经济学原理 Chapter 8

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经济学原理电子书

经济学原理电子书

经济学原理电子书经济学原理是一门探索资源分配和决策制定的学科,它涉及广泛的经济现象和理论。

本电子书将介绍经济学的基本原理和概念,以帮助读者理解和分析经济问题。

第一章:供求关系及市场机制本章将解释供求关系和市场机制对资源分配的影响。

我们将讨论供求曲线的绘制和移动,以及价格的决定因素。

第二章:市场结构与竞争本章将介绍不同市场结构下的竞争模式,并讨论市场垄断和寡头垄断的影响。

我们还将研究政府监管对市场竞争的作用。

第三章:成本和收益本章将探讨企业的成本和收益如何影响其决策。

我们将讨论固定成本和可变成本的概念,并介绍如何计算边际成本和边际收益。

第四章:效率与福利本章将讨论资源配置的效率和福利。

我们将介绍生产可能曲线和边际效率,以及市场失灵和政府干预的原因。

第五章:货币与银行本章将介绍货币的功能和货币供应的决定因素。

我们将讨论央行的角色和货币政策对经济的影响。

第六章:国际贸易与全球化本章将探讨国际贸易的原理和全球化的影响。

我们将讨论比较优势理论和贸易保护主义的争议。

第七章:失业与通胀本章将介绍失业和通胀的原因和影响。

我们将讨论劳动市场的均衡和通货膨胀与货币供应的关系。

第八章:经济增长与发展本章将探讨经济增长和发展的原因和影响。

我们将研究经济增长模型和不同国家发展水平的差异。

第九章:税收与财政政策本章讨论税收的原理和财政政策的作用。

我们将介绍不同类型的税收和它们对经济的影响,以及政府支出的决策。

第十章:市场外部性与公共物品本章将介绍市场外部性和公共物品的特征及其对资源配置的影响。

我们将讨论外部性的纠正措施和公共物品的供应方式。

总结本电子书通过介绍经济学的基本原理和概念,帮助读者理解经济现象和问题。

我们希望读者能够运用这些知识,更好地分析和解决经济和社会的挑战。

经济学原理ch08

经济学原理ch08

经济学原理ch08CHAPTER 81. The market will be in equilibrium with a tax on sales of a good whena.the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied and the price buyers payexceeds the price sellers receive by the per-unit tax.b.the price received by the seller equals the price paid by the buyer and thequantity demanded is less than the quantity supplied by the amount of the tax.c.the tax is equal to the price paid by the buyer and quantity demanded is equalto the quantity supplied.d.there cannot be a market equilibrium with a tax on sales.2. The tax rate on a good is thea.total amount of taxes paid by consumers on that goods.b.total amount of taxes paid by producers on that good.c.total amount of taxes paid by both producers and consumers on that good.d.per-unit tax on a good, expressed as a percentage of its price.3. Deadweight lossa.means that there is a loss to some individuals without a corresponding gain toothers.b.is not really a loss to society because what one individualloses anotherindividual gains.c.can be eliminated by sales taxes.d.can occur even if output is at the efficient level.4. Deadweight loss measuresa.the amount people would pay to gain an additional unit ofa good.b.the loss from economic inefficiency.c.the difference between two efficient situations.d.the amount required to compensate producers for lost surplus due to theimposition of a sales tax.5. The deadweight loss from an economically inefficient situation id equal toa.consumer surplus minus producer surplus.b.consumer surplus plus producer surplus.c.the consumer and producer surplus that people could gain by eliminating thatinefficiency.d.the increase in consumer surplus minus the increase in producer surplus thatpeople could gain by eliminating that inefficiency.6. A per-unit tax on a good creates deadweight loss becausea.it makes demand more inelastic.b.it makes supply more elastic.c.by increasing the price consumers pay, and reducing the price sellers receive,it prevents some mutually beneficial trades.d.the government wastes the tax revenues it receives.7. If the supply curve is perfectly elastic, a per-unit taxa.does not create deadweight loss.b.does not reduce consumer surplus.c.does not reduce producer surplus.d.reduces consumer surplus but increases producer surplus.8. Suppose demand for electricity is perfectly inelastic. A tax on electricity will bea.split between producers and consumers in equal shares.b.paid only by producers.c.paid only by consumers.d.split between producers and consumers in unequal shares.9. The coastal town of Milford, Connecticut recently increased taxes on beachfront property. They did this becausea.taxes on land generate no deadweight loss and lots of revenues forgovernment.b.politicians recognize that the supply of beachfront property is perfectlyinelastic and so the tax would generate no deadweight loss.c.taxes on land are paid entirely by the suppliers since the supply of beachfrontproperty is perfectly inelastic.d.of all of the above.10. When the government increases taxes on labor income,a.people tend to work harder to make up for lost income.b.people tend to work less because their take-home wage is lower.c.most employers reduce employment.d.any of the above, depending on the elasticities of demandand supply.11. Which of the following groups has a relatively elastic supply of labor?a.heads-of-households who must support other people with their income.b.Elderly people on Social Security, who can choose whether or not to work.c.Second earners in a household, who make lower wages than the primary wageearner.d. B and C both have relatively elastic labor supplies.12. Which of the following groups has a relatively inelastic supply of labor?e.heads-of-households who must support other people with their incomes.f.Elderly people on Social Security, who can choose whether or not to work.g.Second earners in a household, who make lower wages than the primary wageearner.h. B and C both have relatively elastic labor supplies.13. Henry George’s arguments were based on the idea thata.income taxes are optimal because they distort incentives.b.income taxes are optimal because they create no deadweight loss.c.taxes on land are optimal because they create no deadweight loss.d.income taxes are optimal because they are paid by employers.14. According to supply-side economists, the U.S. tax systemtends toa.decrease interest rates and loans to businesses.b.dampen incentives to work, save, and invest.c.reduce unemployment and push up the price level.d.provide lower tax rates to people who work on salary.15. According to the Laffer Curve, when taxes are increased from 0 percent to a rate consistent with the maximum point on the curve, tax revenue willa.decrease.b.increase.c.be the same as the tax rate.d.remain constant.16. According to supply-side economists, a policy that ________ will cause productivity to increase, which increase the supply of goods and services in the marketplace.a.increases interest ratesb.decreases inflationc.reduces marginal tax ratesd.funds capital investment in the economy17. In the early 1980s, supply-side economists suggested that the U.S. was ata.the minimum point along its Laffer curve.b.the maximum point along its Laffer curve.c.some point along the rising portion of its Laffer curve.d.some point along the falling portion of its Laffer curve.18. U.S. policymakers disagree most often about the effects of taxation becausea.some are capitalists and some are communists.b.some supply-siders and some are not.c.they have different ideas about relative elasticities of demand and supply.d.some are rich and some are poor.。

曼昆《经济学原理》-8

曼昆《经济学原理》-8

曼昆《经济学原理》-8.txt如果真诚是一种伤害,请选择谎言;如果谎言是一种伤害,请选择沉默;如果沉默是一种伤害,请选择离开。

虽然现实经济生产成千上万种物品与劳务,但我们可以设想一个只生产两种物品—汽车与电脑—的经济。

汽车行业和电脑行业共同使用经济的全部生产要素。

生产可能性边界(p r o d u c t i o npossibilities frontier)是一个图形,它表明在企业可以用来把要素变为产出的生产要素和生产技术为既定时,经济所能生产的产量—在这种情况下是汽车和电脑—的各种组合。

图2 - 2是生产可能性边界的一个例子。

在这个经济中,如果全部资源都用于汽车行业,该经济可以生产1 000辆汽车而不生产电脑。

如果全部资源都用于电脑行业,该经济可以生产3 000台电脑而不生产汽车。

生产可能性边界的两个端点代表这两种极端的可能性。

如果经济把资源分在两个行业中,如图中A点所示,可以生产7 0 0辆汽车和2 000 台电脑。

与此相比, D点的结果是不可能的:经济没有支撑这种产量水平的资源。

换句话说,经济可以在生产可能性边界上或它之内的任何点上进行生产,但不能在该边界以外任何一点上进行生产。

生产可能性边界表明,经济所能生产的产量—在这个例子中是汽车和电脑—的组合。

经济可以生产该边界线上或该边界线之内的任何组合。

在经济的资源既定时,边界线以外的各点是不能实现的。

如果经济可以利用它所得到的全部稀缺资源,就可以说这种结果是有效率的。

生产可能性边界上(而不是它以内)的点代表有效率的生产水平。

当经济在这种点上,例如在A点上,进行生产时,不减少另一种物品的生产就不能增加一种物品的生产。

B点代表一种无效率的结果。

由于某种原因,也许是普遍失业,该经济所生产的小于它用所得到的资源能生产的:它只生产了3 0 0辆汽车和1 000台电脑。

如果消除了无效率的原由,经济可以从B点移动到A点,增加了汽车(增加到7 0 0辆)和电脑(增加到2 000台)的生产。

马歇尔-----《经济学原理》

马歇尔-----《经济学原理》
请注意甄别内容中的联系方式诱导购买等信息谨防诈骗
马歇尔-----《经济学原理》
文学联盟>经济管理>马歇尔>《经济学原理》
《经济学原理》
原著第一版序言
原著第八版序言
第一篇 导言
第一章 绪论
第二章 经济学的实质
第三章 经济概括即经济规律
第四章 经济研究的次序与目的
第二篇 若干基本概念
第一章 绪论
第二章 财富
第八章 边际成本和价值的关系。一般原理
第九章 边际成本和价值的关系。一般原理(续)
第十章 边际成本和农产品价值的关系
第十一章 边际成本和城市土地价值的关系
第十二章 从报酬递加规律来看的正常需求和正常供给的均衡
第十三章 正常需求和正常供给变动的理论同最大限度满足原理的关系
第十四章 垄断理论
第十五章 供求均衡的一般理论摘要
第三章 生产、消费、劳动、必需品
第四章 收入。资本
第三篇 论欲望及其满足
第一章 绪论
第二章 欲望与活动的关系
第三章 消费者需求的等级
第四章 欲望的弹性
第五章 一物不同用途的选择。立即使用与延缓使用
第六章 价值与效用
第四篇 生产要素——土地、劳动、资本和组织
第一章 绪论
第二章 土地的肥力
第三章 土地的肥力(续前)报酬递减的倾向
第四章 人口的增长
第五章 人口的健康与强壮
第六章 工业训练
第七章 财富的增长
第八章 工业组织
第九章 工业组织(续前)。分工。机械的影响
第十章 工业组织(续前)。专门工业集中于特定的地方
第十一章 工业组织(续前)大规模生产
第十二章 工业组织(续前)。企业管理

曼昆《经济学原理》整理

曼昆《经济学原理》整理

曼昆《经济学原理》整理《经济学原理》是经济学家尼古拉斯·曼昆(N. Gregory Mankiw)的经济学教材,这本教材包含宏观经济学和微观经济学两个分册。

在本文中,我将主要整理《经济学原理》的微观经济学分册。

《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》是一本系统而经典的微观经济学教材。

教材中的内容通俗易懂,生动有趣,深入浅出,非常适合初学者学习和理解。

微观经济学研究个体决策者如何进行决策,以及这些决策如何影响市场的供求关系和资源配置。

教材分为十章,每一章都涉及到微观经济学的重要概念和原理。

以下是每章的主要内容概述:第一章介绍了经济学和经济思维的基本概念。

它解释了经济学的定义、研究方法和一些重要的经济原理,如稀缺性和成本。

第二章介绍了供求关系和市场机制的基本概念。

它解释了需求和供给曲线的性质,以及市场均衡和价格调整的过程。

第三章讨论了价格弹性和收入弹性的概念。

它解释了价格弹性和收入弹性如何衡量市场对价格和收入变化的敏感程度。

第四章讨论了消费者行为的理论和决策过程。

它解释了消费者如何进行最优消费决策,以及如何通过边际效用和限制性预算来衡量消费者福利。

第五章探讨了生产者行为的理论和决策过程。

它解释了生产者如何进行最优生产决策,并介绍了生产函数、边际产出和成本曲线的概念。

第六章介绍了市场失灵的原因和解决办法。

它讨论了市场外部性、公共物品和不完全竞争的问题,以及政府在解决市场失灵方面的角色。

第七章讨论了消费者剩余和生产者剩余的概念。

它解释了消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何衡量买家和卖家对交易的满意程度。

第八章讨论了纳什均衡和博弈理论的概念。

它解释了博弈理论如何帮助我们理解决策者之间的相互作用和策略选择。

第九章介绍了垄断和垄断竞争的市场结构。

它解释了垄断者如何通过价格和产量限制来影响市场,并讨论了垄断竞争下的市场行为。

第十章介绍了资源市场的概念和原理。

它解释了劳动市场和资本市场如何确定工资和利率,并讨论了市场竞争对工资和利率的影响。

曼昆《经济学原理[微观经济学分册]》[第6版]课后习题详细讲解[第8章应用-赋税的代价]

曼昆《经济学原理[微观经济学分册]》[第6版]课后习题详细讲解[第8章应用-赋税的代价]

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)第8章应用:赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题,经济学考研课后习题解析资料库,您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题,经济学考研课后习题,经济学考研参考书等内容,更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验,从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富,这或许能帮你少走弯路,躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理,如您还需更多考研资料,可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

一、概念题无谓损失(deadweight loss)(北京师范大学2006、2009研;深圳大学2008研)答:无谓损失指税收(或其他某种政策)扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。

如图8-1所示,对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余(用面积B C+代表)和生产者剩余(用面积D E+),所以,+代表)。

由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入(面积B D税收引起了无谓损失(面积C E+)。

图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1.当对一种物品征税时,消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动?与税收收入相比较,消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动?解释原因。

答:(1)当对一种物品征税时,消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。

(2)与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。

对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余(用面积B C+代表)。

由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税+代表)和生产者剩余(用面积D E收收入(面积B D+),所以,税收引起了无谓损失(面积C E+)。

(3)税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本,使资源配置无效率,进而使社会总剩余减少。

市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。

这就是说,供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。

但是,当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时,它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费,而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。

当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时,市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。

巴德 宏观经济学原理(英文版第8版) 学生课件Chapter 8 PowerPoint

巴德 宏观经济学原理(英文版第8版) 学生课件Chapter 8 PowerPoint
Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
MACROECONOMIC APPROACHES AND PATHWAYS
Keynesian Macroeconomics
According to Keynesian macroeconomics, the market economy is inherently unstable and it requires active government intervention to achieve full employment and sustained economic growth. John Maynard Keynes, in his book “The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money,” began this school of thought. Keynes’ theory was that too little consumer spending and investment led to the Great Depression.
Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
MACROECONOMIC APPROACHES AND PATHWAYS
MACROECONOMIC APPROACHES AND PATHWAYS
Classical macroeconomics fell into disrepute during the 1930s, which was a decade of high unemployment and stagnant production throughout the world. Great Depression is a decade (the 1930s) of high unemployment and stagnant production throughout the world economy. Classical macroeconomics predicted that the Great Depression would end but gave no method for ending it more quickly.

曼昆经济学原理第八版

曼昆经济学原理第八版

曼昆经济学原理第八版曼昆(N. Gregory Mankiw)的《经济学原理》是世界上最受欢迎的经济学教科书之一,其第八版在全球范围内被广泛采用。

这本教科书以其清晰的写作风格、生动的案例分析和贴近生活的经济学原理而闻名,成为许多学生学习经济学的首选教材。

在《经济学原理》第八版中,曼昆以经济学家的独特视角,系统地介绍了微观经济学和宏观经济学的基本原理。

他通过大量的实例和案例,向读者生动地展示了经济学原理在现实生活中的应用,使得抽象的经济学理论变得具体而有趣。

在微观经济学部分,曼昆首先介绍了供求理论,阐述了价格如何在市场中形成,并对市场失灵进行了深入的分析。

他还讨论了企业生产和成本、市场竞争、垄断市场等内容,为读者揭示了市场经济中的各种现象和规律。

在宏观经济学部分,曼昆从整体经济的角度出发,介绍了国民生产总值、通货膨胀、失业等宏观经济指标,深入剖析了货币政策、财政政策、经济增长等宏观经济问题,帮助读者理解宏观经济运行的规律和原理。

除了理论知识的介绍,曼昆还在书中穿插了许多有趣的案例和实例,如讲述了为什么电影院的爆米花比电影票贵、为什么大学教育的价格一直在上涨等,这些案例不仅生动形象地展示了经济学原理,也引发了读者对经济现象的思考和讨论。

此外,曼昆还在书中加入了一些最新的经济学研究成果和实践案例,使得这本经济学教科书始终保持着与时俱进的特点,为读者呈现了一个全面而深入的经济学世界。

总的来说,曼昆的《经济学原理》第八版不仅仅是一本经济学教科书,更是一部通俗易懂的经济学普及读物。

它以其简洁清晰的语言、丰富生动的案例和贴近生活的内容,向读者展示了经济学原理的魅力,帮助读者建立起对经济学的兴趣和理解。

无论是经济学专业的学生,还是对经济学感兴趣的非专业读者,都能从这本教科书中获益良多。

因此,《经济学原理》第八版无疑是一部不可多得的经济学经典之作,值得广大读者深入学习和品味。

曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理

曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理

第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途,以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。

稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的,因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。

正因为稀缺性的客观存在,就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。

因此,经济学家研究人们如何做出决策,如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。

经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。

2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为,所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始:原理一:人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西,通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。

做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。

效率(efficient):是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。

平等(equality):是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。

原理二:某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下,某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。

一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。

机会成本(opportunity):为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。

原理三:理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设,人是理性的。

在机会成本为既定的条件下,理性人(rational people)系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。

边际变动(marginal change):对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。

理性人通常比较边际收益(marginal benefit)与边际成本(marginal cost)来做决策。

当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本,一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。

原理四:人们会对激胁做出反应激励(incentive)是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西(如惩罚或奖励的预期)。

由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策,所以,他们会对激励做出反应。

当成本或收益变动时,他们的行为也会随之发生改变。

经济学原理第八版笔记

经济学原理第八版笔记

经济学原理第八版笔记在当今复杂多变的经济环境中,了解经济学原理成为了我们理解社会经济现象、做出合理决策的重要工具。

《经济学原理》第八版为我们提供了丰富而系统的知识体系,以下是我对其重点内容的笔记整理。

一、需求与供给需求和供给是经济学中的核心概念。

需求指的是消费者在一定时期内,在各种可能的价格水平下愿意并且能够购买的商品或服务的数量。

影响需求的因素众多,包括消费者的收入、偏好、相关商品的价格、预期等。

比如,当消费者收入增加时,对于正常商品的需求通常会上升;而对于劣等商品,需求则可能下降。

供给则是生产者在一定时期内,在各种可能的价格水平下愿意并且能够提供的商品或服务的数量。

影响供给的因素有生产成本、技术水平、相关商品的价格以及生产者的预期等。

技术进步往往会降低生产成本,从而增加供给。

需求和供给的相互作用决定了商品的价格。

当需求大于供给时,价格上升;反之,价格下降。

这种价格的调整最终会使市场达到均衡状态,即需求量等于供给量。

二、弹性理论弹性是衡量需求量或供给量对某种因素变动的反应程度的指标。

需求价格弹性反映了需求量对价格变动的敏感程度。

如果一种商品的需求价格弹性较大,意味着价格的小幅变动会导致需求量的大幅变动;反之,如果弹性较小,价格变动对需求量的影响就较小。

例如,对于奢侈品,如高档手表,需求价格弹性通常较大,因为消费者对价格较为敏感;而对于生活必需品,如食盐,需求价格弹性则较小。

供给价格弹性则衡量了供给量对价格变动的反应程度。

生产周期长、难以调整产量的商品,如农产品,其供给价格弹性通常较小;而生产周期短、容易调整产量的商品,如电子产品,供给价格弹性往往较大。

弹性理论在企业决策和政府政策制定中具有重要意义。

企业可以根据商品的弹性来制定价格策略,政府也可以依据弹性来评估税收政策和补贴政策的效果。

三、消费者行为理论消费者在做出购买决策时,会追求效用最大化。

效用是消费者从消费某种商品或服务中获得的满足程度。

曼昆经济学原理08税收的代价

曼昆经济学原理08税收的代价

The Deadweight Loss...
Price
Lost gains
from trade
Supply
PB
Price = P1 Size of tax without tax
P
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Value to buyers
Cost to sellers
Demand
0
Q2
Q1
Quantity
Reduction in quantity due to the tax
The Deadweight Loss Debate
Some examples of workers who may respond more to incentives:
Workers who can adjust the number of hours they work
Families with second earners
Tax Distortions and Elasticities...
(a) Inelastic Supply
Price
Supply
Size of tax
0
When supply is relatively inelastic, the deadweight loss of a tax is small.
It does not matter whether a tax on a good is levied on buyers or sellers of the good…the price paid by buyers rises, and the price received by sellers falls.
Elderly who can choose when to retire

经济学原理(曼昆)8

经济学原理(曼昆)8

= A + B + C,
A B S C E D F
D + E + F, 税收收入 = 0;
总剩余(total surplus)
= CS + PS + 税收收入
= (A + B + C) + (D + E + F) + 0 =A+B+C+D+E+F
PE
D
QT
应用:赋税的代价
QE
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6
税收效应
征税时的总剩余
CHAPTER
8
经济学原理
N.格里高利.曼昆 著
应用:税收的成本
Application: The Costs of Taxation
Premium PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich
© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved
【Q:】税收何以引起”无谓损失“?
【A:】因为税收刺激买卖双方行为的改变,进而
扭曲了完全竞争市场的均衡状态

税收提高了买者支付价格,因而减少消费 税收降低了卖者所得价格,因而减少生产 由于买卖双方行为之改变,市场规模缩小到无税收影响时的完全竞争
的市场均衡的最适水平之下
应用:赋税的代价
(尽管征税降低了生产者 得到的价格(Ps)) 由于企业较难离市
因此,
P S
税收只引起产量小幅减少 “无谓损失”因而较小
税收规 模DQ源自应用:赋税的代价15
无谓损失 与 供给弹性
(DWL and the Elasticity of Supply) 供给富有弹性时:

大学必修课件 经济学原理 第八章 外部性

大学必修课件  经济学原理 第八章 外部性
边际社会成本 整个社会负担的边际成本 边际社会成本 (MSC) 是边际私人成本 (MC) 加上边际外 部成本 MSC = MC + 边际外部成本
8.1 负外部性:污染
图 8.1 外部成本 当产量等于 4,000 吨/月,
1. 边际私人成本是 $100/吨 2. 边际外部成本是 $125/吨 3. 边际社会成本等于 $225/吨
由公家机关生产货品或服务
补贴
政府给生产者给付,以负担部分生产成本
折价券
政府提供家计单位购买特定货品或服务的折价许可证
8.2 正外部性
公家提供
图 8.7(a) 公家提供达成效率
1. 边际社会利益等于边际成本, 效率数量等于 1,500 万人/年
2. 此为有效率 3. 学费设定为 10,000 /人 4. 纳税人负担其余的边际成本
日常生活中的外部性
外部性可区分为四类: • 生产的负外部性 • 生产的正外部性 • 消费的负外部性 • 消费的正外部性
日常生活中的外部性
生产的负外部性
污染是这类型主要的例子 如飞机起降的噪音等
生产的正外部性
例如比邻的果园与养蜂场,养蜂场的蜜蜂帮助果树授粉, 而果树则提供蜜蜂采蜜,两者互相提供正外部性
3. 边际利益
4. 当边际利益等于边际社会 成本时,效率数量等于 2,000顿/月
5. 灰色三角地带代表污染 外部性所形成的无谓损 失
8.1 负外部性:污染
财产权
财产权 法律赋予所有权人权力,使其可以使用及处置生产要素 或货品与服务
8.1 负外部性:污染
图 8.3 财产权达成 效率结果
1. 边际私人成本曲 线不包含污染的成 本
8.2 正外部性
私人利益与社会利益

经济学原理 第八章

经济学原理 第八章

限制非工会会员受雇,迫使政府通过强制退休、禁止使用童 工、限制移民、减少工作时间的法律等
第三,工会支持最低工资法案
教材135
P
S
0 P
S
P
S
0
Q
0
Q
1、生产要素的价格 2、经济人口的规模与结构
3、居民的收入和生活水平
劳动市场
一、劳动供给的特点
劳动者所拥有的时间是既定的。他每天只 能拥有24小时。这24小时可分为两部分:一部 分为劳动时间,另一部分为闲暇时间。劳动的 供给问题实际上是劳动者将其既定的时间资源 在劳动供给和闲暇两种用途上的分配问题。
第八章
第八章
劳动力市场
•为什么有的人富可敌国,而有的人却一
贫如洗,人们的收入水平是如何决定的?
•这取决于:劳动生产要素 •这就需要研究生产要素(factors of prodution) 市场,研究要素的价格决定。
Байду номын сангаас
• 据新华社上海2005年7月26日电,从1994年 至2011年,我国大学学费从每年几百元一路 飚升至每年5000元—15000元不等,学费猛 涨约20倍,而1994年至2011年,国民人均收 入增长不到4倍。即便如此,国人上大学的 热情与竞争的强度依然不减。 • 对此我们可以从生产要素市场的供求规律以 及工资差异的形成原因上找到答案。
二、影响生产要素需求的因素
1.消费品市场对产品的需求及产品的价格
2.生产要素的生产技术状况 3.生产要素的可替代性 4.生产要素的边际生产力
生产要素的供给
一、生产要素的供给及其影响因素
在一般情况下,生产要素的价格越高,生产要素 的供给数量就越多。 在特殊情况下,生产要素的供给是很缺乏弹性的, 不论价格上升多少,供给量到了一定程度后总是保 持不变,生产要素的供给曲线变得与横轴垂直; 或者还会出现一定的减少。

曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理课件

曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理课件
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理1: 人们面临着交替关系
People Face Tradeoffs. 天下没有免费的午餐!
“There is no such thing as a free lunch!”
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理1: 人们面临着交替关系
People Face Tradeoffs.
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理8: 生活水平取决于一国的生 产
• Almost all variations in living standards are explained by differences in countries’ productivities.
• 生活水平的几乎所有差异都可以用各个国家生产率 的差异加以解释。
• an externality, which is the impact of one person or firm’s
actions on the well-being of a bystander. • 外部性---一个人或企业的行为对局外人福利的影响。
• market power, which is the ability of a single person or
是你为
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理2:某一事物的成本是你为了 获得它而放弃的东西
LA Laker 的篮球明星 Kobe Bryant 选择放弃上大学,从高 中直接进入职业球队,因此他 可以赚到成百上千万美元。
曼昆经济学原理(微观部分)-经济学十大原理
原理3: 理性人进行边际思考
resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services.市场经济是一种通 过许多企业和家庭的分散决策配置资源的经济,与 此同时企业和家庭在商品和服务市场上发生相互作 用。

曼昆经济学原理英文第六版答案

曼昆经济学原理英文第六版答案

曼昆经济学原理英文第六版答案【篇一:曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案8章】ation a new in the news box on ―the tax debate‖ has been added.by the end of this chapter, students should understand:? how taxes reduce consumer and producer surplus.? the meaning and causes of the deadweight loss from a tax. ? why some taxes have larger deadweight losses than others. ? how tax revenue and deadweight loss vary with the size of a tax.chapter 8 is the second chapter in a three-chapter sequence dealing with welfare economics. in theprevious section on supply and demand, chapter 6 introduced taxes and demonstrated how a tax affects the price and quantity sold in a market. chapter 6 also described the factors that determine how the burden of the tax is divided between the buyers and sellers in a market. chapter 7 developed welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. chapter 8 combines the lessons learned in chapters 6 and 7 and addresses the effects of taxation on welfare. chapter 9 will address the effects of trade restrictions on welfare. the purpose of chapter 8 is to apply the lessons learned about welfare economics in chapter 7 to the issue of taxation that was addressed in chapter 6. students will learn that the cost of a tax to buyers and sellers in a market exceeds the revenue collected by the government. students will also learn about the factors that determine the degree by which the cost of a tax exceeds the revenue collected by the government.144? a tax on a good reduces the welfare of buyers and sellers of the good, and the reduction in consumer and producer surplus usually exceeds the revenue raised by the government. the fall in total surplus—the sum of consumer surplus, producer surplus, and tax revenue—is called thedeadweight loss of the tax.taxes have deadweight losses because they cause buyers to consume less and sellers to produce less, and these changesin behavior shrink the size of the market below the level that maximizes total surplus. because the elasticities of supply and demand measure how much market participants respond to market conditions, larger elasticities imply larger deadweight losses.as a tax grows larger, it distorts incentives more, and its deadweight loss grows larger. because a tax reduces the size of a market, however, tax revenue does not continually increase. it first rises with the size of a tax, but if the tax gets large enough, tax revenue starts to fall. ? ?i. the deadweight loss of taxationa. remember that it does not matter who a tax is levied on; buyers and sellers will likely share inthe burden of the tax.b. if there is a tax on a product, the price that a buyer pays will be greater than the price the sellerreceives. thus, there is a tax wedge between the two prices and the quantity sold will be smaller if there was no tax.c. how a tax affects market participants1. we can measure the effects of a tax on consumers by examining the change in consumersurplus. similarly, we can measure the effects of the tax on producers by looking at the change in producer surplus.then the benefit from the tax revenue must not be ignored.3. welfare without a taxa. consumer surplus is equal to: a + b + c.b. producer surplus is equal to: d + e + f.c. total surplus is equal to: a + b + c + d + e + f. 4. welfare with a tax a. consumer surplus is equal to: a.b. producer surplus is equal to: f.5. changes in welfare a. consumer surplus changes by: –(b +c). b. producer surplus changes by: –(d + e). c. tax revenue changes by: +(b + d). d. total surplus changes by: –(c + e). 6. definition of distortion, such as a tax. d. deadweight losses and the gains from tradec. tax revenue is equal to: b +d. d. total surplus is equal to: a +b + d + f.1. taxes cause deadweight losses because they prevent buyers and sellers from benefiting fromtrade.2. this occurs because the quantity of output declines; trades that would be beneficial to both the buyer and seller will nottake place because of the tax.3. the deadweight loss is equal to areas c and e (the drop intotal surplus).4. note that output levels between the equilibrium quantity without the tax and the quantitywith the tax will not be produced, yet the value of these unitsto consumers (represented by the demand curve) is larger than the cost of these units to producers (represented by the supply curve).ii. the determinants of the deadweight lossa. the price elasticities of supply and demand will determinethe size of the deadweight loss that occurs from a tax. 1. givena stable demand curve, the deadweight loss is larger when supply is relatively elastic.2. given a stable supply curve, the deadweight loss is larger when demand is relatively elastic. b. case study: the deadweight loss debate1. social security tax and federal income tax are taxes onlabor earnings. a labor tax places a tax wedge between thewage the firm pays and the wage that workers receive.2. there is considerable debate among economists concerning the size of the deadweight lossfrom this wage tax.3. the size of the deadweight loss depends on the elasticity of labor supply and demand, andthere is disagreement about the magnitude of the elasticity of supply.【篇二:曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案31章】basic conceptsthere is a new in the news feature on the changing nature of u.s. exports and an updated presentation of the u.s. trade deficit.by the end of this chapter, students should understand:??how net exports measure the international flow of goodsand services.??how net capital outflow measures the international flow of capital.??why net exports must always equal net foreign investment.??how saving, domestic investment, and net capital outflow are related.??the meaning of the nominal exchange rate and the real exchange rate.??purchasing-power parity as a theory of how exchange rates are determined.chapter 18 is the first chapter in a two-chapter sequence dealing with open-economy macroeconomics. chapter 18 develops the basic concepts and vocabulary associated with macroeconomics in an international setting: net exports, net capital outflow, real and nominal exchange rates, and purchasing-power parity. the next chapter, chapter 19, builds an open-economy macroeconomic model that shows how these variables are determined simultaneously.the purpose of chapter 18 is to develop the basic concepts macroeconomists use to study open economies. it addresses why a nation’s net exports must equal its net capital outflow. it also addresses the concepts of the real and nominal exchange rate and develops a theory of exchange ratedetermination known as purchasing-power parity.298??net exports are the value of domestic goods and services sold abroad (exports) minus the value offoreign goods and services sold domestically (imports). net capital outflow is the acquisition of foreign assets by domestic residents (capital outflow) minus the acquisition of domestic assets by foreigners (capital inflow). because every international transaction involves an exchange of an asset for a good or service, an economy’s net capital outflow always equals its net exports.an economy’s saving can be used to finance investment at home or buy assets abroad. thus, national saving equals domestic investment plus net capital outflow.the nominal exchange rate is the relative price of the currency of two countries, and the real exchange rate is the relative price of the goods and services of two countries. when the nominal exchange rate changes so that each dollar buys more foreign currency, the dollar is said to appreciate or strengthen. when the nominal exchange rate changes so that each dollarbuys less foreign currency, the dollar is said to depreciate or weaken.according to the theory of purchasing-power parity, a dollar (or a unit of any other currency) should be able to buy the same quantity of goods in all countries. this theory implies that the nominal exchange rate between the currencies of two countries should reflect the price levels in those countries. as a result, countries with relatively high inflation should have depreciating currencies, and countries with relatively low inflation should have appreciating currencies. ?? ?? ??i. we will no longer be assuming that the economy is a closed economy.a. definition of in the world.b. definition of around the world.ii. the international flows of goods and capitala. the flow of goods: exports, imports, and net exports1. definition of abroad.2. definition of domestically.imports, also called the trade balance.4. definition of : the value of a nation’s exports minus the value of its imports, also called net exports.5. definition of .6. definition of .7. definition of .8. there are several factors that influence a country’s exports, imports, and net exports:a. the tastes of consumers for domestic and foreign goods.b. the prices of goods at home and abroad.c. the exchange rates at which people can use domestic currency to buy foreign currencies.d. the incomes of consumers at home and abroad.e. the cost of transporting goods from country to country.f. government policies toward international trade.9. case study: the increasing openness of the u.s. economy a. figure 1 shows the total value of exports and imports (expressed as a percentage of gdp) for the united states since 1950. b. advances in transportation, telecommunications, and technological progress are some of the reasons why international trade has increased over time. c. policymakers around the world have also become more accepting of freetrade over time. 10. in the news: the changing nature of u.s. exports a. growing u.s. exports include entertainment royalties, tourism, travel, and services. b. this article from the wall street journal describes the growth in new exports. b. the flow of financial resources: net capital outflow1. definition of residents minus the purchase of domestic assets by foreigners.2. the flow of capital abroad takes two forms. a. foreign direct investment occurs when a capital investment is owned and operated by a foreign entity.b. foreign portfolio investment involves an investment that is financed with foreign money but operated by domestic residents.3. net capital outflow can be positive or negative.a. when net capital outflow is positive, domestic residents are buying more foreign assets than foreigners are buying domestic assets. capital is flowing out of the country.b. when net capital outflow is negative, domestic residents are buying fewer foreign assets than foreigners are buying domestic assets. the country is experiencing a capital inflow. 4. there are several factors that influence a country’s net capital outflow:a. the real interest rates being paid on foreign assets.b. the real interest rates being paid on domestic assets.c. the perceived economic and political risks of holding assets abroad.d. the government policies that affect foreign ownership of domestic assets.c. the equality of net exports and net capital outflow1. net exports and net capital outflow each measure a type of imbalance in a world market.a. net exports measure the imbalance between a country’s exports and imports in world markets for goods and services.b. net capital outflow measures the imbalance between the amount of foreign assets bought by domestic residents andthe amount of domestic assets bought by foreigners inworld financial markets.2. for an economy, net exports must be equal to net capital outflow.3. example: you are a computer programmer who sells some software to a japanese consumer for 10,000 yen. a. thesale is an export of the united states so u.s. net exports increase.b. there are several things you could do with the 10,000 yenc. you could hold the yen (which is a japanese asset) or use it to purchase another japanese asset. either way, u.s. net capital outflow rises.d. alternatively, you could use the yen to purchase a japanese good. thus, u.s. imports will rise so the net effect on net exports will be zero.e. one final possibility is that you could exchange the yen for dollars at a bank. this doesnot change the situation though, because the bank then must use the yen for something.alternative classroom example: assume that u.s. residents do not want to buy any foreign assets, but foreign residents want to purchase some stock in a u.s. firm (such as microsoft). how are the foreigners going to get the dollars to purchase the stock? they would do it the same way u.s. residents would purchase the stock—they would have to earn more than they spend. in other words, foreigners must sell the united states more goods and services than they purchase from the united states. this leads to negative net exports for the united states. the extra dollars spent by u.s. residents on foreign-produced goods and services would be used to purchase the stock in microsoft. 4. this example can be generalized to the economy as a whole.a. when a nation is running a trade surplus (nx 0), it must be using the foreign currencyto purchase foreign assets. thus, capital is flowing out of the country (nco 0).b. when a nation is running a trade deficit (nx 0), it must be financing the net purchase of these goods by selling assets abroad. thus, capital is flowing into the country (nco0).5. every international transaction involves exchange. when a seller country transfers a good orservice to a buyer country, the buyer country gives up some asset to pay for the good or service.6. thus, the net value of the goods and services sold by a country (net exports) must equal thenet value of the assets acquired (net capital outflow).d. saving, investment, and their relationship to the international flows1. recall that gdp (y ) is the sum of four components: consumption (c ), investment (i ),government purchases (g ) and net exports (nx ).【篇三:曼昆宏观经济学课后答案(英文版)】quizzes:1. gross domestic product measures two things at once: (1) the total income of everyonein the economy; and (2) the total expenditure on the economy’s output of goods and services. it can measure both of these things at once because income must equal expenditure for the economy as a whole.2. the production of a pound of caviar contributes more to gdp than the production of apound of hamburger because the contribution to gdp is measured by market value and the price of a pound of caviar is much higher than the price of a pound of hamburger.3. the four components of expenditure are: (1) consumption;(2) investment; (3)government purchases; and (4) net exports. the largest component is consumption, which accounts for more thantwo-thirds of total expenditure.4. nominal gdp is the production of goods and services valued at current prices. realgdp is the production of goods and services valued at constant prices. real gdp is a better measure of economicwell-being because it reflects the eco nomy’s ability to satisfy people’s needs and desires. thus a rise in real gdp means people have produced more goods and services, but a rise in nominal gdp could occur either because of increased production or because of higher prices.5. although gdp is not a perfect measure of well-being, policymakers should care about itbecause a larger gdp means that a nation can afford better health care, better educational systems, and more of the material necessities of life.questions for review:1.2.3.4. an economys income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers. the production of a luxury car contributes more to gdp than the production of an economy car because the luxury car has a higher market value. the contribution to gdp is $3, the market value of the bread, which is the final good that is sold. the sale of used records does not affect gdp at all because it involves no current production.5. the four components of gdp are consumption, such as the purchase of a music cd;investment, such as the purchase of a computer by a business; government purchases, such as an order for military aircraft; and net exports, such as the sale of american wheat to russia.6. economists use real gdp rather than nominal gdp to gauge economic well-beingbecause real gdp is not affected by changes in prices, so it reflects only changes in the amounts being produced. if nominal gdp rises, you do not know if that is because of increased production or higher prices.7.the percentage change in nominal gdp is (600-200)/200 x 100 = 200%. the percentage change in real gdp is (400-200)/200 x 100 = 100%. the percentage change in the deflator is (150-100)/100 x 100 = 50%.8. it is desirable for a country to have a large gdp because people could enjoy more goodsand services. but gdp is not the only important measure of well-being. for example, laws that restrict pollution cause gdp to be lower. if laws against pollution were eliminated, gdp would be higher but the pollution might make us worse off. or, for example, an earthquake would raise gdp, as expenditures on cleanup, repair, and rebuilding increase. but an earthquake is an undesirable event that lowers our welfare.problems and applications:1. a. consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by ahousehold.b. investment increases because a house is an investment good.c. consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, butinvestment decreases because the car in ford’s inventory had been counted as aninvestment good until it was sold.d. consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.e. government purchases increase because the government spent money to providea good to the public.f. consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household,but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.g. investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.2.3. with transfer payments, nothing is produced, so there is no contribution to gdp. purchases of new housing are included in the investment portion of gdp because housingprovides services for a long time. for the same reason, purchases of new cars could be thought of as investment, but by convention, they are not. the logic could apply to any durable good, such as household appliances.if gdp included goods that are resold, it would be counting output of that particular year, plus sales of goods produced ina previous year. it would double-count goods that were sold more than once and would count goods in gdp for severalyears if they were produced in one year and resold in another. 4.5. a. 2001: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 100 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 50 qts. honey)= $2002002: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002003: ($2 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($4 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $8002001: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 100 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. ofhoney ? 50 qts. honey)= $2002002: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002003: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002001: ($200/$200) ? 100 = 1002002: ($400/$400) ? 100 = 1002003: ($800/$400) ? 100 = 200b. percentage change in nominal gdp in 2002 = [($400 - $200)/$200] ? 100 =100%.percentage change in nominal gdp in 2003 = [($800 -$400)/$400] ? 100 =100%.percentage change in real gdp in 2002 = [($400 - $200)/$200] ? 100 = 100%.percentage change in real gdp in 2003 = [($400 - $400)/$400] ? 100 = 0%.percentage change in the gdp deflator in 2002 = [(100 -100)/100] ? 100 = 0%.percentage change in the gdp deflator in 2003 = [(200 -100)/100] ? 100 =100%.prices did not change from 2001 to 2002. thus, thepercentage change in thegdp deflator is zero. likewise, output levels did not change from 2002 to 2003.this means that the percentage change in real gdp is zero.c. economic well-being rose more in 2002 than in 2003, since real gdp rose in2002 but not in 2003. in 2002, real gdp rose and prices didn’t. in 2003, realgdp didn’t rise and prices did.6.a.b.c.d.e.f.7. the growth rate of nominal gdp is higher than the growth rate of real gdp because of inflation. the growth rate of real gdp is ($8,367 - $8,203)/$8,203 ? 100% = 2.0%. real gdp in 2000 (in 1996 dollars) is $9,873/(118/100) = $8,367. real gdp in 1999 (in 1996 dollars) is $9,269/(113/100) = $8,203. the growth rate ofthe deflator is (118 - 113)/113 ? 100% = 4.4%. the growth rate of nominal gdp is ($9,873 - $9,269)/$9,269 ? 100% = 6.5%. economists ignore the rise in peoples incomes that is caused by higher prices becausealthough incomes are higher, the prices of the goods and services that people buy are also higher. therefore, they will not necessarily be able to purchase more goods and services. for this reason, economists prefer to look at real gdp instead of nominal gdp.many answers are possible.a. gdp equals the dollar amount barry collects, which is $400.8. 9.c.d.e.10. national income = nnp - sales taxes = $350 - $30 = $320. personal income = national income - retained earnings = $320 - $100 = $220. disposable personal income = personal income - personal income tax = $220 - $70 = $150. in countries like india, people produce and consume a fair amount of food at home that isnot included in gdp. so gdp per person in india and the united states will differ by more than their comparative economicwell-being.if the government cares about the total income of americans,it will emphasize gnp, since that measure includes the income of americans that is earned abroad and excludes the income of foreigners. if the government cares about the total amount ofeconomic activity occurring in the united states, it will emphasize gdp, which measures the level of production in the country, whether produced by domestic citizens or foreigners.a. the increased labor-force participation of women has increased gdp in theunited states, since it means more people are working and production hasincreased.if our measure of well-being included time spent working in the home and takingleisure, it wouldnt rise as much as gdp, since the rise in womens labor-forceparticipation has reduced time spent working in the home and taking leisure.other aspects of well-being that are associated with the rise in womens increasedlabor-force participation include increased self-esteem and prestige for women inthe workforce, especially at managerial levels, but decreased quality time spentwith children, whose parents have less time to spend with them. such aspectswould be quite difficult to measure. 11. 12. b. c.24章quick quizzes1. the consumer price index tries to measure the overall cost of the goods and servicesbought by a typical consumer. it is constructed by surveying consumers to fix a basket of goods and services that the typical consumer buys, finding the prices of the goods and。

经济学原理(双语)-教学大纲

经济学原理(双语)-教学大纲

《经济学原理》(双语)教学大纲Principles of Economics(Class Syllabus)课程编号:032023A课程类型:□通识教育必修课□通识教育选修课□专业必修课□专业选修课✔学科基础课总学时:48讲课学时:48实验(上机)学时:0学分:3适用对象:经济类本科生先修课程:高等数学一、课程的教学目标《经济学原理》包括《微观经济学》和《宏观经济学》两部分。

经济学是研究稀缺资源在各种可供选择的用途中,如何进行最有效的配置,以使得人类的无限欲望得到最大满足的一门理论经济学。

经济学作为理论经济学,是许多经济学科如管理经济学、公共财政学、市场学、国际经济学、货币银行学、财政学、国际贸易学、国际金融学等的理论基础。

微观经济学是以个体经济单位例如单个家庭、单个企业、单个市场为研究对象的一门理论经济学。

它试图通过对个体经济单位经济行为的研究,来说明现代社会中市场机制的运行和作用以及如何改善这种运行的途径。

宏观经济学是以社会总体的经济行为即宏观经济运行作为研究对象的一门理论经济学。

它试图通过对社会总体经济行为的研究,来说明市场经济条件下宏观经济的运行以及如何改善这种运行的途径。

目标1:系统理解和掌握经济学基本理论和基础知识目标2:熟悉经济学中基本概念和基本原理的英文表述目标3:能够运用所学原理分析实际经济问题和现象目标4:为进一步学习其他经济类课程打下坚实的理论基础。

二、教学基本要求教学内容:第二章的消费理论、第三章的生产理论、第五章的市场理论、第六章的生产要素市场和收入分配理论、第七章一般均衡、第九章国民收入核算、第十一章产品市场和货币市场的一般均衡、第十三章财政政策和货币政策、第十五章通货膨胀与失业应精讲、细讲。

对各章重点内容,教师应阐述清楚基本原理,并在此基础上以一些浅显易懂的案例增进学生的理解,启发学生的求知欲与好奇心。

教学方法:为实现教学目标,本课程主要采取教师讲授的方式授课,任课教师应以多媒体教学为基本授课方式,教师也可以所采取的其他教学手段如课堂讨论、案例教学等。

曼昆经济学原理-第八章-应用:赋税的代价

曼昆经济学原理-第八章-应用:赋税的代价
对一种物品征税是在买者支付的价格与 卖者得到的价格之间打入了一个楔子. 由于这种税收楔子,销售量低于没有税 收时应该达到的水平. 对一种物品征税,使这种物品的市场规 模缩小。
税收收入
T = 税收规模 Q = 物品销售量
TQ = 政府的税收收入
税收收入...
Price
Price buyers pay
无谓损失
Supply
PS
0
Q2
Q1
Demand
Quantity
Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue...
Price
PB
(c) 大额税
无谓损失
Supply
PS 0 Q2
Demand
Q1
Quantity
无谓损失与税收收入
对小额税而言,税收收入少,无谓 损失少。 当税收规模增加时,税收收入增加 ,无谓损失也增加。 但当税收规模继续增加,税收收入 则下降,因为高税收大大减少了市 场规模,产生非常大的无谓损失。
税收扭曲与弹性...
Price
(a) 供给缺乏弹性 Supply
税收 规模
0
当供给比较缺乏弹性时 ,税收的无谓损失较小 .
Demand
Quantity
Tax Distortions and Elasticities...
Price
Size of tax
(b) 供给富有弹性
当供给比较富有弹性时 ,税收的无谓损失较大 .
是富有弹性的。
The Deadweight Loss Debate
工人对激励反应较大的例子: 许多工人可以调整他们工作的时间 一些家庭有第二个赚钱人(已婚妇女选 择从事家务还是工作挣钱) 许多老年人可以选择什么时候退休 一些人考虑从事地下经济活动 (i.e. 他们 从事非法经济活动)

曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案8章

曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案8章

144WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION: A new In the News box on ―The Tax Debate ‖ has been added.LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, students should understand:how taxes reduce consumer and producer surplus.the meaning and causes of the deadweight loss from a tax.why some taxes have larger deadweight losses than others.how tax revenue and deadweight loss vary with the size of a tax.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 8 is the second chapter in a three-chapter sequence dealing with welfare economics. In theprevious section on supply and demand, Chapter 6 introduced taxes and demonstrated how a tax affects the price and quantity sold in a market. Chapter 6 also described the factors that determine how the burden of the tax is divided between the buyers and sellers in a market. Chapter 7 developed welfare economics —the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapter 8 combines the lessons learned in Chapters 6 and 7 and addresses the effects of taxation on welfare. Chapter 9 will address the effects of trade restrictions on welfare. The purpose of Chapter 8 is to apply the lessons learned about welfare economics in Chapter 7 to the issue of taxation that was addressed in Chapter 6. Students will learn that the cost of a tax to buyers and sellers in a market exceeds the revenue collected by the government. Students will also learn about the factors that determine the degree by which the cost of a tax exceeds the revenue collected by the government.8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATIONChapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation ❖145KEY POINTS:∙ A tax on a good reduces the welfare of buyers and sellers of the good, and the reduction in consumer and producer surplus usually exceeds the revenue raised by the government. The fall in total surplus—the sum of consumer surplus, producer surplus, and tax revenue—is called thedeadweight loss of the tax.∙Taxes have deadweight losses because they cause buyers to consume less and sellers to produce less, and these changes in behavior shrink the size of the market below the level that maximizes total surplus. Because the elasticities of supply and demand measure how much market participantsrespond to market conditions, larger elasticities imply larger deadweight losses.∙As a tax grows larger, it distorts incentives more, and its deadweight loss grows larger. Because a tax reduces the size of a market, however, tax revenue does not continually increase. It first rises with the size of a tax, but if the tax gets large enough, tax revenue starts to fall.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. The Deadweight Loss of TaxationA. Remember that it does not matter who a tax is levied on; buyers and sellers will likely share inthe burden of the tax.B. If there is a tax on a product, the price that a buyer pays will be greater than the price the sellerreceives. Thus, there is a tax wedge between the two prices and the quantity sold will be smaller if there was no tax.146 ❖ Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of TaxationC. How a Tax Affects Market Participants1. We can measure the effects of a tax on consumers by examining the change in consumersurplus. Similarly, we can measure the effects of the tax on producers by looking at the change in producer surplus.2. However, there is a third party that is affected by the tax —the government, which gets total tax revenue of T × Q. If the tax revenue is used to provide goods and services to the public,then the benefit from the tax revenue must not be ignored.3. Welfare without a Taxa. Consumer surplus is equal to: A + B + C.b. Producer surplus is equal to: D + E + F.c. Total surplus is equal to: A + B + C + D + E + F.4. Welfare with a Taxa. Consumer surplus is equal to: A.Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation ❖147b. Producer surplus is equal to: F.c. Tax revenue is equal to: B + D.d. Total surplus is equal to: A + B + D + F.5. Changes in Welfarea. Consumer surplus changes by: –(B + C).b. Producer surplus changes by: –(D + E).c. Tax revenue changes by: +(B + D).d. Total surplus changes by: –(C + E).6. Definition of deadweight loss: the fall in total surplus that results from a marketdistortion, such as a tax.D. Deadweight Losses and the Gains from Trade1. Taxes cause deadweight losses because they prevent buyers and sellers from benefiting fromtrade.2. This occurs because the quantity of output declines; trades that would be beneficial to boththe buyer and seller will not take place because of the tax.3. The deadweight loss is equal to areas C and E (the drop in total surplus).4. Note that output levels between the equilibrium quantity without the tax and the quantitywith the tax will not be produced, yet the value of these units to consumers (represented by the demand curve) is larger than the cost of these units to producers (represented by thesupply curve).148 ❖ Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of TaxationII. The Determinants of the Deadweight LossA. The price elasticities of supply and demand will determine the size of the deadweight loss that occurs from a tax.1. Given a stable demand curve, the deadweight loss is larger when supply is relatively elastic.2. Given a stable supply curve, the deadweight loss is larger when demand is relatively elastic. B. Case Study: The Deadweight Loss Debate1. Social Security tax and federal income tax are taxes on labor earnings. A labor tax places a tax wedge between the wage the firm pays and the wage that workers receive.2. There is considerable debate among economists concerning the size of the deadweight lossfrom this wage tax.3. The size of the deadweight loss depends on the elasticity of labor supply and demand, andthere is disagreement about the magnitude of the elasticity of supply.Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation ❖149a. Economists who argue that labor taxes do not greatly distort market outcomes believethat labor supply is fairly inelastic.b. Economists who argue that labor taxes lead to large deadweight losses believe that laborsupply is more elastic.III. Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue as Taxes VaryA. As taxes increase, the deadweight loss from the tax increases.B. In fact, as taxes increase, the deadweight loss rises more quickly than the size of the tax.1. The deadweight loss is the area of a triangle and the area of a triangle depends on thesquare of its size.150 ❖ Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation2. If we double the size of a tax, the base and height of the triangle both double so the area ofthe triangle (the deadweight loss) rises by a factor of four.C. As the tax increases, the level of tax revenue will eventually fall.D. Case Study: The Laffer Curve and Supply-Side Economics1. The relationship between the size of a tax and the level of tax revenues is called a Laffercurve.2. Supply-side economists in the 1980s used the Laffer curve to support their belief that a drop in tax rates could lead to an increase in tax revenue for the government.3. Economists continue to debate Laffer’s argument.a. Many believe that the 1980s refuted Laffer’s theory.b. Others believe that the events of the 1980s tell a more favorable supply-side story.c. Some economists believe that, while an overall cut in taxes normally decreases revenue,some taxpayers may find themselves on the wrong side of the Laffer curve. E. In the News: The Tax Debate1. Recently, policymakers have debated the effects of increasing the tax rate, particularly onhigher-income taxpayers.2. These two opinion pieces from The Wall Street Journal present both sides of the issue. ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE: Draw a graph showing the demand and supply of paper clips. (Draw each curve as a 45-degree line so that buyers and sellers will share any tax equally.) Mark the equilibrium price as $0.50 (per box) and the equilibrium quantity as 1,000 boxes. Show students the areas of producer and consumer surplus.Impose a $0.20 tax on each box. Assume that sellers are required to ―pay‖ the tax to the government. Show students that:▪ the price buyers pay will rise to $0.60.▪ the price sellers receive will fall to $0.40.▪ the quantity of paper clips purchased will fall (assume to 800 units).▪ tax revenue would be equal to $160 ($0.20 800).Have students calculate the area of deadweight loss. (You may have to remind students how to calculate the area of a triangle.)Show students that as the tax increases (to $0.40, $0.60, and $0.80), tax revenue rises and then falls, and the deadweight loss increases.Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation ❖151152 ❖ Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of TaxationSOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the supply and demand curves for cookies, with equilibrium quantity Q 1 andequilibrium price P 1. When the government imposes a tax on cookies, the price to buyers rises to P B , the price received by sellers declines to P S , and the equilibrium quantity falls to Q 2. The deadweight loss is the triangular area below the demand curve and above the supply curve between quantities Q 1 and Q 2. The deadweight loss shows the fall in total surplus that results from the tax.Figure 12. The deadweight loss of a tax is greater the greater is the elasticity of demand. Therefore, a tax on beer would have a larger deadweight loss than a tax on milk because the demand forbeer is more elastic than the demand for milk.Chapter 8 /Application: The Costs of Taxation ❖1533. If the government doubles the tax on gasoline, the revenue from the gasoline tax could riseor fall depending on whether the size of the tax is on the upward or downward slopingportion of the Laffer curve. However, if the government doubles the tax on gasoline, you canbe sure that the deadweight loss of the tax rises because deadweight loss always rises as thetax rate rises.Questions for Review1. When the sale of a good is taxed, both consumer surplus and producer surplus decline. Thedecline in consumer surplus and producer surplus exceeds the amount of governmentrevenue that is raised, so society's total surplus declines. The tax distorts the incentives ofboth buyers and sellers, so resources are allocated inefficiently.2. Figure 2 illustrates the deadweight loss and tax revenue from a tax on the sale of a good.Without a tax, the equilibrium quantity would be Q1, the equilibrium price would be P1,consumer surplus would be A + B + C, and producer surplus would be D + E + F. Theimposition of a tax places a wedge between the price buyers pay, P B, and the price sellersreceive, P S, where P B = P S + tax. The quantity sold declines to Q2. Now consumer surplus isA, producer surplus is F, and government revenue is B + D. The deadweight loss of the tax isC+E, because that area is lost due to the decline in quantity from Q1 to Q2.Figure 23. The greater the elasticities of demand and supply, the greater the deadweight loss of a tax.Because elasticity measures the responsiveness of buyers and sellers to a change in price,higher elasticity means the tax induces a greater reduction in quantity, and therefore, agreater distortion to the market.4. Experts disagree about whether labor taxes have small or large deadweight losses becausethey have different views about the elasticity of labor supply. Some believe that labor supplyis inelastic, so a tax on labor has a small deadweight loss. But others think that workers canadjust their hours worked in various ways, so labor supply is elastic, and thus a tax on laborhas a large deadweight loss.5. The deadweight loss of a tax rises more than proportionally as the tax rises. Tax revenue,however, may increase initially as a tax rises, but as the tax rises further, revenue eventuallydeclines.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. a2. b3. c4. a5. b6. aProblems and Applications1. a. Figure 3 illustrates the market for pizza. The equilibrium price is P1, the equilibriumquantity is Q1, consumer surplus is area A + B + C, and producer surplus is area D + E +F. There is no deadweight loss, as all the potential gains from trade are realized; totalsurplus is the entire area between the demand and supply curves: A + B + C + D + E +F.Figure 3b. With a $1 tax on each pizza sold, the price paid by buyers, P B, is now higher than theprice received by sellers, P S, where P B = P S + $1. The quantity declines to Q2, consumersurplus is area A, producer surplus is area F, government revenue is area B + D, anddeadweight loss is area C + E. Consumer surplus declines by B + C, producer surplusdeclines by D + E, government revenue increases by B + D, and deadweight lossincreases by C + E.c. If the tax were removed and consumers and producers voluntarily transferred B + D tothe government to make up for the lost tax revenue, then everyone would be better offthan without the tax. The equilibrium quantity would be Q1, as in the case without thetax, and the equilibrium price would be P1. Consumer surplus would be A + C, becauseconsumers get surplus of A + B + C, then voluntarily transfer B to the government.Producer surplus would be E + F, because producers get surplus of D + E + F, thenvoluntarily transfer D to the government. Both consumers and producers are better offthan the case when the tax was imposed. If consumers and producers gave a little bitmore than B + D to the government, then all three parties, including the government,would be better off. This illustrates the inefficiency of taxation.2. a. The statement, "A tax that has no deadweight loss cannot raise any revenue for thegovernment," is incorrect. An example is the case of a tax when either supply or demand is perfectly inelastic. The tax has neither an effect on quantity nor any deadweight loss,but it does raise revenue.b. The statement, "A tax that raises no revenue for the government cannot have anydeadweight loss," is incorrect. An example is the case of a 100% tax imposed on sellers.With a 100% tax on their sales of the good, sellers will not supply any of the good, sothe tax will raise no revenue. Yet the tax has a large deadweight loss, because it reduces the quantity sold to zero.3. a. With very elastic supply and very inelastic demand, the burden of the tax on rubberbands will be borne largely by buyers. As Figure 4 shows, consumer surplus declinesconsiderably, by area A + B, but producer surplus decreases only by area C+D..Figure 4 Figure 5b.With very inelastic supply and very elastic demand, the burden of the tax on rubberbands will be borne largely by sellers. As Figure 5 shows, consumer surplus does notdecline much, just by area A + B, while producer surplus falls substantially, by area C +D. Compared to part (a), producers bear much more of the burden of the tax, andconsumers bear much less.4. a. The deadweight loss from a tax on heating oil is likely to be greater in the fifth year afterit is imposed rather than the first year. In the first year, the demand for heating oil isrelatively inelastic, as people who own oil heaters are not likely to get rid of them rightaway. But over time they may switch to other energy sources and people buying newheaters for their homes will more likely choose gas or electric, so the tax will have agreater impact on quantity. Thus, the deadweight loss of the tax will get larger over time.b. The tax revenue is likely to be higher in the first year after it is imposed than in the fifthyear. In the first year, demand is more inelastic, so the quantity does not decline asmuch and tax revenue is relatively high. As time passes and more people substitute away from oil, the quantity sold declines, as does tax revenue.5. Because the demand for food is inelastic, a tax on food is a good way to raise revenuebecause it leads to a small deadweight loss; thus taxing food is less inefficient than taxing other things. But it is not a good way to raise revenue from an equity point of view, because poorer people spend a higher proportion of their income on food. The tax would affect them more than it would affect wealthier people.6. a. This tax has such a high rate that it is not likely to raise much revenue. Because of thehigh tax rate, the equilibrium quantity in the market is likely to be at or near zero.b. Senator Moynihan's goal was probably to ban the use of hollow-tipped bullets. In thiscase, the tax could be as effective as an outright ban.7. a. Figure 6 illustrates the market for socks and the effects of the tax. Without a tax, theequilibrium quantity would be Q1, the equilibrium price would be P1, total spending byconsumers equals total revenue for producers, which is P1 x Q1, which equals area B + C + D + E + F, and government revenue is zero. The imposition of a tax places a wedgebetween the price buyers pay, P B, and the price sellers receive, P S, where P B = P S + tax.The quantity sold declines to Q2. Now total spending by consumers is P B x Q2, whichequals area A + B + C + D, total revenue for producers is P S x Q2, which is area C + D,and government tax revenue is Q2 x tax, which is area A + B.b. Unless supply is perfectly elastic or demand is perfectly inelastic, the price received byproducers falls because of the tax. Total receipts for producers fall, because producerslose revenue equal to area B + E + F.Figure 6c. The price paid by consumers rises, unless demand is perfectly elastic or supply isperfectly inelastic. Whether total spending by consumers rises or falls depends on theprice elasticity of demand. If demand is elastic, the percentage decline in quantityexceeds the percentage increase in price, so total spending declines. If demand isinelastic, the percentage decline in quantity is less than the percentage increase in price, so total spending rises. Whether total consumer spending falls or rises, consumer surplus declines because of the increase in price and reduction in quantity.8. Figure 7 illustrates the effects of the $2 subsidy on a good. Without the subsidy, theequilibrium price is P1 and the equilibrium quantity is Q1. With the subsidy, buyers pay price P B, producers receive price P S (where P S = P B + $2), and the quantity sold is Q2. Thefollowing table illustrates the effect of the subsidy on consumer surplus, producer surplus, government revenue, and total surplus. Because total surplus declines by area D + H, the subsidy leads to a deadweight loss in that amount.Figure 79. a. Figure 8 shows the effect of a $10 tax on hotel rooms. The tax revenue is represented byareas A + B, which are equal to ($10)(900) = $9,000. The deadweight loss from the tax is represented by areas C + D, which are equal to (0.5)($10)(100) = $500.Figure 8 Figure 9b. Figure 9 shows the effect of a $20 tax on hotel rooms. The tax revenue is represented byareas A + B, which are equal to ($20)(800) = $16,000. The deadweight loss from the tax is represented by areas C + D, which are equal to (0.5)($20)(200) = $2,000.When the tax is doubled, the tax revenue rises by less than double, while the deadweight loss rises by more than double. The higher tax creates a greater distortion to the market.10. a. Setting quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded gives 2P = 300 –P. Adding P toboth sides of the equation gives 3P = 300. Dividing both sides by 3 gives P = 100.Substituting P = 100 back into either equation for quantity demanded or supplied gives Q = 200.b. Now P is the price received by sellers and P +T is the price paid by buyers. Equatingquantity demanded to quantity supplied gives 2P = 300 − (P+T). Adding P to both sides of the equation gives 3P = 300 –T. Dividing both sides by 3 gives P = 100 –T/3. This is the price received by sellers. The buyers pay a price equal to the price received by sellers plus the tax (P +T = 100 + 2T/3). The quantity sold is now Q = 2P = 200 – 2T/3.c. Because tax revenue is equal to T x Q and Q = 200 – 2T/3, tax revenue equals 200T−2T2/3. Figure 10 (on the next page) shows a graph of this relationship. Tax revenue iszero at T = 0 and at T = 300.Figure 10 Figure 11 d. As Figure 11 shows, the area of the triangle (laid on its side) that represents the deadweight loss is 1/2 × base × height, where the base is the change in the price, which is the size of the tax (T ) and the height is the amount of the decline in quantity (2T /3). So the deadweight loss equals 1/2 × T × 2T /3 = T 2/3. This rises exponentially from 0 (when T = 0) to 30,000 when T = 300, as shown in Figure 12.Figure 12e. A tax of $200 per unit is a bad policy, because tax revenue is declining at that tax level.The government could reduce the tax to $150 per unit, get more tax revenue ($15,000 when the tax is $150 versus $13,333 when the tax is $200), and reduce the deadweight loss (7,500 when the tax is $150 compared to 13,333 when the tax is $200).。

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8
Application: The Costs of Taxation
PRINCIPLES OF
ECONOMICS
FOURTH EDITION
N. G R E G O R Y M A N K I W
Premium PowerPoint® Slides by Ron Cronovich 2008 update
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
18
2: Elasticity and DWL of a tax
ACTIVE LEARNING
Would the DWL of a tax be larger if the tax were on
A. Rice Krispies or sunscreen? B. Hotel rooms in the short run or hotel rooms in
Q
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
9
ACTIVE LEARNING
Analysis of tax
A. Compute
$ 400
1:
P
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0
The market for airplane tickets
CS, PS, and total surplus without a tax.
$ 400
1:
P
350 300
The market for airplane tickets
250 PS = ½ x $200 x 100 P = 200 = $10,000 150 100 total surplus = $10,000 + $10,000 50 = $20,000 0 0 25 50
S
D
Q
75 100 125
11
ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers to B
CS = ½ x $150 x 75 = $5,625 PS = $5,625 tax revenue = $100 x 75 = $7,500
$ 400
1:
P
350 300
PB = 250
A $100 tax on airplane tickets
surplus, and total surplus?
What is the deadweight loss of a tax? What factors determine the size of this deadweight
loss?
How does tax revenue depend on the size of the
P
The more elastic is supply, the larger is the DWL.
S
Size of tax
D
Q
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION 15
DWL and the Elasticity of Demand
When demand is inelastic, the DWL of a tax is small.
A PB B D C E
S
PS
F
D
QT
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
QE
Q
8
About the Deadweight Loss
Because of the tax, the units between QT and QE are not sold.
S
200
PS = 150
D
100 50 0 0 25 50 75 100 125
12
total surplus = $18,750
DWL = $1,250
Q
What Determines the Size of the DWL? Which goods or services should govt tax
Elasticity measures how much buyers and
sellers respond to changes in price, and therefore determines how much the tax distorts the market outcome.
CHAPTER 8
the long run?
C. Groceries or meals at fancy restaurants?
19
ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers
2:
A. Rice Krispies or sunscreen
From Chapter 5: Rice Krispies has many more close substitutes than sunscreen, so demand for Rice Krispies is more price-elastic than demand for sunscreen.
© 2008 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved
In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: How does a tax affect consumer surplus, producer
Recall:
The price elasticity of demand (or supply) measures how much QD (or QS) changes when P changes.
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION 13
D
Q
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION 17
Why Elasticity Affects the Size of DWL
A tax distorts the market outcome:
consumers buy less, producers sell less, market Q is below the surplus-maximizing Q.
PS = D + E + F Tax revenue = 0 Total surplus = CS + PS =A+B + C +D+E+F
PE
D F A B C E D S
QT
CHAPTER 8 APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
QE
Q
6
The Effects of a Tax
(e.g. education, roads, police) so we include it in total surplus.
CHAPTER 8
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
5
The Effects of a Tax
Without a tax,
P
CS = A + B + C
7
The Effects of a Tax
P
C + E is called the deadweight loss (DWL) of the tax, the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a tax.
to raise the revenue it needs?
One answer: those with the smallest DWL. When is the DWL small vs. large?
Turns out it depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand.
P
The value of these units to buyers is greater than the cost of producing them,
so the tax prevents some mutually beneficial trades.
CHAPTER 8
PB
S
PS
D
QT
QE
CHAPTER 8
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
2
The Effects of a Tax
Eq’m with no tax: price = PE quantity = QE Eq’m with tax = $T per unit: Buyers pay PB
With the tax, CS = A PS = F Tax revenue =B+D Total surplus =A+B +D+F The tax reduces total surplus by C+E
CHAPTER 8
P
A PB B D C E
S
PS
F
D
QT
QE
Q
APPLICATION: THE COSTS OF TAXATION
DWL and the Elasticity of Supply
When supply is inelastic, the DWL of a tax is small.
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