economic Growth（经济增长） （Ⅲ）Economic Stability（经济稳定） （Ⅳ）Role of Government（政府宏观调控）
微观经济学：现代观点原版PPT(英文)第一章
Market Equilibrium
p
pe 100 QD,QS
Market Equilibrium
p
Higher incomes cause higher willingness-to-pay
pe 100 QD,QS
Market Equilibrium
p
Higher incomes cause higher willingness-to-pay, higher market price, and the same quantity traded.
pe 100 QD,QS
Competitive Market Equilibrium
p
People willing to pay pe for close apartments get close apartments. People not willing to pay pe for close apartments get distant apartments.
Market Supply Curve for Apartments
p
100
QS
Competitive Market Equilibrium
rental price quantity demanded of close apartments exceeds quantity available price will rise. “high” rental price quantity demanded less than quantity available price will fall.
Economic Modeling Assumptions
Two
微观经济学英文版第一章课件-PPT精品文档
Chapter 1
Slide 6
关于教材的使用(讲授章节 )
第一篇 导论:市场和价格(1-2)
第1章 绪论 第2章 供给与需求的基本原理
第二篇 生产者,消费者以及竞争性市场(3-9)
第3章 消费者行为
第4章 个别需求与市场需求(1-4) 第6章 生产
第7章 生产成本(1-4)
运用统计学和计量经济学的技术,理论可
Chapter 1
Slide 26
理论和模型 Theories and Models
微观经济分析 Microeconomic Analysis
理论的有效性(和有用性) Validating a Theory
在假设既定的前提下,理论的有效性取决 于预测(和解释)的质量. The validity of a theory is determined by the quality of its prediction, given the assumptions.
Unemployment
Chapter 1
Slide 17
绪论 Preliminaries
微观经济学和宏观经济学的联系 The Linkage Between Micro and Macroeconomics
微观经济学是宏观经济分析的基础 Microeconomics is the foundation of macroeconomic analysis 宏观经济学也涉及市场分析(行为分析) 宏观经济学(部分内容)是微观经济学的延伸
Chapter 1
Slide 29
实证和规范 Positive Versus Normative Analysis
《微观经济学microeconomics》英文版全套课件(101页)
The economic constraint:
px p1x1 ... pL xL w
The Walrasian budget set (Definition 2.D.1)
Bp,w {x RL : px w}
or
u(x* ) xl
pl
px w
Solution: Walrasian demand function x*( p, w)
Utility Maximization -- Example
Example 3.D.1: the transformed Cobb-Douglas Utility Function
Expenditure Function
Expenditure function e( p,u) Min px s.t. u(x) u {x}
Properties: 1. Homogeneous of degree of one in p 2. Strictly increasing in u and nondecreasing in p 3. Concave in p 4. Continuous in p and u
Comparative Statics – Wealth Effects
The consumer’s Engel function x( p, w)
The wealth effect xl ( p, w) / w or Dwx( p, w) Normal goods and inferior goods
A choice rule C(B) B
The weak axiom of revealed preference (WARP): if x is revealed at least as good as y, then y cannot be revealed preferred to x
微观经济学(平狄克、鲁宾费尔德)最新版(第六版) 英文原版PPTCh01_Pindyck
11
Theories and Models
Validating a Theory
The validity of a theory is determined by the quality of its prediction, given the assumptions Theories must be tested and refined Theories are invariably imperfect – but gives much insight into observed phenomena
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 1
15
What is a Market?
Market Definition
Determination of the buyers, sellers, and range of products that should be included in a particular market
What choices do individuals make in terms of jobs or workplaces? How many hours do individuals choose to work?
Trade-off of labor and leisure
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
©2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 1
8
Themes of Microeconomics
Prices
How are prices determined?
微观经济学 chap1PPT课件
第二节 经济学的研究对象
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一、稀缺、选择与经济学的产生
稀缺（Scarcity）
含义:在一定时期内,相对于人类的无穷欲望而言可用生产物
品和提供劳务的资源总是不足的,即资源的相对有限性.
★没有稀缺就不存在任何经济学问题,稀缺是经济学的前提 ★稀缺是普遍存在的 ★按是否稀缺，可把物品区分为自由物品（或非经济物
产 品种 类
可供选择的产品组合
A
B
C
D
E
黄油
0
1
2
3
4
（亿公斤）
大 炮 10
9
7
4
0
（万 门）
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★生产可能性边界
Production-Possibilities Frontier
按上表，给出几何的表达，就 形成生产可能性边界。
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图：生产可能性边界
Guns
所表示的组合，在已定的条件下是 不可能实现的，W点。
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C、一个经济必须做出选择。
现实的生产，只能在AE曲线上选 择一个点。
选择了B，就意味着必须放弃作 出A、C、D、E的选择。其它也然。
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D、选择是有机会成本的。
从A-E的各点的关系来看，在既定 条件下，要增加大炮的生产，必须 以减少黄油的生产为代价。
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二、资源配置、资源利用、经济制度与经济学
1.大炮与黄油的矛盾 ★假设： A、资源量已定；
B、生产技术已定； C、只生产两种产品：黄油与大炮；
微观经济学 平狄克 第七版 第一单元 英文原版 课件 ppt
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1.2 WHAT IS A MARKET?
Market Definition—The Extent of a Market ● extent of a market Boundaries of a market, both
geographical and in terms of range of products produced and sold within it.
Market Price
● market price Price prevailing in a competitive market.
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 7e.
● normative analysis Analysis examining questions of what ought to be.
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 7e.
Chapter 1: Preliminaries
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 7e.
斯科特微观经济学课件Introduction
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经济学演变图谱
魁奈 1758
重农学派
亚当·斯密 1776
托马斯 ·曼
古典经济学
重商主义 15-17
社会主义 马克思1867 列宁1917
中国
李嘉图 1817
马尔萨斯 1798
J.S穆勒 1848
前苏联、 东欧国家
转轨经济
凯恩斯 1936
新古典经济学
瓦尔拉 马歇尔 费雪 1880-1910
31
小结
1.Adam smith →Marshall →Keynes →… 2.Scarcity→Choice→Opportunity cost 3.Production Possibilities Frontier 4.Micro Vs. Macro 5.Positive Vs. Normative
或PPC曲线)生产可能性边界也称生产可能性曲线或产
品转换曲线（product transformation curve) 。
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一定技术和资源条件下，两 种产品最大产量的组合如表
组合 民用品
军用品
A M NB 10 9 5 0
0 3 59
民 用 品A
MC
生产可能 性边界
N E
D
• Efficiency(D→E) • Tradeoffs (M→N)
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一、为什么要学经济学？
一个社会的兴衰在某种程度上取决于其政 府所选择的公共政策；理解、赞成或反对 某项政策的各种意见是我们研究经济学的 一个理由。
各国领导人（政治家）：制定经济政策 经济学家：解释整个经济如何运行 有助于理性地作决策
微观经济学高级版英文原版课件
Chapter1:Key conceptsFebruary19,20131IntroductionEconomics is the study of choice under scarcity.Typically,consumers want more goods and services than they can afford to buy.Similarly,businesses face constraints in terms what funds and resources that they can ernments and countries also face the same type of problem:a government might want to address a large number of social problems,but they have limited resources with which to do so.Economics is about understanding how a party deals with the fact that when they use their resources to pursue one option,they cannot use those resources to do something else.And so,a consumer may have to choose between a new pair of shoes or a textbook,afirm may have to choose between developing a new product or launching a marketing campaign, and the government may have to choose between improving education or targeting crime.To understand these issues,economics has developed a set of tools that can be used to analyze these problems.This book provides an introduction to those tools.They can be used to help understand economic problems wherever they arise,be it businesses understanding the markets they compete in,or governments trying to develop social policy,or families trying to manage their households.These tools are not meant to capture everything that is occurring in any given situation.Rather,they are designed to simplify(or to model)a complicated and potentially messy real-world issue into a tractable form that can provide valuable insights.Given that resources are limited,the key questions that an economy needs to‘decide’are:(a)what to produce;(b)how to produce it;and(c)who should get what is made.In modern economies,the answers to these questions are largely determined by the market –that is,by the interaction of sellers and buyers in the market.1Sometimes,however, the government also helps determine the answer to these questions,by regulating or intervening in the market.Consequently,our focus in this microeconomics text will be on the study of individuals(consumers,firms,and governments)and their interaction in markets.This chapter provides a few key concepts that underpin the analysis in the rest of the book,as well as economics analysis in general.1By‘market’,we simply mean a place where buyers and sellers of a particular good or service meet, such as a traditional bazaar or an online trading site.12Scarcity and opportunity costAs noted above,it is usually the case that resources are limited,so that not all wants can be met.We call this situation scarcity.Scarcity also means that individuals,businesses and societies face tradeoffs;by choos-ing one thing,a person must give up or miss out on another thing.For example,if a consumer uses their money to buy product X,they cannot then use that same money to buy something else.2We use the concept of opportunity cost to measure that tradeoff. Thus,the opportunity cost of any choice is the value of the best forgone alternative. In the example above,if the consumer buys product X,and the next best thing they could have done is buy product Y,the opportunity cost of buying X is forgoing Y.Individuals also face opportunity costs in terms of their time–that is,if a person spends his time doing one thing,he cannot also spend that time doing another.Example.Suppose Andrew prefers to spend his Saturday afternoon walk-ing.The next best thing that he could have done is to sleep,and his thirdbest choice is to go swimming.Therefore,if Andrew goes for a walk,the op-portunity cost of going for a walk is not sleeping,as this is his best foregoneopportunity.The option of swimming is not relevant here because it is notthe next best opportunity.Opportunity costs include both explicit costs and implicit costs.Explicit costs are costs that involve direct payment(or,in other words,would be considered as costs by an accountant).Implicit costs are opportunities that are forgone,but do not involve an explicit cost.3Example.Suppose Stephen decides to go to university,and his next bestoption is to work at a construction site and earn$80K over the year.Theexplicit costs are those that Stephen must directly pay to go to university,such as student fees,the cost of textbooks,and so on.The implicit costsare the opportunities that Stephen must forgo–that is,working at theconstruction site and earning$80K.It is important to note that opportunity cost only includes costs that could change if a different decision were made.Opportunity cost does not include sunk(or unrecoverable) costs.Sunk costs are costs that have been incurred and cannot be recovered no matter what.For example,if Katrien spends the weekend reading an accounting textbook, no matter what she does(such as whether or not she decides to continue studying accounting),she cannot get that time back.Similarly,if a business spent$100K on an advertising campaign last year,regardless of what they decide to do this year,that money(and effort)cannot be recovered.2It is common to hear people refer to the‘economics’of a particular thing.This colloquial statement really means that,given the limited resource available,a choice had to be made and something(possibly worthwhile)could not be done.3Sometimes,economists distinguish between‘economic costs’and‘accounting costs’.Economic costs is just another term for opportunity costs,and therefore includes explicit and implicit costs. Accounting costs refers to explicit costs only.23Marginal analysisTypically,we assume that economic agents are rational and act to maximize their benefits from their economic transactions.4For example,consumers seek to maximize their benefits from consumption andfirms seek to maximize their profits from production. One way that economic agents can solve this maximization problem is by considering the additional benefit or additional cost of any action.This sort of analysis is referred to as marginal analysis and it is a recurring theme both in this book and economics generally.For instance,consider a consumer faced with the decision of whether to buy one more unit of a particular good.That consumer might consider the extra benefit he derives from buying that extra unit;this is referred to as the marginal benefit of that extra unit of the good.The consumer might also consider the additional cost of buying one more unit;this is referred to as the marginal cost of purchasing another unit,which is typically the price of the good.In making theirfinal decision,the consumer will weigh the marginal benefit against the marginal cost of buying that extra unit.For example, if a consumer is considering buying another cup of coffee,and the marginal benefit is$5 and the marginal cost is$3,the consumer will be better offby buying the extra coffee.Each of the marginal terms noted above,and many others,will be discussed at length throughout the book.What is crucial to note is that the term‘marginal’simply means means additional or extra.That is,we interested to see what happens if we increase things(such as the number of coffees bought)by a small amount.4Ceteris paribusThe notion of ceteris paribus is also an important foundation of economic analysis.As noted,because the real world is often complicated and messy,it is often necessary to simplify real-world situations into tractable economic models,in order to better analyze them.Thus,in order to determine the effect of a particular thing,economists tend to examine the impact of one change at a time,holding everything else constant.This is often called ceteris paribus,which roughly means‘other things equal’.For instance,suppose we are interested in how a change in price will affect the quantity demanded of a good.However,in reality,demand for a good can be affected by a number of other factors,such as changes in the tastes or income of consumers,or the availability or price of substitute goods.Therefore,in order to isolate the effect of price upon quantity demanded,we need hold everything else constant.This is not to deny that in the real world multiple changes can occur at a time–they often do.Rather, to fully understand the relationship between price and demand,it is essential to isolate that relationship from other events that might also be occurring.For example,afirm 4We are not suggesting that,in the real word,consumers are always fully rational or thatfirms do not sometimes have other objectives.Rather,we adopt this simplifying assumption because it allows us to analyze the behaviour of economic agents in markets.Such analysis will be fairly accurate,provided that on average individual consumers andfirms act more or less in their own interest.3might be interested in the effect of advertising on demand for its product.To understand the impact of advertising,it is crucial to remove other factors that could affect demand, otherwise advertising could be attributed too much(or too little)influence,which could lead to poor decision-making by thefirm regarding its next advertising campaign.5Correlation and causationAnother factor to keep in mind is the difference between correlation and causation. Correlation refers to a situation in which two or more things are observed to move together(or against each other).On the other hand,causation refers to a situation where changes in one thing brings about or causes change in another thing.To make statements about causation requires an economic theory about how the world works, rather than just observing a statistical relationship between several variables.Sometimes,when we observe correlation between two variables,A and B,it is because one causes the other.Sometimes,it is because a third factor causes changes in A and B(like a rising tide causing two boats to rise in their moorings).Sometimes,there is no connection between the two variables and it is just by chance that we observed the change in both variables at the same time.Without a theory about how a change in one variable affects the other,it is not possible to say which is the case.4。
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by
N. Gregory Mankiw
Assessment
Component
Weighting (%)
Individual participation Class Attendance Final Examination – Closed Book
Scarcity . . .
. . . means that society has limited resources and therefore cannot produce all the goods and services people wish to have.
Economics
Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources.
among the least-skilled.
?
Two Roles of Economists
When they are trying to explain the world, they are scientists. When they are trying to change the world, they are policymakers.
15% 15% 70%
TOTAL
100%
Introduction
Thinking Like an Economist
Chapter 2
Economy. . .
. . . The word economy comes from a Greek word for “one who manages a household.”
The Circular-Flow Diagram
Revenue
Goods & Services sold
Market for Goods
and Services
Spending
Goods & Services bought
Firms
Households
Inputs for production
Wages, rent, and profit
Such as:
• how people decide what to buy,
how much to work, save, and spend
• how firms decide how much to produce,
how many workers to hire
• how society decides how to divide its resources between national defense, consumer goods,protecting the environment, and other needs
Observation, Theory and More Observation!
2.model
Uses abstract models to help explain how a complex, real world operates.
example: The Circular-Flow Model
Called descriptive analysis
Normative statements are statements that assert how the world “should be.”
Called prescriptive analysis
Positive or Normative
Economics
Supply
Opportunity cost
Elasticity
Comparative advantage
Consumer Surplus
Demand
Deadweight loss
The Scientific Method
1.The Role of Assumptions
Economists make assumptions in order to make the world easier to understand.
Microeconomics and Macroeconomics
Microeconomics focuses on the individual parts of the economy.
How households and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific markets
Market for Factors
of Production
Labor, land, and capital
Income
3.Positive versus Normative Analysis
Positive statements are statements that describe the world “is”. assert how the world
Statements?
?
Tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general economic welfare.
Positive or Normative
Statements?
?
An increase in the minimum wage will cause a decrease in employment
The Circular-Flow Model
The circular-flow model is a simple way to visually show the economic transactions that occur between households and firms in
the economy.
Macroeconomics looks at the economy as a whole.
How the markets, as a le, interact at the national level.
Every field of study has its own terminology