第一章语言学导论
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
语言学导论课件 语言学LINGUISTICS
duality二重性: language as a system with 2
subsystems/structures/levels---meaningless sounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds
creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sending
4.The functions of Language
6 functions(by Jacobson): referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,
metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、
元语言功能)
3 functions(by Halliday):
COMMENT: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's distinction are very similar. They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
communication system. Human language is ‘unique’,or,language is human specific.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。
(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。
communicationC. relation D。
community2。
Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。
tree B. typewriterC。
crash D。
bang3。
The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。
In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。
Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。
Recreational5。
Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。
语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
The
End
Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
jijijiijif
contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance
第一章-系统功能语言学-导论
韩礼德于从20世纪70年代起，韩礼德在世界各地讲学 ，先后曾任美国耶鲁大学、布朗大学以及肯尼亚内罗
毕大学的客座教授，美国加利福尼亚斯坦福行为科学
高级研究中心研究员，美国伊利诺州立大学语言学教
授。1976年移居澳大利亚，并筹建悉尼大学语言学系
，担任系主任工作。1987年后为澳大利亚悉尼大学荣
誉教授，并在新加坡、日本、英国等地从事教学和科
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（四）系统功能语言学的语言学观
1. 符号的观点：（1）语言是符号，与其他符号 一样具有能指和所指等特性，可以用来表达意 义；（ 2 ）语言是符号系统，是众多符号系统 的一种，也是最特殊的符号系统，可以体现任 何其他的符号系统，如交通信号，动物语言等 。
shu 树 乔木的通称 种树；树大招风。
（四）系统功能语言学的语言学观
5. 层次的思想：语言是一个多层次符号系统，在 语言内，包括语义层、词汇语法层、音系层；在
语言外，包括语境层和实体层。上一个层次影响
和控制下一个层次，下一个层次体现和表达上一
个层次。如：
层次的思想：语言是一个多层次符号系统
语言的层次 duality 文化语境 语境 情景语境 意义系统
3. 语言行为：语言被看作一个行为系统，是社会文化 行为的一种。人类社会是由不同的行为系统组成的 ，而语言是这个系统的一种。可称之为言语行为理 论。如：他推车。他想问题。他说走了。 4. 功能理论：三种功能类型，即概念功能（表达人的 内部和世界经历，如动作）、人际功能（表达人的 交际功能和地位、态度等，如语气）和语篇功能（ 表达话语关系及交流方式，如逻辑关系）。语言形 式在很大程度上这些功能来影响、控制、选择的。
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（三）基本哲学理论基础 系统功能语言学也是以一定的哲学思想为基 础的，包括语言学史观和语言学观。 语言学史观 西方语言学所形成的两大对立的观点，都有 其固定的根源。 1 、以普罗塔哥拉和柏拉图 为代表的以人类 学和社会学为思想根源的学派； 2、以亚里士多德为代表的以哲学和逻辑学为 思想根源的学派。
《语言学导论》课件
D
语言的要素
02
语音
01
语音的物理属性
包括音高、音长、音强和音质等，这些属性决定了语音 的音质和音色。
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02
语音的生理机制
发音器官如声带、口腔、鼻腔等在发音过程中的作用， 以及语音的感知器官如耳朵在接收和感知语音中的作用 。
音位和音素
音位是语言中具有区别意义作用的最小语音单位，而音 素是构成音位的语音单位，包括元音和辅音。
语序灵活的语言是指一种词语之间的顺序较为灵活的语言，语法关系不完全依赖于词序。
详细描述
语序灵活的语言的词语顺序较为灵活，语法关系不完全依赖于词序，而是可以通过其他方式来表达。例如英语和 荷兰语就是典型的语序灵活的语言，它们的词语顺序较为灵活，可以通过介词、连词等虚词来表达语法关系。
04 语言的演变
深远影响。
语言与社会变迁的互动
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语言随着社会变迁而发展变化，同时又影响着社会文化的传播
和发展。
语言的文化功能
表达情感与思想
语言是人们表达情感和思想的主要方式，通过语言表达人们的内 心世界。
传承文化
语言是文化传承的重要途径，通过语言将文化遗产传递给下一代 。
维系社会关系
语言在维系社会关系中发挥重要作用，通过语言交流加强人际关 系的纽带。
句法学
研究语言的句子结构，包括句子成分、词组结构、 句法规则等。
语义学
研究语言的意义，包括词汇意义、句子意义、语 境意义等。
社会语言学
研究语言与社会的关系，包括方言、语言变异、语言接 触等方面的研究。
语言学与其他学科的关系
A
与心理学关系密切
语言学与心理学共同探讨人类认知和思维的过 程，研究语言使用和理解的心理学机制。
第一章 社会语言学导论
三、方言学与社会语言学
1、汉语方言学的性质和特点 汉语方言学史可分为传统方言学和现代方言学两大阶段。 汉语方言学始于扬雄《方言》，已经有2000多年历史。其 中传统方言学经历的年代最长，长达近2000年，其特点是 从文献研究方言，其主要目的是为解释经典服务。现代语 言学时期也已有80来年的历史，它的特点是将从西方输入 的现代方言学与中国传统音韵学相结合，而两者的结合是 非常成功的。现代汉语方言学发端于赵元任的《现代吴语 的研究》中国现代方言学是在西方描写方言学的直接影响 下诞生发展的。现代方言学的研究正在进入社会语言学的 新阶段，社会语言学的理念和研究方法基本上是从欧美引 进的，但是由于中国社会和西方社会在许多方面大不相同， 所以中国的社会语言学应该自有特色。
乔姆斯基
20世纪50年代兴起的一种语言学说。 创建人N.乔姆斯基。1957年他的第 一部专著《句法结构》出版，标志 着这种学说的诞生。其研究对象是 内在性语言，而不是一般语言学家 所研究的外表化语言。外表化的语 言指言语行为,说出来的话,音义结 合的词句等；内在性的语言指人脑 对语法结构的认识，以心理形式体 现。生成语法学以描写和解释语言 能力为目标，提出语法假设和理论 来揭示其规律，说明其原因。例如 它要说明儿童为什么能在2、3年内 学会语言。
索绪尔认为社会语言学属于外部语言学， 把地理因素，社会因素等与语言结合起 来研究，他企图从人类学，社会学，心 理学等社会学科来研究语言
社会语言学是外部语言学，优先研究言 语而不是语言。
二、社会语言学与唯理语法、生成 语法
唯理语法。《普世唯理语法》
生成语法。也称转换-生成语法。
语言学导论复习纲要
区分辅音：发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况 和气流节制。 掌握英汉中元辅音的特征： 元音差别： • 除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一 个处在相同部位的。 英语中的元 音都是舌面音， 没有舌尖元音和 卷舌元音。 • • 英语元音分布比较均匀， 而汉语 元音分布不够均匀， 高元音居多。 英语中的元音有长短的差别 （如 beat 和 bit，fool 和 full） ，而汉 语没有。 • • 英语前元音没有圆唇音， 而后元 音多为圆唇音。 汉语中的元音元音基本上在极 限位置上， 而英语中的语音并非 如此。 • 辅音差别： • 英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然 有诸多相似之处， 但它们的发音 方法和发音机制有着细微的差 别。 • 英语辅音有清浊之分， 而汉语辅 音的区别并不全在清浊， 除了几 个个别的浊音，如鼻音、边音， 其余的擦音、 塞音和塞擦音的区 别在于送气与否。 • 此外， 英语辅音时长较短， 单念 时不允许延长； 汉语辅音无论是 清是浊， 无论送气不送气， 单念 时听起来较长， 似乎后面跟了一 个短暂的/ə/音。 音位和音位变体： • • 音位： 某种语言或方言中具有区 别意义功能的最小语音单位。 音位变体： 属于同一个音位的各 个音素叫音位变体。 音位变体就 是音位在语音环境中的实际发 音。 音系规则的描述方法：斜线表示变化产生的 环境，横线（称为焦点线）表示目标音段的 位置。例子如图： 汉语还有鼻化元音。
原则与参数理论 XP 规则是一个普遍规则， 语言之间的差别在 于参数不同。 The fact that Japanese and English differs due to the parameter of variation among languages, or parameter, for short.
移位与疑问句 移位的起因通常为话题化，就是根据不同的 话题而将句子成分改变位置，通常是提前。 比如一般疑问句中， 会出现 I-to-C movement， （屈折语转为补足语；一个假设：A null C triggers the movement in English questions. ） ；而特殊疑问句中会出现 Wh-movement（基于 I-to-C movement 的移 位，形成补足语短语的标志） Principle C C-command: A node alpha c- commands a node beta iff: the mother of alpha dominates beta, and alpha does not dominate beta. Principle C: If a pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y, x and y may not be coreferent. What do we get: Although syntactic structure is independent of meaning in many ways, they do interact in many ways.
《语言学导论(1)》课件
短语是由词汇组成的固定搭配，句子由单词和短语组成，用于表达完整的意思。
四、语言的语法
什么是语法？
语法是研究句子构成和句 子内部关系的学科，包括 形态、句法和句子语义。
语法的分类
语法可以分为形态语法、 句法语法和语义语法，各 自研究不同的语言现象。
语法的规则
语法规则描述语言中单词 和短语的组合方式，以及 句子的结构和语义。
《语言学导论(1)》PPT课 件
# 语言学导论(1) PPT课件
一、引论
什么是语言学？
语言学是研究语言的科学，涉及语言的结构、语音、语法、语义和语用等方面。
为什么要学习语言学？
学习语言学可以帮助我们更好地理解语言及其使用规律，并提升我们的语言表达能力。
二、语音学
语音学的概念和研究 对象
语音学研究语音的产生、 传播和接收，探索语音的 各种特征及其规律。
言语交际原则
言语交际原则包括合作原则、准Βιβλιοθήκη 原则、追踪原则等，指导有效的交际沟通。
语用学的应用
语用学的应用领域包括教育、社会科学、人机交互等，帮助改进语言使用和交流。
七、总结
语言学的作用
语言学有助于深入理解语言及其运作规律，对语言教学和语言技能提升具有重要意义。
学习语言学的建议
学习语言学可以通过阅读经典著作、参与学术讨论和实践语言技能等方式进行。
展望语言学的未来
语言学将继续深入发展，结合技术的进步，突破更多语言现象的研究。
五、语义学
语义学的概念和研究 对象
语义学研究词义和句义， 探索语言中词汇和句子的 意义及其逻辑关系。
词义和句义
词义指单词的意义，句义 指句子的意义，两者都与 语境有关。
语言学导论第一章答案
Chapter one Invitations to languageReference keysI 1. verbal 2. productivity.3 metalingual function 4. yo-he-ho 5. Pooh-pooh 6. contact 7. language 8. descriptive 10. diachronic linguistic 11. langue 12. competence 13. arbitrary vocal 14. scientific ,language 15. descriptive, prescriptive 16. Synchronic, diachronic 17. abstract, realization 18. knowledge, realization 19. arbitrariness 20. displacement 21 sounds, meaning 22. transmittedII. 1. B 2.B 3. C 4. A 5. C. 6.C 7.C 8.C 9.B 10.D 11. A 12.C III. 1.T 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.T 15.F 16.F 17.T18.T19.F20.TVI. Questions1.What are the attributes of language that must be included in thedefinition of language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It includes the following attributes: language has system; it is vocal and arbitrary; it is a human and social activity; it is non-instinctive and is related to culture; language changes with time.2. If language is partially defined as communication, can we all say the voices that dogs make are languages? Why or why not?No.It is observed that dogs may use barking to express anxiety, submission and threats, but it is very different from human language inmany aspects. Firstly, human language has two systems: the system of sound and the system of meaning. So language is a system by which sounds and meanings are related. But dogs’ voice has not the two sets of structures. Second, The creative use language is unique to human beings. But dogs can not segment speech sounds, nor can they form an infinite set of utterance from a finite set of units by use of limited rules. Third, Dogs’ voice is only emotional response to particular stimuli, and have no way to express their feelings yesterday or their imaginations tomorrow. But human beings can talk about things at present, in the past or in the future, and things real or imagined.3. Point our three major differences between linguistics and traditional grammar.略4.What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted.略5.One of he main features of our human language is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what feature it refers to? Support your argument with examples.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language,. It is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the “arbitrariness” of language is “ a rose by any name would smell as sweet”。
语言学导论第一章ppt课件.ppt
What would happen if human language had only one system of structure?
Does the traffic light system have duality, why?
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才 能开始 对症下 药，然 后药到 病除。 近年来 国家对 扶贫工 作高度 重视， 已经展 开了“ 精准扶 贫”项 目
2. design features of human language ▪ arbitrariness(任意性):
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. e.g.书(汉)----book(英)
▪ duality of structure(结构的二重性):
Human language is a system consisting of two sets of structures or two levels.
the higher level: a structure of meaningful units (morphemes or words)
quack-quack bang roar cuckoo
crash
ding dong ka cha pu tong
*compounds:
rainbow bittersweet
pickpocket
* pictograph (象形文字) /hieroglyph(象形符号)
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从
北
英语语言学 教学大纲
教学大纲课程名称：英语语言学英文名称：English Linguistics课程类别：英语专业必修课授课对象：英语专业三年级学生学分：2个学分学时：32个学时先修课程：高级英语、英语语法适用专业：英语语言文学一．课程的性质、目的和任务英语语言学是英语专业高年级阶段的必修课程，是一门关于语言本质、结构、特征、功能和普遍规律等的专业基础课，其前导课程为高级英语、英语语法等。
英语语言学属于语言学理论的入门课程，主要介绍语言学的基本概念、基础知识和基本理论等。
本课程的目的和任务是通过教学使学生掌握基本的语言学知识和语言学研究方法，具有基本的运用语言学知识来分析和研究自然语言现象的能力。
二．课程的教学内容第一章：语言学导论1.语言的本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性2.语言的功能：信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能、寒暄交谈、娱乐性功能、元语言功能3.语言学的主要分支：语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学4.宏观语言学：心理语言学、社会语言学、人类语言学、计算语言学5.语言学中的一些重要区别：“描写式”和“规定式”、“共时”和“历时”、“语言”和“言语”、“语言能力”和“语言运用”第二章：语音1.语音学分类：发音语音学、声学语音学、听觉语音学2.发音器官：肺和气管、声带、共鸣腔3.清音和浊音4.辅音：辅音、辅音的发音方法、辅音的发音部位、英语中的辅音5.元音：元音、元音的描写标准、基本元音、元音音渡、英语中的元音6.协同发音和语音描写：协同发音、宽式标音和严式标音7.音位和音位变体：音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变异、分布互补8.音位过程：同化、区别性特征9.超音段特征：音节结构、重音、语调、声调第三章：词汇1.词：“词”的三种含义、词的识别、词的分类、词类2.词的构成：语素和形态学、语素的类型、屈折变化和词的形成、音系学和形态学的对应3.词汇变化：特有的词汇变化、形态变化、语义变化、音位变化、拼写变化第四章：句法：从语词到篇章1.句法关系：组合关系、聚合关系、共现关系2.句法结构和成分：句法结构、成分、直接成分分析法、向心结构和离心结构、并列关系和从属关系3.范畴：范畴、数、性、格、一致关系4.递归性：递归性、连接、嵌入5.句子之外：句子连接、衔接第五章：意义1.“意义”的意义：概念意义、联想意义（内涵意义、社会意义、感情意义、反射意义、搭配意义）、主题意义2.指称论：指称论、概念论、涵义与指称、外延与内涵3.涵义关系：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系4.语义成分分析法：语义成分分析法第六章：语言与认知1.认知：认知2.心理语言学：语言习得、语言理解、语言的生成3.认知语言学：识解及操作、范畴化、意象图式、隐喻、转喻、整合理论第七章：语言、文化和社会1.语言和文化：情境语境、萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说、个案研究、语言教学中的文化2.语言和社会：语言和社会的联系、社会语境中的文体变异、社会语言学的重要作用、社会语言学的重要启示3.跨文化交际：跨文化交际的重要意义、个案研究第八章：语言的使用1.言语行为理论：施为句和表述句、行事行为理论2.会话含义理论：合作原则、准则的违反、含义的特征第九章：语言与文学1.文学语言的一些普遍特征：前景化和语法形式、字面语言和比喻语言、文学语言的分析2.诗歌语言：语音模式、不同形式的语言模式、重音和韵律模式、传统的韵律模式与语音模式、语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能、如何分析诗歌3.小说中的语言：小说与视角、言语和思维的表达、散文风格、如何分析小说语言4.戏剧语言：如何分析戏剧、分析戏剧语言、如何分析剧本5.从认知角度分析文学：理论背景、认知分析举例三．课程的基本要求1．正确理解语言的本质特征，语言的功能，分清语言学的主要分支以及宏观语言学的基本涵盖范围，掌握语言学中的一些重要区别。
语言学导论第一章
Findings:
clear [l] appears before a vowel. e.g. light, please dark [ɫ] occurs elsewhere (between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word) e.g. film, bill
To pronounce ‗l‘ in ‗light‘ or ‗please‘, …, The back of the tongue is left down.
Dark [l] /[ɫ]—velarized alveolar lateral
Clear [l]/[l]—alveolar lateral
?音位是一个音系学的单位它能区分意义是一个抽象的单位它不是任何一个特定的语音而是由一个特定音素在一个特定语音语境中来表征或实现的
Read the following words, and pay attention the pronunciation of ‗l‘ in these words. Team 1: well, girl, build, quilt Team 2: light, please, link, glue Questions: 1. What‘s the difference in pronouncing ‗l‘ between team 1 and team 2? 2. Can you find out phonetic context in which clear [l] and dark [ɫ] and occur?
研究一门语言 中的语音是如 何形成模式的， 以及语音是如 何在语言交际 中用来传达意 义的。
For example: leap [l]
语言学课后练习
语言学教程(修订版) 练习参考答案修订版第一章语言学导论 1第二章语音 3第三章词汇 8第四章句法 11第五章语义 15第六章语言与思维 18第七章语言、文化与社会 20第八章语用 21第九章语言与文学 24第十章语言与计算机 25第十一章语言学与外语教学 28第十二章现代语言学的学派与理论 30第一章语言学导论1. Define the following terms:1) design features: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2) function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).Language functions include informative function (also ideational function), interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3) etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorsly inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4) emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5) synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixedinstant(usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6) diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7) prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.8) descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9) arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, whichrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning(2) At the syntactic level(3) Arbitrariness and convention (convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning)10) duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11) displacement: one design feature of human language, which means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.12) phatic communion: one function of human language, which refersto the social interaction of language.13) metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.14) macrolinguistics: The interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.15) competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16) performance: the actual use of language in concretesituations.(Chomsky, 1965:3)17) langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18) parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of language that each gives.After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussingwhich points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Not really. Onomatopoeia is at most suggestive of the natural sounds they try to capture. They are arbitrary as signifiers.Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. For example, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Yes. Changing the order of the two clauses may change the meaningof the sentence, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators such as “before” or “after” will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combinedfreely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, red—stop, green—go and yellow—get ready to go or stop.7. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.8. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication.It is decided by their shared design features.9. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？10. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I. (B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to? (B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything. (B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal andI is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.11. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories.It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.12. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidlyin China and why? (up to you)13. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state changes within the individual, such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness.14. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a varietyof different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an accountof the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquir ing the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.附：1. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…2. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor bu t honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking.A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.3. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking,for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.第二章语音1. Define the following terms:1) articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.2) coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is know as anticipatory coarticulation.If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.3) Voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds.When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be “voiced”. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be “voiceless”. When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop [?]4) Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.5) consonant: consonants are sound segments produced byconstricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6) phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.7) vowel: vowels are sound segments produced without obstruction of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.8) allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.9) manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.10) place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.11) distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. (suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s)12) complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.13) IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.14) suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.2. Answer the following questions.1) What organs are involved in speech production?Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in theoral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered toallow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the “Adam’s Apple”. The larynx contains the vocal folds, also known as “vocal cords” or “vocal bands”, a nd the ventricular folds. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam’s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.2) How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips andits final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulationand the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract foran instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between thelips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation aredistinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positionsfor vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue canachieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowestposition the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or close -mid, and mid-low or open-mid).3) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.4) What is assimilation?The change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1) [e]2) [?]3) [?]4) [d]5) [p]6) [k]7) [l]8) [?]9) [u?]10) [?]1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel注：lax:短音，tense: 长音4. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B Cbite [b??t] bide [ba?d] tie [ta?]rice [r??s] rise [ra?z] by [ba?]type [t??p] bribe [bra?b] sigh [sa?]wife [w??f] wives [wa?vz] die [da?]tyke [t??k] time [ta?m] why [wa?]nine [na?n]tile [ta?l]tire [ta?r]writhe [ra?e]1) How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B be characterized?All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([ - voiced ]) and all the sounds that end the words in column B arevoiced([ + voiced ]).2) How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B?The words in column C are all open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) Are [??] and [a?] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [??]appear before voiceless consonants and [a?] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?Life [l??f] lives[la?vz]5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice (d) fly (e) mine(a) [tra?l] (b) [b??k] (c) [l??s] (d) [fla?] (e) [ma?n]6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to the phonetic transcriptions of the words given above./a?/ →[??] / _____[–voice][a?] in other places5. What is the rule that underlies the past tense forms of the regular verbs in English? Collect some data and state the rule.d→ id/t /[ - voiced ]d elsewherecons: continual. 附：Low(1) /p/→[p]/[s]__________/p/在[s]后发音为[p][p] elsewhere/p/在其它地方发音为[p](2) /l/→[l]/__________V/l/在元音前发音为[l] (alveolar)[?]/V__________/l/在元音后发音为[?] (lateral)(3) f, v; , ; s, z;Fricatives and affricatives in English may be assimilated in voicing.(4) /v/→[f]voiced fricative →voiceless/__________voiceless在清音间前摩擦音变为清音(5) Nasalization rule[ - nasal] →[ + nasal]/__________ [ + nasal](6) Dentalization rule[ - dental] →[ + dental]/__________ [ + dental](7) Velarization rule[ - velar] →[ + velar]/__________[ + velar](8) → [n]/[]__________Va在元音前发音为[n] (an)(9) a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)c. The /z/ appears after sibilants.(10) z → s /[ - voice, C]__________ (Devoicing浊音变清音)(11) → /sibilant__________ z (Epenthesis插音)(12) a. // + // b.// + // c.// + //N/A N/A Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingbdz kesz Output(13)a. [ - voiced, - cont] → [ - spread]/s______b. [ + spread]spread: aspirated.(14) Syllabic structure of clasp(15) Sonority scale:Most sonorous醒目的 5 Vowels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLost sonorous 1 Stops(16) clasp(18) *lkaps。
1.语言学导论
第一章语言学导论一. Why Study Language?二. What is Language?三. Design Features of LanguageThe features that define our human languages can be called Design Features.What makes language unique to human beings?The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having 2 levels of sturctures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.So all these features make language unique to human beings.Design features refer to the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human langugae distinguishable from any animal system of communication.ARBITRARINESSBy ‘language is arbitrary’ we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For example, there is no reason why English speakers use the sounds /dog/ to denote the animal ‘dog’, or /pig/ to refer to the animal ‘pig’ while Chinese speakers use different sounds (狗and 猪respectively) to indicate them. There are different levels of arbitrariness.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.We must admit that there are certain words with different degrees of onomatopoeia in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as ‘bang, crash, and roar’ in English, and ‘叮叮当，咔嚓，扑哧’ in Chinese. However arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. Widdowson’s illustration of a line ‘The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves’ in Keats’Ode to a Nightinggale by attempting the substitution of ‘murderous’ for ‘murmurous’ shows that no connection will be established between sounds and the little noiseness of the flying flies. ‘It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.’(Widdowson, 1996:6)(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelAs to arbitrariness at the syntactic level, there are 2 opposite points of view.According to some functional linguists (Halliday, 1985/1994), language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level because there may be a certain degree of correspondence between the sequenceof clauses and the real happenings. Put it differently, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as word order is concerned. Compare: a). He came in and sat down. b). He sat down and came in. c). He sat down after he came in. Sentence a) means the actions occurred in this order. Sentence b) means the opposite sequence of the real happening—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In sentence c) with the help of the word ‘after’ we can reverse the order of the clauses.However, formal linguists underscore the autonomy of syntax. ‘Human cognition embodies a system whose primitive terms are non-semantic and non-discourse-derived syntactic elements and whose principles of combination make no reference to system-external factors.’ (Newmeyer, 1998:18) in other words, to them, syntax is purely arbitrary.(3) Arbitrariness and ConventionArbitrariness and Conventionality are 2 indispensable sides of the coin of language. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languge makes learning a language laborious.DUALITYDuality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has 2 levels of structures, such that units of the primary level (words) are composed of elements of the secondary level (sounds) and each of the 2 levels has its own principles of organization.For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.Why do people take duality as one of the important design fuatures of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such desine feature?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements. For example, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language had no such design feature, then it would be like animal communicational system which consists only a number of basic sounds and this would be highly limited. Then we would not be able to produce a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words), which are distinct in meaning. In other words, the number of messages one can send woud be restricted to the number of basic sounds.CREATIVITYOne of the design features of human language is creativity. What is it? And what makes it possible?By Creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. It is one of the design features that only human language has.Human language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. The speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. The recursive nature of langugae provides a theoretical basis for creating endless sentences.DISPLACEMENTHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as displacement.For example, we can talk about Hitler, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future.‘An refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.’ This shows that language has the design feature of displacement.四. Origin of LanguageTheory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the Yo-he-yo theory.The Bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.五. Functions of LanguageWhat are the 7 functions of human language?According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least 7 functions, and they are illustrated as follows:(1)INFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it means that language is the instrument of thought and languageserves an informational function when used to tell something. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. The declarative sentences such as ‘This is a book.’ are the typical illustration of this function.(2)INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION: it means people can use language to estabilish and maintaintheir status in a society. It is the most important sociological use of language. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.(3)PERFORMATIVE FUNCTION: it is primarily to change the social status of persons, as inmarriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate, the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎平安(every year be safe and happy) as a means of controling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.(4)EMOTIVE FUNCTION: it is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucialin changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example, swearwords, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh, Ow, etc.(5)PHATIC COMMUNION: it originates form Malinowski’s study of the functions of languageperformed by Trobrind Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language . People always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as ‘Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc.’ to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.(6)RECREATIONAL FUNCTION: it means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such asa baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.(7)METALINGUAL FUNCTION: it refers to the fact that people can use language to talk aboutitself. For example, I can use the word ‘book’ to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression ‘the word book’ to talk about the sign ‘b-o-o-k’ itself.六. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or the scientific study of language.七. Main Branches of LinguisticsPHONETICS and PHONOLOGYPhonetics mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called phonology.Illustrate the significance of studying speech sounds in linguistics.Language is first and foremost a ‘system of vocal symbols’. Human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system, as we have seen in the discussion of language speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on 2 levels: phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with speech organs and their functions, speech sounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds by the listener. Phonology is concerned with the organization of speech within specific languages, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches of linguistics.To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minute processes and acticities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs move to convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied to numerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language description and language teaching will have some interest in phonetic knowledge while those who work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solid foundation in phonetics and phonology.MORPHOLOGYThe branch of grammar which studies the internal stucture of words is called Morphology.SYNTAXThe branch of grammar which studies the internal structrue of sentence is called Syntax.In linguistics, Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.SEMANTICS and PRAGMATICSSemantics and pragmatics investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics?Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study.Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning, utterence meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning; the later is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra.八. MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics studies how linguistics is related with other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in languge and society, including the social functions of langugae and the social characteristics of its users. It attempts to show the relationship between language and society.九. Important Distinctions in LinguisticsDESCRIPTIVE vs. PRESCRIPTIVEDescriptive study attempts to tell what is in the language, while Prescriptive study tells people what should be in the language. Most comtemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.An approach in linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is Prescriptive.Modern linguistic is Descriptive in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.SYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONICThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic linguistic study. Diachrony is concerned with the evolution of language over time.The study of language at one point in time is a Synchronic study.Synchrony refers to the state of a language as it exists at any given time.LANGUE /PAROLE and COMPETENCE/PERFORMANCESaussure puts forward the concept of Langue and Parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of Competence and Performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the 2 pairs: Langue and Parole vs. Competence and Performance.According to F. de Saussure, Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. We can compare them along the following dimensions: Langue is abstract; Parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actually spoken by someone; Parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue is relatively stable and systematic; Parole is subject to personal and situational constraints. The linguists’proper object is the Langue of each community, the lexicon, grammar and phonology implied in each individual by his upbringing in society, and on the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic Competence and Performance should be made. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic Competence. And Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s Competence is stable but his Performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker’s Performance does not always match his Competence.Saussure’s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky’s in the sense that the both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute Parole/Performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussure’s Langue is a social product, a set of conventions for aspeech community. Chomsky regards Competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at Language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s competence.。
新编语言学导论
新编语言学导论新编语言学导论是一门综合性的学科，研究语言的起源、结构、演化和使用等方面的问题。
本课程旨在向学生介绍语言学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，帮助学生建立对语言的深入理解和分析能力。
第一章：导论1.1 语言学的定义和研究领域1.2 语言学的历史发展和重要学派1.3 语言学的研究方法和数据来源第二章：语音学2.1 语音学的基本概念和研究对象2.2 语音的产生和感知2.3 语音的分类和描述2.4 语音变体和语音变体学第三章：音位学3.1 音位学的基本概念和研究对象3.2 音位的分类和描述3.3 音位的组合和变体3.4 音位学与音系学的关系第四章：词汇学4.1 词汇学的基本概念和研究对象4.2 词的构成和分类4.3 词的意义和语义关系4.4 词汇的演化和变化第五章：句法学5.1 句法学的基本概念和研究对象5.2 句子的结构和组成5.3 句子的语法关系和句法规则5.4 句法的演化和变化第六章：语义学6.1 语义学的基本概念和研究对象6.2 词义的分类和描述6.3 句义的组成和解释6.4 语义的演化和变化第七章：语用学7.1 语用学的基本概念和研究对象7.2 语用的层次和关系7.3 言语行为和语用推理7.4 语用的演化和变化第八章：社会语言学8.1 社会语言学的基本概念和研究对象8.2 语言变体和社会变量8.3 语言的社会意义和社会身份8.4 社会语言学的应用和研究方法第九章：心理语言学9.1 心理语言学的基本概念和研究对象9.2 语言的认知过程和心理机制9.3 语言的发展和习得9.4 心理语言学的应用和研究方法第十章：语言学研究的前沿和挑战10.1 当代语言学的研究热点和趋势10.2 语言学研究的跨学科合作10.3 语言学研究的伦理和道德问题10.4 语言学研究的未来发展方向本课程将通过理论讲解、案例分析和实践操作等多种教学方法，帮助学生理解和应用语言学的基本原理和方法，培养学生的批判性思维和研究能力，为进一步深入研究语言学或相关学科打下坚实的基础。
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第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics What is linguistics——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language.What are we going to learn about linguistics1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。
然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。
PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的心理状态和心理活动。
比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。
(chapter 9/chapter11) SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。
Research Focus1Cross-cultural CommunicationThere exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use.语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。
心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。
Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years. They start with the comparison of contemporary languages in order to draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have occurred in the past. This is the “diachronic” study of language.人类语言学家主要对历史和早期无文字语言的结构感兴趣，他们关注语言的出现和上千年来语言的分化。
他们从当代语言的比较出发，推测语言过去发生了何种变化。
这就是对语言历时的研究，即研究语言的历史。
Computational Linguistics 计算机语言学Some current application areas include Machine Translation, Corpus Linguistics and Information Retrieval as well as various forms of computer mediated(传递的) communication such as emails, QQ, online shopping transaction software and so on.当前的一些应用领域包括机器翻译，语料库语言学和信息检索，各种各样因电脑的出现而改变的交际方式，比如电子邮件，QQ聊天，网上购物交易软件等等。
Instant Messenger on the internet (基于互联网的即时通讯), such as百度Hi, MSN, UC, YY语音，阿里旺旺等等。
Other interdisciplinary branches1、认知语言学Cognitive Linguistics (chapter 10)2、语言与语言教学(chapter 12 Applied Linguistics)3、文本语言学或语篇分析—Discourse Analysis Chapter 7（研究语言和语境的关系the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used, 语篇的衔接cohesion 连贯coherence等等）。
4、语言与文学Language and Literature（文体学Stylistics）5、神经语言学neurolinguisticsWhat is language对语言的误解：wrong ideas about language1、语言仅是一种交际方式Language is only a means of communication.2、语言的形式和意义对应一致Language has a form-meaning correspondence.3、语言的作用即交换信息The function of language is to exchange information.4、英语比汉语难学English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.5、黑人英语不标准需要改造Black English is not standard and should be reformed.误解语言仅仅是一个交际系统Language is only a system of communication.If language is merely defined as a system of communication, we can call the noises that dogs make language. As we know, birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. So language can’t be defined merely as a system of communication, otherwise language is not unique to humans. Language is one of the unique possessions of human beings. It is used for human communication. It is one of our most articulated means of expressing ideasand thoughts. The design features of language distinguish us from animals.误解1 语言仅是一种交际方式Language is only a means of communication.误解2 语言的形式和意义对应一致Language has a form-meaning correspondence“土豆”，形式上是“土”和“豆”这两个字的组合，但意义上不是说一把土和一堆豆就是土豆了，而表达的是另外的意思，指的是一种蔬菜，我们把它叫做土豆。