Chomsky’s Universal Grammar
乔姆斯基的语言习得机制
乔姆斯基的语言习得机制乔姆斯基的语言习得机制（Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device，简称LAD）是他在20世纪中叶提出的一个关于人类语言能力发展的理论。
乔姆斯基认为，人类天生具备一种内在的、生物学上的语言能力，这种能力使得儿童能够在接触语言的环境中习得语言，而不需要经过特定的教学或学习过程。
以下是对乔姆斯基的语言习得机制的详细解释。
乔姆斯基认为，语言习得并不仅仅是通过模仿和记忆来实现的，而是人类天生的语言能力在特定环境中的自主发展。
他将这种能力称为LAD，即语言习得装置。
LAD是人类与生俱来的，由一系列的基因和神经结构所决定。
这种内在的语言能力允许儿童在接触语言的环境中以高效快速的方式习得其母语。
乔姆斯基认为，这是因为人类的大脑已经预设了一套语言结构和规则的参数，这些参数使得儿童能够从语言输入中推断出语言的结构和规则。
具体来说，LAD包括三个重要的组成要素：1.语言结构：LAD中包含了一套全球通用的语言结构，即普遍语法（Universal Grammar，简称UG）。
UG是一套跨越所有语言的共同结构和规则，它不仅指导语言的表达方式，还可以解释和预测语言的习得过程。
乔姆斯基认为，UG对所有语言习得者来说都是相同的，因此儿童可以从语言输入中识别和应用这些普遍的语言结构。
2.可供变动的参数：LAD中还包含了一些可以按需配置的参数或选项，这些参数决定了语言结构在不同的语言中的具体实现方式。
例如，语序的不同和语法规则的变化都可以通过调整这些参数来实现。
儿童在习得语言过程中，会通过与周围环境接触来确定这些参数的具体取值，从而逐渐掌握母语的语法。
3.外部输入：尽管LAD是内在的，但外部输入仍然对语言习得起到重要的作用。
乔姆斯基认为，外部输入是激活LAD的必要条件，它提供了习得者需要对比和验证自己习得的语言结构的实际语料库。
外部输入可以帮助儿童确定UG中的参数取值，促进和加快语言的习得过程。
论乔姆斯基的语言学理论和外语教学
论乔姆斯基的语言学理论和外语教学乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位美国的语言学家、哲学家和政治评论家。
他对语言学理论的贡献在于提出了生成语法（Generative Grammar）和普遍语法（Universal Grammar）的概念。
在外语教学领域，乔姆斯基的语言学理论也产生了一定的影响。
乔姆斯基的生成语法强调语言的创造性和无限性。
他认为人类天生具备语言能力，而语法是内在的并且可以生成无限数量的句子。
他提出了生成语法的观点，即语言的结构可以通过一套规则来生成。
这一观点对外语教学有重要意义，因为它使教师们能够关注语言的结构和规则，而不仅仅是词汇和句子的学习。
乔姆斯基提出了普遍语法的概念。
他认为所有的自然语言都有共同的基本结构和规则，这些共同之处构成了普遍语法。
普遍语法的存在使我们能够更好地了解语言的本质和学习语言的方式。
在外语教学中，乔姆斯基的理论提供了一种框架，帮助教师和学生更好地理解和学习外语。
根据乔姆斯基的理论，教师可以设计教材和课程，重点关注语法和句子结构的教学，使学生能够掌握外语的基本规则和结构。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论还促进了外语教学中对学生的参与和创造性的提倡。
根据他的观点，人类天生具备语言能力并且可以创造无限数量的句子，因此在外语教学中，教师应该鼓励学生积极参与并且尝试使用他们已学到的语言知识进行创造性的表达。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论也有一些争议。
有人认为他的理论过于理论化并且与语言教学实践存在距离。
一些人也对普遍语法的存在提出了质疑。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论对外语教学产生了重要影响。
他的生成语法和普遍语法的概念为外语教学提供了一种有益的框架，并促进了教师和学生对语言结构和规则的关注。
教师们在运用这些理论时也要注意平衡理论与实践之间的关系，并根据学生的实际情况进行教学设计。
语言学 普遍语法
儿童在接触外语时， 儿童在接触外语时，通常看到 的是语言的相似性， 的是语言的相似性，以自我为 中心不自觉地学习和掌握语言。 中心不自觉地学习和掌握语言。 对他们来说语言只是一种表达 思想和表现自我的工具。此外， 思想和表现自我的工具。此外， 儿童不会像成人那样戴着社会 的有色眼镜去选择应该使用何 种语言， 种语言，所以他们对任何语言 都是包容的。 都是包容的。
• 从人类语言官能和人类生物学角度寻 找语言的基础，制定适合儿童母语习得为载体研 究不同语言背景条件下具有共性的习 得模式。
• 普遍语法是由一些基本的原则和参数构成 的。 • 原则是带有普遍性的，是与生俱来的，是 不需要学习的。 • 但每个语言的具体参数是不同的。需要学 习者通过语言习得来获得，或者说，需要 通过选择来设定参数。
• 儿童学习第二语言的优势还在于：（1） 幼儿先从听开始学习，这正是适合儿童 语言学习的习惯方式；（2）幼儿不是逐 个词去记，而是整句去学，这正符合幼 儿学习的方式和特点；（3）动词是言语 的中心，幼儿往往很容易从一个简单的 动词开始，深入下去，逐步掌握复杂的 语言表达；（4）幼儿大体上是按照思维 的顺序来使用语言，这种方式易于促进 记忆。
• 儿童往往把语言学习看作一种游戏， 并从使用语言的交际过程中获得乐趣。 他们几乎不担心犯什么语法错误，甚 至根据自己的喜好、需要“创造”一 些错误的词语或表达法。最初接触外 语的儿童经常试图用有限的词汇表达 思想，以博得大人的欣赏，所以大多 数儿童带有融合性学习动机，即有强 烈愿望结识持另一种语言的人并与之 成为朋友，甚至希望融入那个社会。
基于普遍语法理论 和儿童的语言习得， 和儿童的语言习得， 我们该如何进行语 法教学？ 法教学？
• 一些语言实验证明，虽然儿童在学习第一语言时 有时会犯语言错误，但是这些错误都是普遍语法 所允许的，只不过这些错误不符合所学语言的参 数罢了。我们可以举一个汉语的例子来说明这个 问题。如果一个幼儿想要表达“大黑狗是宝宝 的”，他也许会这样说:“大黑狗的.是宝宝的”， 但是他却不会犯如下这样的错误，说成“是狗大 黑宝宝的”。那么是什么在控制着儿童语言错误 的范围呢? Chomsky认为这个问题的答案便是人 们头脑中固有的普遍语法。
乔姆斯基的观点
乔姆斯基的观点乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位著名的美国语言学家、哲学家和社会评论家。
他以其关于语言学和政治观点的辩证风格而闻名于世。
以下是乔姆斯基的一些观点和参考内容。
1. 语言和思维的关系：乔姆斯基认为，语言不仅仅是一种交流工具，而且是思维和认知的重要组成部分。
他提出了“普遍语法”（Universal Grammar）的概念，认为人类天生具备一种语言学习的能力和结构。
这一观点挑战了传统的行为主义语言学观点，并成为了现代认知科学的重要基础之一。
参考内容：- 《普遍语法理论》（The Theory of Universal Grammar）：这是乔姆斯基著名的一本著作，详细阐述了他对普遍语法的理论和相关观点。
2. 语言的社会功能：乔姆斯基认为，语言不仅仅是个体交流的工具，而且是社会交往和权力斗争的重要工具。
他提出了“生成语法”（Generative Grammar）的概念，强调语言是一种社会行为，并受到特定社会和文化环境的影响。
参考内容：- 《语言和权力》（Language and Power）：这本书详细讨论了乔姆斯基关于语言和社会权力关系的观点，并探讨了语言如何通过话语和话语行为来塑造社会和权力结构。
- 《社会语言学导论》（Introduction to Sociolinguistics）：这是乔姆斯基在社会语言学方面的重要著作，讨论了语言和社会的互动关系。
3. 政治和媒体：乔姆斯基对大规模媒体和政治权力的关系持批评态度。
他认为媒体在塑造公众意见和控制信息流动方面发挥着巨大作用，而政府和权力结构常常通过控制媒体来维持其统治地位。
参考内容：- 《制造同意》（Manufacturing Consent）：这是乔姆斯基与爱德华·赫尔曼（Edward S. Herman）合著的一本书，探讨了媒体在塑造舆论和制造同意方面的作用，并提出了“新闻取向模型”（propaganda model）的概念。
论述乔姆斯基的生成语言学理论
论述乔姆斯基的生成语言学理论1 转换生成语法的产生与发展美国语言学家Chomsky20世纪50年代末创立的转换生成语法理论,迄今已有近60年历史。
作为一个独立的理论句法学派,它取代了结构主义在欧美语法界的主导地位,并渗透到语言和自然科学领域的各个分支,具有巨大的理论影响力。
它被语言学家粗略归结为五个阶段。
(1)20世纪50年代末至1965年,以《句法结构》(Syntactic Structure)发表为代表的古典理论阶段。
在这一理论下Chomsky 认为语义学是独立于语法学之外的,此时的生成语言学致力于语类规则的探讨,主要由短语结构规则和转换规则构成。
(2)1965年至1970年,以《句法理论的若干问题》(Aspect of the Theory of Syntax)为代表的标准理论阶段。
认为语法分析可以纳入语义,但转换规则只改变句子结构,不改变意义。
由于考虑了语义成分,生成语法在语义敏感性方面要更具优势。
(3)1970年到1980年,以《深层结构表层结构和语义解释》(Deep structure of the surface structure and semantic interpretation)为标志的扩充式标准理论阶段。
在此时期,他认为表层结构也起一定作用,对上一阶段所提的理论进行了修改与完善。
(4)1980年前后到1992年,以《管辖与约束讲演集》(Lectures on Government and Binding,The Piss Lectures)为标志的修正的扩充式标准理论阶段。
在此阶段,Chomsky把语义解释放到了表层结构中,提出了若干相应理论,如格理论,约束理论,控制理论等。
但导致语法体系异常繁冗。
(5)1992年至今,以《语言理论的最简方案》(A Minimalist Program of Linguistic Theory)为标志。
生成语法理论进入了第五阶段—最简理论阶段。
乔姆斯基的语言学观点 英语
乔姆斯基的语言学观点英语
诺姆·乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位美国语言学家和认知科学家，他对语言学领域做出了重要贡献。
以下是乔姆斯基的一些主要语言学观点：
通用语法理论（Universal Grammar）：乔姆斯基提出了通用语法理论，认为人类天生具备一种语言能力的普遍结构，这种结构存在于人类的基因中，并在语言习得过程中发挥作用。
他认为语言习得是一种内在的生物学能力，而不仅仅是环境刺激的结果。
生成语法（Generative Grammar）：乔姆斯基提出了生成语法的概念，认为语言的结构可以通过一系列规则来生成。
他关注语言的句法结构，认为句子可以通过一系列转换规则从基本结构生成更复杂的结构。
普遍语言能力（Universal Language Faculty）：乔姆斯基认为人类天生具备一种普遍的语言能力，这种能力使得人类能够理解和产生无限数量的句子。
他认为这种能力是人类独有的，与其他动物的沟通方式有本质区别。
语言的生成性（Productivity）：乔姆斯基认为语言是一种创造性的系统，人类可以通过有限的语言元素生成无限数量的句子。
他强调了语言的生成性和创造性，认为语言不仅仅是一种工具，而是一种创造和表达思想的能力。
这些观点对于语言学和认知科学领域的发展产生了深远影响。
乔姆斯基的理论为我们理解语言习得和语言结构提供了重要的框架，并推动了对语言和思维关系的研究。
universalgrammar名词解释英语
Universal grammar名词解释英语Universal grammar名词解释：普遍语法，是美国语言学家乔姆斯基语言理论中的一个术语。
乔姆斯基认为，语言是创造的，语法是生成的。
儿童生下来就具有一种普遍语法。
普遍语法实质上是一种大脑具有的与语言知识相关的特定状态，一种使人类个体足以能学会任何一种人类语言的物理机制及相应的心理机制。
特点：第一，普遍语法不是语法大全，不是像传统的普通语言学那样包罗万象；第二，它不是通用语法或万能语法，不能用来代替个别语言的语法；第三，它不是像一本实用语法那样包括各种句型、词形变化等内容的语法。
乔姆斯基说得很清楚：“普遍语法不是一部语法，而是一系列条件，用来限制人类语法的可能范围。
”普遍语法是构成语言习得者的初始状态的一组特性、条件和其他东西。
具体地说，普遍语法是一切人类语言必须具有的原则、条件和规则系统，代表了人类语言的最基本东西。
人能学会语言，是因为人脑生来就存有人类一切语言的共同特点。
这些共同特点就是普遍语法。
由于语言原则是集体无意识的内容，所以各种族、民族儿童都与生俱来，也就是说有共同的语法；由于后天语言环境不同，即所获外界刺激不同，所以才在普遍语法范围内获得各不相同的母语生成语法。
生成语法的作用是确定句子的可能范围。
普遍语法的作用是用更概括的原则来确定语法的范围。
某种语言的生成语法规则排除不合格句子，普遍语法则排除不合格的语法，普遍语法是语法的语法。
实际上，普遍语法是乔姆斯基为揭开人类习得语言的奥秘所做的假设，是假想的人类语言都要遵循的一系列抽象原则和必备的条件，是生成各种具体语言的基础体系，它不是社会规约出来的规则，而是人脑里的心智规则。
乔姆斯基的基本思想就是要制定出少量的原理，通过很少几项原理的相互作用建立起整个语法机制，为各类语法提供一个普遍性的参照。
Universal Grammar in philosophy of language
Universal Grammar in human languageHu Peng1. The hypothesis by ChomskyIn 1965, Noam Chomsky proposed a hypothesis about general grammar of all sorts of language in Aspects of the theory of syntax.He written that humans have a cognitive specialization for learning language and he describe this specialization as“inventing,” “constructing,” “developing,”“devising,” and “acquiring” a grammar. So Chomsky believed that every child would develop an internal representation of a system of rules when he or she began to learn languages and speak.To learn a language, then, the child must have a method for [f-] devising an appropriate grammar, given primary linguistic data. As a precondition for language learning, he must possess, first, a linguistic theory that specifies the form of the grammar of a possible human language, and second, a strategy for selecting a grammar of the appropriate form that is compatible with the primary linguistic data. (Chomsky 1965: 25)Chomsky, that is to say, conceived that a child if given linguistic data would create a specific grammar to compose his own language instinctively. This instinct and instinctive cognitive structure underpinning the acquisition of knowledge is referred back to rationalist forebears including Descartes, Lord Herbert, Leibniz, and particularly Wilhelm von Humboldt. If we knew that Chomsky’s hypothesis can be trace back to the philosophic viewpoint of rationalists, we would understand his opinions which seemed as bold easily. But his hypothesis was referring to an innate linguistic theory apparently and that’s the reason why he was criticized by other linguists. These criticisms will be discussed in the following text, and now let’s detect Chomsky’s hypothesis about its disadvantages and limitations. That is that his postulation cannot come at all close to making a hypothesis about innate schemata that is rich, detailed, and specific enough to account for the fact of language acquisition and this hypothesis based on the philosophic viewpoint of rationalists can be considered easily as a subjective assumption.Therefore, the task of Chomsky’s successors“must be to develop an account of linguistic universals that, on the one hand, will not be falsified by the actual diversity of languages and, on the other, will be sufficiently rich and explicit to account for the rapidity and uniformity of language learning, and the remarkable complexity and range of the generative grammars that are the product of language learning”(Ray Jackendoff Foundations of Language pp.71 ). Then we will talk about the development of the theory of Universal Grammar by Chomsky’s inheritors among who Jackendoff was a most remarkable linguist.2. The main theory of Universal GrammarIn his famous work Foundations of Language,Jackendoff developed Chomsky’s theory and he completed the theory of Universal Grammar.The first task of Jackendoff was to confirm that the Universal Grammar is exist notonly in one language (such as English or German), but it also be applicable to all languages and the Universal Grammar has a general utility. He wrote that“‘How can Universal Grammar claim to be universal, when (at least at the beginning) it was applied only to English?’”To answer this question, he took Chomsky’s early work for example. “In fact, Chomsky's very earliest work (1951) was on Modern Hebrew; other early work in syntax concerned German (Lees 1960; Bierwisch 1963), Turkish (Lees 1960), Latin (Lakoff 1968), Japanese (Kuroda 1965), and the Native American languages Hidatsa (Matthews 1964) and Mohawk (Postal 1962).”He meant that the theory of Universal Grammar was based on a great deal of surveys on many different linguistic phenomena and this theory had its factual foundations.But in terms of theoretical creativity, Jackendoff had his own contribution to the theory of UG. He maintained that“Universal Grammar is not supposed to be what is universal among langu ages: it is supposed to be the ‘toolkit’ that a human child brings to learning any of the languages of the world”; “If we find that a certain aspect of linguistic structure is indeed universal, then it is a good candidate for part of Universal Grammar, though other options must also be considered”（FL pp.75）So Jackendoff considered UG as a language “toolkit”,and we are not obliged to use every tool for every job.“Thus we might expect that not every grammatical mechanism provided by Universal Grammar appears in every language. For instance, some languages make heavy use of case marking, and others don't; some languages make heavy use of fixed word order, and others don't. We would like to say that Universal Grammar makes both these possibilities available to the child; but only the possibilities actually present in the environment come to realization in the child's developing grammar.”(FL pp.75) From above sentences, we can realize that the UG is not an “actual” grammar but an abstract concept which does not belong to any actual language and it behind all actual grammar. In our dairy life we would not use the UG even one time but it is real exist in our every usage of our language. Let’s trace back to the children who begin to learn language and speak. If the child were given some specific linguistic material, he or she would look for a right toolkit to use, but the child once find a proper tool he or she would form his or her owe language. The different child found different tool could not form a same language because the circumstances of linguistic are different.3. The application of the theory of Universal GrammarTo Chomsky, the universal grammar exists in human being’s instinct. But the question is that how we apply ourselves to the language learning. So he introduced the term “Language Acquisition Device”. He wrote that“Universal Grammar” comes to be used to denote the “initial state” of the language learner; it thus is conceived of as the aspect of the human mind that causes languages to have the features in common that they do. More precisely, Chomsky often uses this term to refer to the child's initial prespecification of the form of possible human grammars. He uses the term “Language Acquisition Device” (LAD) to refer to the child's strategy for constructing or “inventing” a grammar based on primary linguistic data, using Universal Grammar as the starting point. (FL pp.70)It’s Chomsky’s theory that there exists a sequence of the language acquisition ofhuman being. At first, the learner (a child) gets the environmental stimulus from the outsides world and then he or she uses the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) to form his or her actual grammar of language.Chomsky's theory turned out not to reveal meaning after all, at least in the sense that had been anticipated. The consequence was that many researchers felt as though they had been seriously misled by linguistics, and they lost all trust in the field. Many psychologists who had been intrigued with generative grammar and its nativist underpinnings came to reject both. Many philosophers interested in formal theories of meaning turned from Generative Semantics to formal logic (e.g. Montague Grammar, Partee 1975; 1976), with its explicitly apsychological underpinnings. Nor was anyone outside linguistics impressed (if they were even paying attention) when some years later, Chomsky (1981) proposed a new level of syntax, Logical Form, that again was supposed to determine meaning. They had all been there before. In short, this painful episode was an important factor in the alienation of linguistics from the rest of cognitive science. (FL pp.74)There is no doubt that Chomsky’s theory is a typical apriorism like Kant. Because that he presupposed an existence of innate device of language acquisition in human’s brain or cognitive ability. And this cognitive ability about language learning, to Chomsky, was the LAD, that is to say, it’s the Universal Grammar.The UG just like love or life instinct to exist of human being and they have a common ground which is that these human phenomena are not learning by acquired knowledge while they are innate and every human being possesses. We can imagine that there is a community in which that there are no fathers or mothers to tell the children how to love the opposite sex. And there are not any stories about love, books and movies are also cleaned out. What will come about in this community? Is there not any boy going to fall in love with a girl? The answer is absolutely wrong and there are still some romantic stories existing in this community. Because it is the human nature to love the opposite sex and this innate phenomena is related to the inherent character of human beings to reproduce and continue them. Therefore, why there is not an innate cognitive ability to language learning? Why human beings haven’t a Universal grammar to instinctively introduce our learning activity about language? The answer to this question is maybe it’s existing just like Chomsky’s hypothesis. In terms of the human inherent character, maybe the primitive use language merely in order to protect themselves from the harm of the natural circumstance. They communicate each other for fighting against the wild animals and save their lives so that the ability of using language gradually became one part of human’s gene and we just inherited this original features from our ancestors. So the theory of Universal Grammar is linked to the gene of human beings and has somewhat innate characteristics. Another example for the innate characteristics of the UG is the linguistic phenomenon about the “Creole” system. The appearance of Creole is a firm confirmation for the theory of the UG and this abnormal situation is not coming without a reason.Derek Bickerton (1981) documents in detail that children of a pidgin speaking community do not grow up speaking the pidgin, but rather use the pidgin as raw material for a grammatically much richer system called a “C reole.” In particular, hetraces the transition from the Hawaiian pidgin of imported workers to the Hawaiian Creole of their children; speakers of both of these were still alive at the time of his fieldwork in the 1960s. Creoles from all over the world are often found to have grammatical devices not traceable to any of the parent languages of the pidgin.47 Thus, Bickerton's argument goes, Creole grammar must have come from the children's expectations of “what a language has to look like”—i.e. Universal Grammar—and they build these expectations into their linguistic output. The children's parents, on the other hand, do not learn the Creole; they continue to speak the pidgin, because they are past the critical period. (FL pp.100)From this example, we can learn that these children who didn’t get the normal education that could tell them how to use language (English or pidgin) properly. But these children who communicated each other devised a language, their own language that was what we now call Creole. How they did it? How magical they are! But if we learnt the theory of UG, we would not so surprise to Creole. We knew that these children have the innate ability to “create” a language that is different from any other present languages.4. The opposite theories and the refutationsFor the first time Chomsky advocate this hypothesis, he was criticized other linguists. The first challenging question was that “Chomsky claims that grammar is innate”, and the nature of this question is Chomsky’s hypothesis is a idealist apriorism and all the theories were wholly subjective doctrines and assumptions. This criticism is point out that Chomsky was isolated the theory form the actual stuff.The refutation to this challenge is that the UG is not the reason for the generation and development of a language but requirement and foundation. “Children have to acquire the grammar of whatever language is present in their environment. Universal Grammar is not the grammar of any single language: it is the prespecification in the brain that permits the learning of language to take place. So the grammar-acquiring capacity is what Chomsky claims is innate. If the child is not exposed to language, language will not develop.”(FL pp.71)Another challenging opinion was that“Chomsky claims that there is a universal, innate Deep Structure.”That is to say that a innate Deep structure is the most important part and it determine the acquisitions about language.The refutation to this challenge is that the Universal Grammar does specify that there is Deep Structure; even it does not specify the exact content of Deep Structure in any particular language. This is part of the overall form of grammar, one that conditions the sorts of (f-) expectations children will have in trying to make sense of the incomprehensible noises the people around the mare making.(FL pp.72)。
乔姆斯基的名词解释
乔姆斯基的名词解释当今语言学界中，诺姆·乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）被誉为一位杰出的语言学家和认知科学家。
他的研究涵盖了广泛的领域，其中包括语言学、心理学、计算机科学和社会学等。
他提出了一些重要的理论和名词，这对于我们理解语言和思维的本质至关重要。
1.普遍语法（Universal Grammar）乔姆斯基最著名的理论之一是普遍语法。
普遍语法是一种通过探究各种语言的共通性，并试图揭示其底层结构和规则的理论。
乔姆斯基认为，人类天生掌握了一种固有的语言能力，这种能力使他们能够学习和理解任何语言。
普遍语法提供了一个解释这种语言能力的理论框架。
普遍语法的核心概念是“生成语法”，即一套规则和结构，用于构建和理解无限数量的句子。
这些规则可以解释为人们的大脑如何将有限的语言元素组合成无限数量的表达方式。
因此，乔姆斯基认为，虽然不同语言具有各自的特殊性，但它们都遵循着普遍语法所定义的基本原则。
2.语言生成（Language Generation）在乔姆斯基看来，语言生成是一种人类天生具备的能力。
他认为，孩子从小就能产生出正确而合乎语法的句子，这是因为他们内部具有一种语言生成的机制。
这种机制可能是人脑内部的一种基因编程或是认知的一种本能。
通过语言生成，人们能够根据自身的意图和思维，构建出一系列具有合理结构和意义的句子。
这种能力使人类能够参与各种复杂的沟通和思维活动，从而进一步展开知识的积累和交流。
3.生成语义学（Generative Semantics）生成语义学是乔姆斯基的另一项重要贡献。
与传统的语义学不同，生成语义学试图通过研究句子内在的语义结构和信息传递方式，理解语言中的意义和思维过程。
生成语义学认为，句子的意义不仅依赖于单词的字面意义，还受到上下文和语境的影响。
生成语义学的一个重要概念是“深层结构”和“表层结构”。
深层结构指的是句子在思维过程中的原始表示，而表层结构则是这种思维过程经过语法处理后的最终输出。
Universal Grammar in Human Language
Universal Grammar in Human LanguageHu Peng1. The hypothesis by ChomskyIn 1965, Noam Chomsky proposed a hypothesis about general grammar of all sorts of language in Aspects of the theory of syntax.He written that humans have a cognitive specialization for learning language and he describe this specialization as“inventing,” “constructing,” “developing,”“devising,” and “acquiring” a grammar. So Chomsky believed that every child would develop an internal representation of a system of rules when he or she began to learn languages and speak.To learn a language, then, the child must have a method for [f-] devising an appropriate grammar, given primary linguistic data. As a precondition for language learning, he must possess, first, a linguistic theory that specifies the form of the grammar of a possible human language, and second, a strategy for selecting a grammar of the appropriate form that is compatible with the primary linguistic data. (Chomsky 1965: 25)Chomsky, that is to say, conceived that a child if given linguistic data would create a specific grammar to compose his own language instinctively. This instinct and instinctive cognitive structure underpinning the acquisition of knowledge is referred back to rationalist forebears including Descartes, Lord Herbert, Leibniz, and particularly Wilhelm von Humboldt. If we knew that Chomsky’s hypothesis can be trace back to the philosophic viewpoint of rationalists, we would understand his opinions which seemed as bold easily. But his hypothesis was referring to an innate linguistic theory apparently and that’s the reason why he was criticized by other linguists. These criticisms will be discussed in the following text, and now let’s detect Chomsky’s hypothesis about its disadvantages and limitations. That is that his postulation cannot come at all close to making a hypothesis about innate schemata that is rich, detailed, and specific enough to account for the fact of language acquisition and this hypothesis based on the philosophic viewpoint of rationalists can be considered easily as a subjective assumption.Therefore, the task of Chomsky’s successors“must be to develop an account of linguistic universals that, on the one hand, will not be falsified by the actual diversity of languages and, on the other, will be sufficiently rich and explicit to account for the rapidity and uniformity of language learning, and the remarkable complexity and range of the generative grammars that are the product of language learning”(Ray Jackendoff Foundations of Language pp.71 ). Then we will talk about the development of the theory of Universal Grammar by Chomsky’s inheritors among who Jackendoff was a most remarkable linguist.2. The main theory of Universal GrammarIn his famous work Foundations of Language,Jackendoff developed Chomsky’s theory and he completed the theory of Universal Grammar.The first task of Jackendoff was to confirm that the Universal Grammar is exist notonly in one language (such as English or German), but it also be applicable to all languages and the Universal Grammar has a general utility. He wrote that“‘How can Universal Grammar claim to be universal, when (at least at the beginning) it was applied only to English?’”To answer this question, he took Chomsky’s early work for example. “In fact, Chomsky's very earliest work (1951) was on Modern Hebrew; other early work in syntax concerned German (Lees 1960; Bierwisch 1963), Turkish (Lees 1960), Latin (Lakoff 1968), Japanese (Kuroda 1965), and the Native American languages Hidatsa (Matthews 1964) and Mohawk (Postal 1962).”He meant that the theory of Universal Grammar was based on a great deal of surveys on many different linguistic phenomena and this theory had its factual foundations.But in terms of theoretical creativity, Jackendoff had his own contribution to the theory of UG. He maintained that“Universal Grammar is not supposed to be what is universal among langu ages: it is supposed to be the ‘toolkit’ that a human child brings to learning any of the languages of the world”; “If we find that a certain aspect of linguistic structure is indeed universal, then it is a good candidate for part of Universal Grammar, though other options must also be considered”（FL pp.75）So Jackendoff considered UG as a language “toolkit”,and we are not obliged to use every tool for every job.“Thus we might expect that not every grammatical mechanism provided by Universal Grammar appears in every language. For instance, some languages make heavy use of case marking, and others don't; some languages make heavy use of fixed word order, and others don't. We would like to say that Universal Grammar makes both these possibilities available to the child; but only the possibilities actually present in the environment come to realization in the child's developing grammar.”(FL pp.75) From above sentences, we can realize that the UG is not an “actual” grammar but an abstract concept which does not belong to any actual language and it behind all actual grammar. In our dairy life we would not use the UG even one time but it is real exist in our every usage of our language. Let’s trace back to the children who begin to learn language and speak. If the child were given some specific linguistic material, he or she would look for a right toolkit to use, but the child once find a proper tool he or she would form his or her owe language. The different child found different tool could not form a same language because the circumstances of linguistic are different.3. The application of the theory of Universal GrammarTo Chomsky, the universal grammar exists in human being’s instinct. But the question is that how we apply ourselves to the language learning. So he introduced the term “Language Acquisition Device”. He wrote that“Universal Grammar” comes to be used to denote the “initial state” of the language learner; it thus is conceived of as the aspect of the human mind that causes languages to have the features in common that they do. More precisely, Chomsky often uses this term to refer to the child's initial prespecification of the form of possible human grammars. He uses the term “Language Acquisition Device” (LAD) to refer to the child's strategy for constructing or “inventing” a grammar based on primary linguistic data, using Universal Grammar as the starting point. (FL pp.70)It’s Chomsky’s theory that there exists a sequence of the language acquisition ofhuman being. At first, the learner (a child) gets the environmental stimulus from the outsides world and then he or she uses the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) to form his or her actual grammar of language.Chomsky's theory turned out not to reveal meaning after all, at least in the sense that had been anticipated. The consequence was that many researchers felt as though they had been seriously misled by linguistics, and they lost all trust in the field. Many psychologists who had been intrigued with generative grammar and its nativist underpinnings came to reject both. Many philosophers interested in formal theories of meaning turned from Generative Semantics to formal logic (e.g. Montague Grammar, Partee 1975; 1976), with its explicitly apsychological underpinnings. Nor was anyone outside linguistics impressed (if they were even paying attention) when some years later, Chomsky (1981) proposed a new level of syntax, Logical Form, that again was supposed to determine meaning. They had all been there before. In short, this painful episode was an important factor in the alienation of linguistics from the rest of cognitive science. (FL pp.74)There is no doubt that Chomsky’s theory is a typical apriorism like Kant. Because that he presupposed an existence of innate device of language acquisition in human’s brain or cognitive ability. And this cognitive ability about language learning, to Chomsky, was the LAD, that is to say, it’s the Universal Grammar.The UG just like love or life instinct to exist of human being and they have a common ground which is that these human phenomena are not learning by acquired knowledge while they are innate and every human being possesses. We can imagine that there is a community in which that there are no fathers or mothers to tell the children how to love the opposite sex. And there are not any stories about love, books and movies are also cleaned out. What will come about in this community? Is there not any boy going to fall in love with a girl? The answer is absolutely wrong and there are still some romantic stories existing in this community. Because it is the human nature to love the opposite sex and this innate phenomena is related to the inherent character of human beings to reproduce and continue them. Therefore, why there is not an innate cognitive ability to language learning? Why human beings haven’t a Universal grammar to instinctively introduce our learning activity about language? The answer to this question is maybe it’s existing just like Chomsky’s hypothesis. In terms of the human inherent character, maybe the primitive use language merely in order to protect themselves from the harm of the natural circumstance. They communicate each other for fighting against the wild animals and save their lives so that the ability of using language gradually became one part of human’s gene and we just inherited this original features from our ancestors. So the theory of Universal Grammar is linked to the gene of human beings and has somewhat innate characteristics. Another example for the innate characteristics of the UG is the linguistic phenomenon about the “Creole” system. The appearance of Creole is a firm confirmation for the theory of the UG and this abnormal situation is not coming without a reason.Derek Bickerton (1981) documents in detail that children of a pidgin speaking community do not grow up speaking the pidgin, but rather use the pidgin as raw material for a grammatically much richer system called a “C reole.” In particular, hetraces the transition from the Hawaiian pidgin of imported workers to the Hawaiian Creole of their children; speakers of both of these were still alive at the time of his fieldwork in the 1960s. Creoles from all over the world are often found to have grammatical devices not traceable to any of the parent languages of the pidgin.47 Thus, Bickerton's argument goes, Creole grammar must have come from the children's expectations of “what a language has to look like”—i.e. Universal Grammar—and they build these expectations into their linguistic output. The children's parents, on the other hand, do not learn the Creole; they continue to speak the pidgin, because they are past the critical period. (FL pp.100)From this example, we can learn that these children who didn’t get the normal education that could tell them how to use language (English or pidgin) properly. But these children who communicated each other devised a language, their own language that was what we now call Creole. How they did it? How magical they are! But if we learnt the theory of UG, we would not so surprise to Creole. We knew that these children have the innate ability to “create” a language that is different from any other present languages.4. The opposite theories and the refutationsFor the first time Chomsky advocate this hypothesis, he was criticized other linguists. The first challenging question was that “Chomsky claims that grammar is innate”, and the nature of this question is Chomsky’s hypothesis is a idealist apriorism and all the theories were wholly subjective doctrines and assumptions. This criticism is point out that Chomsky was isolated the theory form the actual stuff.The refutation to this challenge is that the UG is not the reason for the generation and development of a language but requirement and foundation. “Children have to acquire the grammar of whatever language is present in their environment. Universal Grammar is not the grammar of any single language: it is the prespecification in the brain that permits the learning of language to take place. So the grammar-acquiring capacity is what Chomsky claims is innate. If the child is not exposed to language, language will not develop.”(FL pp.71)Another challenging opinion was that“Chomsky claims that there is a universal, innate Deep Structure.”That is to say that a innate Deep structure is the most important part and it determine the acquisitions about language.The refutation to this challenge is that the Universal Grammar does specify that there is Deep Structure; even it does not specify the exact content of Deep Structure in any particular language. This is part of the overall form of grammar, one that conditions the sorts of (f-) expectations children will have in trying to make sense of the incomprehensible noises the people around the mare making.(FL pp.72)。
universal-grammar名词解释语言学教程
universal grammar名词解释语言学教程Noam Chomsky's universal grammar has offered a logical framework to explain the acquisition of the first language acquisition.上世纪中叶，乔姆斯基提出和发展了普遍语法理论，迄今普遍语法已为研究和解释第一语言习得提供了一个逻辑框架。
UG主要用在第一语言习得上，对第二语言习得也有影响也可以与innateness hypothesis来比较，但是也有缺点:它放大了learner 的心理和自身，忽略了语言是需要与外界交流的。
乔姆斯基认为每个人从出生开始心中就有一个LAD(language acquisition device)，它天生带有理解语言的能力，天生就有理解语言语法的能力。
通过不断的语言输入(language input)和心中的普遍语法(universal grammar)作出比较和对，得到积极反馈来纠正自己的普遍语法达到学习语言的目的。
Principle-Parameter model of UGThe basic concept of UG are principles(原则)and parameters(参数)．They reveal the commonalities and differences between natural languages respectively.Principles(原则)Principles refer to the abstractly grammatical property(抽象语法属性)which can be applied to all humanlanguage.A certain language may not have some principles. But there is no language can violate these principle.。
二语习得中的普遍语法和标记性理论_
二语习得中的普遍语法和标记性理论_I Universal Grammar in L2 Acquisition1.1 Universal GrammarNoam Chomsky“s theory of Universal Grammar (UG) states that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages. UG, which is not acquired by learning, is the innate language competence. UG of any language is the same, not only English.1.2 Universal Grammar and Language AcquisitionHuman can master the mother tongue exactly in a short period. Chomsky regards that is because there is innate UG in human’s b rain. When the stimulus input into the brain, by UG, it transfer to Generative Grammar, which can build the sentences according to particular grammar. UG enables human to acquire the first language in a short period. Meanwhile, with UG, learners are also able to acquire other languages, including the second language.Second language learners access to their interlanguage under UG. The process of second language acquisition can be seen as the process of resetting the parameter of UG. However, the second one is much more difficult than the first one.Other hypothesis argues that when the principles in first language acquisition are not suffice forL2 acquisition, learners will build new principles by UG. At the beginning of L2 acquisition, UG operates the learning process by concerning the principles of the first language, later it effects directly on second language without the interference of mother tongue.ⅡUniversal Grammar in L2 Acquisition2.1 MarkednessMarkedness Theory was proposed by Prague School, which refers to the general idea that some structures are more “natural" or "basic" than other structures.According to Chomsky, the universal grammar contains both core rules and periphery rules. The core rules, which provide “ge neral principles that apply to all language”, are unmarked. Periphery rules, which provide “particular rules of a particular language or languages”, are marked rules (Zhang Hong, 2005).There are three forms about markedness: formal markedness, distributional markedness, and semantic markedness.In phonetics, formal markedness is distinctive features, e.g. /t/ is unmarked for voiced;s marked for voiced. In vocabulary, markedness consists of formally unmarkedness, e.g. host, heir, and happy and formally markedness, e.g. hostess, heiress, and unhappy.In semantics, unmarkedness is general in meaning. It is used more widely than markedness. This results from neutralization of the contrast between of unmarkedness and markedness. In the sentences “How old is your brother?” and “How young is your brother?” There is a presupposition that “your brother is young”. There is no of presupposition of “How old is your brother?”.A semantic marked word has more concrete meaning than a semantic unmarked word. In English, lion is unmarked, means both female and male lions. Lioness, however, is the marked form and only refers to the female lion.2.2 Markedness and Acquisition OrderSome evidence suggested that learners acquire less marked structures before more marked ones. That is to say, learners master the easier unmarked properties before the more difficult marked one.The example of the order of WH-questions provides by Rutherford (1982) show how markedness factors can influence SLA.What’s that?What are those?I don’t know what those are.The order of the above sentences is from easier marked form to more difficult form. The difficulties vary from the difference between L1 and L2. Besides,according to the “If/then” theory, in the sam e category or structure, if the learners mastered the more marked features, they will naturally master the less marked features.Ⅲ. SummaryUG and Markedness theory are not separate theory in second language acquisition. Some academicians combined the two theories together in that both of them effect in L2 acquisition. Others believe markedness theory is a part of UG theory. However, these two theories are also influenced by other factors. It is necessary for us to take further research on them.References:1.Rod Ellis (1985):Understanding Second Language Acquisition, 上海外语教育出版社.2.Zhang Hong(2005):Markedness and Second Language Acquisition, Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Social Sciences, Vol.14, No.1.3.隆利容(2008):〈普遍语法对语言习得的解释〉,文学语言学研究考试周刊第10期.4.解玲(2008):〈普遍语法框架下的语言习得研究〉,湖南师范大学社会科学学报第5期.5.王立(1991):〈关于标记理论〉,上海外国语学院学报第4期(总第74期).6.王鲁男(2007):〈标记性与二语习得〉,四川外语学院学报第6期.。
Universal grammar
Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman in the Language Universals says that there are universals among many different kinds of languages, and our aim is to find out the laws of a language, and the laws that pertain to all languages. In the text, they play particular emphasis on the universal grammar or we call it general grammar.To be honest, I have never heard of such a professional word before, so I search it on the Internet. It said that universal grammar is a theory in linguistic, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. Universal grammar can’t form any language itself but it is the description of the principles in particular grammars. What’s more, it is often applied in psychology. Chomsky thought that universal grammar is consist of two systems – rule based system and principle based system. Principle based system is made up of several subsystems, such as government theory, binding theory, control theory, X-bar theory and so on. And each subsystem has the universal principles of each language.New ideas always grow up with query. There is no doubt that universal grammar has some arguments.When some scholars believe that the theory is expected to open doors into the nature of language and ultimately uncover the mystery of human thinking, at the same time, some other scholars from questioning the logical deduction of UG theory, put forward basis and main content of the series "rebuttal" war in manyaspects, and put forward the martial numerous theories of language acquisition hypothesis on this basis.So many so-called "refute" or only for the partial consideration, or it is not conclusive argument, they can not constitute a fundamental threat to the UG theory, it will not touch the foundation of UG theory.The idea of Universal Grammar put forward by Noam Chomsky has been a crucial driving force in linguistics. Whether linguistics agree with it or nor, they have defined themselves by their reactions to it, not only in terms of general concepts of language and language acquisition, but also in how they carry out linguistic description. From 1960s to 1980s, universal grammar became a flash-point for disciplines outside linguistics such as psychology, computer parsing of language ands first language acquisition, even if theses areas have tended to lose contact in recent years.。
乔姆斯基理论
Chomsky’s theory Linguist Noam Chomsky made the argument that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. In turn, there is an assumption that all languages have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.
psychological integration of the learner with the target language (TL) group.”
To Schuman ,the social distance consists of eight factors
1.Social dominance. 2. Integration pattern or Assimilation, preservation, and adaptation. 3. Enclosure. 4.Cohesiveness. 5. Size. 6. Congruence. 7.Attitude. 8. Intended length of residence
What Is Universal Grammar? Universal grammar argues that some skills come from innate abilities, passed down through generations. Specifically, Chomsky proposed that every child is born with the ability and structural knowledge that allow them to adopt any language. These rules include the ability to string together a sentence that makes grammatical sense. Universal grammar, according to Chomsky, is separate from the senses. Many nativists compare our ability to understand and learn languages to our ability to see, hear, or taste. The theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hardwired into the brain, and manifest without being taught.
_乔姆斯基理论_四十年发展概述
(2)管辖(Government)原则,确立某结构中心成分(Head)与其附属成分的关系;
(3)题元(Theta)准则,制约题元的分配;
(4)约束(Binding)原则,制约照应词(Anaphor)、代词、专名词(Names)和变项
(Variable)等四种语类与可能的先行词(Antecedent)之间的关系,以及为确立特定的约束关
天津师大学报
1999年第4期
“乔姆斯基理论”四十年发展概述
顾 钢
摘 要 “乔姆斯基理论”是一门语言学界不可忽视的学说,它突显了研究内部语言的重要性,还
对心理学、哲学等其他学科产生了很大影响。本文概述了该理论四十年来的发展情况,重点介绍了该理
论80年代以后采用的“管辖和约束”模式和90年代出现的“最简方案”模式。
乔姆斯基理论发展到今天,大致经历了五个阶段:②
66 1.“句法结构”(Syntactic Structure)模式。
该模式出现在《句法结构》(Chomsky 1957)一书中,主要由短语结构规则(Phrase Struc-
ture Rules)和转换规则(Transformation)构成。短语结构规则生成(Generate)句子的基
此,乔姆斯基理论也被称为“普遍语法理论”。根据乔姆斯基的看法, UG是一种语言知识,为
人脑所固有。它使儿童先天就具备在短时间内掌握母语的能力。另一方面, UG也限定了人类
各种语言的变化范围。换句话说,纷繁复杂的各种语言结构,最终均可以用UG加以解释。UG
的另一个重要特点是高度概括,极其明晰而又简洁。它只生成所有合语法的句子,不生成不
性句法”(Overt Syntax),拼读后的句子生成过程叫“隐性句法”(Covert Syntax) (Epstein
波杰姆斯基作文素材应用
波杰姆斯基作文素材应用英文回答：In the field of linguistics, Noam Chomsky's theory of universal grammar has been a significant influence. His theory proposes that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans and that all languages share a common underlying structure. This theory has been widely discussed and debated in the field of linguistics, and it has had a profound impact on our understanding of languageacquisition and language diversity.Chomsky's theory of universal grammar suggests that the human brain is hardwired to understand and produce language. According to this theory, all languages have a set of universal grammar principles that are hardwired into the human brain. This means that despite the surfacedifferences between languages, there are underlying similarities in their grammatical structures.Chomsky's theory has been influential in shaping our understanding of how children acquire language. It suggests that children are able to learn language at a rapid pace because they are born with an innate knowledge of the universal grammar principles. This has led to further research and exploration into the process of language acquisition in children.Furthermore, Chomsky's theory has also sparked discussions about the relationship between language and thought. If there are universal grammar principles that are shared among all languages, it raises questions about how language influences our cognitive processes and vice versa.Overall, Chomsky's theory of universal grammar has had a lasting impact on the field of linguistics and has sparked numerous discussions and debates about the nature of language and its acquisition.中文回答：在语言学领域，诺姆·乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论产生了重大影响。
乔姆斯基的观点
乔姆斯基的观点
诺姆·乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位美国语言学家、哲学
家和社会评论家，他对语言学和政治学领域都有重要的贡献。
以下是他一些著名观点的简要总结：
1. 语言习得能力：乔姆斯基认为，人类天生具备一种语言习得能力，使得他们能够在儿童时期迅速、无意识地掌握语言结构和规则。
他称此能力为“普遍语法”（Universal Grammar），并
认为其根源是人类基因中的构造。
2. 语言结构与生成语法：乔姆斯基提出了“生成语法”（Generative Grammar）的理论，认为语言的句子可以通过生
成规则从句法结构中派生而来。
他强调语法的普遍性和创造性，以及语言的结构对思维和认知的影响。
3. 政治观点：乔姆斯基是一位激进的左翼学者，他对美国政府的外交政策、资本主义制度和媒体的批评较为著名。
他认为美国是一个帝国主义国家，通过经济和军事手段来维护其利益，并干涉其他国家的内政。
4. 媒体批评：乔姆斯基认为，媒体在资本主义社会中起着控制和操纵的作用。
他提出了“媒体改变国际关系”（Manufacturing Consent）的理论，指出媒体通过选择性报道和宣传来塑造公
众的意识形态，并为统治阶级的利益服务。
5. 反对言论限制：作为一位言论自由的捍卫者，乔姆斯基坚决反对言论限制和思想控制。
他认为，一个民主社会应该容忍不
同意见和多样性，而不是压制异议声音。
以上是乔姆斯基的一些重要观点，他的学术成就和社会评论广泛影响了许多领域的研究和思考。
论乔姆斯基的语言学理论和外语教学
论乔姆斯基的语言学理论和外语教学乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是现代语言学的重要思想家，其语言学理论对外语教学也有着深远的影响。
本文将介绍乔姆斯基的语言学理论和其在外语教学中的应用。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论主要集中在生成语法（Generative Grammar）和普遍语法（Universal Grammar）两个核心概念上。
生成语法是乔姆斯基提出的一种描述人类语言结构的理论框架，它通过生成规则来描述语言的内部结构和语法规则。
普遍语法则认为，人类语言具有共同的普遍规律，即语言能力是人类与生俱来的。
乔姆斯基认为，人类天生具备一种特殊的语言能力，通过这种语言能力，人们能够学会和使用任意一种自然语言。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论对外语教学产生了重要影响。
生成语法为外语教学提供了一种清晰的语言结构描述方法。
在教学过程中，教师可以通过生成规则向学生解释语言的结构和句子的构建方式，使学生更好地理解和掌握外语的语法规则。
乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论认为，不同语言之间存在共同的语法规律。
这一观点启示了外语教学中的对比法教学方法。
通过比较学生已掌握的母语和目标语之间的共同点和差异，可以帮助学生更好地理解和学习目标语言的语法规则。
也能够提高学生的语言意识和跨文化交际能力。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论还强调了语言运用的重要性。
他认为语言学习不仅是对语法规则的学习，更是对语言运用能力的培养。
这一理论为外语教学提供了一种以交际能力为目标的教学方法。
在教学实践中，教师应该注重培养学生的听说能力，通过大量的听说训练来提高学生的语言运用能力。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论还对外语教学中的错误分析和纠正提供了思路。
他认为语言错误来源于学习者对目标语的系统性误解，教师应该通过错误分析来找出学生的误区，并针对性地进行纠正。
这一观点对外语教学中的语言纠正和反馈具有重要指导意义。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论对外语教学具有重要的指导意义。
生成语法和普遍语法为外语教学提供了一种清晰的语言结构描述方法，并启发了对比法教学和交际能力培养的教学方法。
[转载]乔姆斯基（Noam
![[转载]乔姆斯基（Noam](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/420603f96394dd88d0d233d4b14e852458fb39b6.png)
[转载]乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）语⾔习得理论原⽂地址：乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)语⾔习得理论作者：FIVEHORSE乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky, 1928--），美国语⾔学家，转换-⽣成语法的创始⼈。
1928年12⽉7⽇出⽣于美国宾⼣法尼亚州的费城。
1947年，在哈⾥斯的影响下他开始研究语⾔学。
1951年在宾⼣法尼亚⼤学完成硕⼠论⽂《现代希伯莱语语素⾳位学》，1955年⼜在该校完成博⼠论⽂《转换分析》，获得博⼠学位。
从1955年秋天开始，他⼀直在⿇省理⼯学院⼯作，曾任该校语⾔学与哲学系主任，并任该校认知科学研究中⼼主任，为语⾔学界培养了⼀批有素养的学者。
1 乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论 乔姆斯基在《语⾔与⼼智》⼀书中提出了“普遍语法”(Universal Grammar)的概念,以后简称为(UG)。
他假设⼉童⼀落⽣⼤脑⾥就存在⼀种独特的语⾔习得机制(Language AcquisitionDevice),以后简称LAD。
这种机制使得⼉童从周围听到有限的句⼦却能说出⽆限的句⼦。
他还提出⼀个语⾔习得的公式:最初的语⾔资料→LAD→语⾔能⼒。
乔姆斯基认为⼉童头脑中的LAD的主要组成部分是语⾔普遍特征,即普遍语法(UG)和⼀套评价系统。
⼉童听到外来语⾔后启动普遍语法,并在普遍语法的指导和控制下,在外来语⾔材料的基础上,通过假设——演绎的⽅法,在头脑中逐步形成有关母语的、系统的语法知识。
UG存在于⼈的⼤脑中,帮助⼈类习得语⾔,是⼈与⽣俱来的语⾔初始状态。
UG以第⼀语⾔习得速度快、知识准确、具有创造⼒等为依据研究第⼀语⾔。
乔姆斯基关于UG的假设为我们解释了为什么⼩孩⼦⼀⽣下来,⽤不了3-5年,不⽤接受系统的教育便已掌握了⾃⼰母语的主要特点。
UG是所有⼈类语⾔都遵循的⼀些共同原则和规则,但是如果语⾔知识仅仅是这些原则的话,那全世界的⼈就应该说同⼀种语⾔,但事实并⾮如此。
为了更合理的解释这⼀现象,就要应⽤到上⾯提到的评价系统。
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Chomsky’s Universal GrammarAbstract:Chomsky is a challenging figure in the 20th century. He raised the Universal Grammar.He thinks that language is a mirror of mind. He describes language as a property of human kind and to explain how it is acquired. He differentiated internal language and external language. Chomsky gave the idea of Language Acquisition Device (LAD), Full Interpretation, case theory and government.Key words:Chomsky Universal GrammarAs one of the 20th century’s most challenging figures, Chomsky is both a linguist and a social reformer. Born in 1928, he studied linguistics, mathematics, and philosophy. He has shown that there is only one human language: that the immense complexity of the innumerable languages we hear around us must be variations on a single theme. He has revolutionized linguistics, and resurrected the theory of innate ideas, demonstrating that a substantial part of our knowledge is genetically determined; he has reinstated rationalist ideas; and he has provided evidence that “unconscious knowledge” is what underlies our ability to speak and understand.He thinks that language is a mirror of mind in the traditional phrase. He claims that linguistics is scientific in the more interesting sense that it can provide not only explicit descriptions but also explanations for the classification. The first is that it can provide a general theory explaining why languages are the way they are: each language is a particular example of a universal faculty of mind. Whose basic properties are innate. The second is that the theory should spawn testable hypothesis: like a physicist or a biologist, the linguist manipulates the environment experimentally to see what happens. Humans are complex. We have internal structure, and the mind is one part of that structure. The mind works in such a way that different tasks are processed by different mechanisms. The mind is modular, sight and smell, taste and touch, language and memory, are all distinct from each other.The goals of the universal grammar are to describe language as a property of human kind and to explain how it is acquired. All human beings share part of their knowledge of language; UG is their common possession regardless of which language they speak. Chomsky distinguishes Externalized language from Internalized language. E-language aims to collect samples of language and then to describe their properties. It constructs a grammar to describe the regularities found in sample. I-language is concerned with what a speaker knows about language and where this knowledge comes from; it treats language as an internal property of human mind. Chomsky claims that the history shows a move from an E-language to an I-language approach. I-language research aims to represent this mental state; a grammar describes the speaker’s knowledge of the language rather than the sentences they produce.Chomsky gave the idea of Language Acquisition Device (LAD).He thinks that children hear a number of sentences said by other people, which are the primary linguistic data; they acquire linguistic competence through the LAD. We can deduce what is gong on inside the child’s LAD by careful examination and the comparison.LAD led to a way of putting the goals of linguistics in terms of three levels of adequacy. First is the observational adequacy: a theory is observational adequate if it can deal with the basic facts observed in samples of language, which is the input to the LAD. The second is the descriptive level: a theory achieves descriptive adequacy if it deals properly with the linguistic competence of the speaker, which is the generative grammar from the LAD. The third is the explanatory adequacy: a theory is explanatory adequate if the linguistic theory can explain the links between linguistic competence and the linguistic data.Phrase structure is a simple system derived from a phrase a few principles and the setting of certain parameters. The form phrase structure employed is X-bar syntax. The emphasis is on the general principles of UG. It is distinctive in that it claims that every phrase conforms to a certain requirements. It insists that phrases must be endocentric: a phrase always contains at least a head as well as other possible constituents.Chomsky proposed a principle called Full Interpretation (FI), which states that every element that appears in structure must be interpreted in some way. He also notes that the underlying point of FI is that language structures must be economical as possible. This is the principle of economy. On these bases, he ra ised the theory of θ- theory. The term θ-criterion is used to refer to phenomena that are better captured by principles of FI. The θ- theory concerns the process of how θ-roles get from the lexical entry of a predicate to the arguments that bear them. θ-roles are transferred from a predicate to its arguments by a process called θ-marking.Case theory is related to the traditional syntactic ideas of case, which saw the relationship between elements in a sentence as being shown by their morphology as well as by word order. It deals not just with the case forms visible in the surface but with abstract case, which is an important element in the syntax even when it does not appear in the surface. Case theory is module that assigns abstract to NPs and, by doing so, provides a principled explanation for various movement.The last is the government. First let’s see C-Command, α c-commands β if α does not dominate β and every γ that dominates α also dominates β. Government is a version of c-command, with two types of restrictions. Firstly, any element can c-command another, the ability to govern is restricted to a limited number of governors, the set of lexical heads, though there are a number of exceptions. Secondly, government is restricted compared to c-command in that it is limited form the bottomas well as the top.General grammar is a center of Chomsky’s theory. He overturned the dominant school of behaviorism in psychology, and has returned the mind into its position of preeminence in the study of humankind. General grammar has a history of 45 years and covers philosophy, psychology and many other fields in the theory of linguistics. It influenced other linguists deeply.Reference:[1]Cook,Vivian. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. London: Blackwell Publishers, 1988.[2]Smith, Neil. Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.。