医用英语医学文献翻译4(缺5,9整理版)
医学类中英文翻译
The methods of diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis1. What Measures Can Be Taken to Prevent BoneLoss?• R1. Maintain adequate calcium intake; use calcium supplements, if needed, to meet minimal requiredintake (Grade A; “best evidence”level or BEL 1).• R2. Maintain adequate vitamin D intake; supplement vitamin D, if needed, to maintain serum levels of25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] between 30 and 60ng/mL (Grade A; BEL 1).• R3. Limit alcohol intake to no more than 2 servingsper day (Grade B; BEL 2).• R4. Limit caffeine intake (Grade C; BEL 3).• R5. Avoid or stop smoking (Grade B; BEL 2).• R6. Maintain an active lifestyle, including weightbearing exercises for at least 30 minutes daily (GradeB; BEL 2).2. What Nonpharmacologic Measures Can Be Recommended for Treatment of Osteoporosis?All the foregoing measures plus the following:• R7. Maintain adequate protein intake (Grade B; BEL3).• R8. Use proper body mechanics (Grade B; BEL 1).• R9. Consider the use of hip protectors in individualswith a high risk of falling (Grade B; BEL 1).• R10. Take measures to reduce the risk of falling(Grade B; BEL 2).• R11. Consider referral for physical therapy and occupational therapy (Grade B; BEL 1).3. Who Needs to Be Screened for Osteoporosis?• R12. Women 65 years old or older (Grade B; BEL 2).• R13. Younger postmenopausal women at increasedrisk of fracture, based on a list of risk factors (see section 4.5) (Grade C; BEL 2).4. How Is Osteoporosis Diagnosed?• R14. Use a central dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) measurement (Grade B; BEL 3).• R15. In the absence of fracture, osteoporosis is definedas a T-score of -2.5 or below in the spine (anteroposterior), femoral neck, or total hip (Grade B; BEL 2).• R16. Osteoporosis is defined as the presence of afracture of the hip or spine (see section 4.4.2) (in the absence of other bone conditions) (Grade B; BEL 3).5. How Is Osteoporosis Evaluated?• R17. Evaluate for secondary osteoporosis (Grade B; BEL 2).• R18. Evaluate for prevalent vertebral fractures (see section 4.7.1) (Grade B; BEL 2).6. Who Needs Pharmacologic Therapy?• R19. Those patients with a history of a fracture of the hip or spine (Grade A; BEL 1).• R20. Patients without a history of fractures but with aT-score of -2.5 or lower (Grade A; BEL 1).• R21. Patients with a T-score between -1.0 and -2.5if FRAX (see section 4.5) major osteoporotic fracture probability is ≥20% or hip fracture probability is ≥3% (Grade A; BEL 2).7. What Drugs Can Be Used to Treat Osteoporosis?Use drugs with proven antifracture efficacy:• R22. Use alendronate, risedronate, zoledronic acid,and denosumab as the first line of therapy (Grade A;BEL 1).• R23. Use ibandronate as a second-line agent (Grade A; BEL 1).• R24. Use raloxifene as a second- or third-line agent (Grade A; BEL 1).• R25. Use calcitonin as the last line of therapy (Grade C; BEL 2).• R26. Use teriparatide for patients with very high fracture risk or patients in whom bisphosphonate therapyhas failed (Grade A; BEL 1).• R27. Advise against the use of combination therapy (Grade B; BEL 2).8. How Is Treatment Monitored?• R28. Obtain a baseline DXA, and repeat DXA every1 to2 years until findings are stable. Continue with follow-up DXA every 2 years or at a less frequentinterval (Grade B; BEL 2).• R29. Monitor changes in spine or total hip bone mineral density (BMD) (Grade C; BEL 2).• R30. Follow-up of patients should be in the same facility, with the same machine, and, if possible, withthe same technologist (Grade B; BEL 2).• R31. Bone turnover markers may be used at baselineto identify patients with high bone turnover and can be used to follow the response to therapy (Grade C; BEL2).9. What Is Successful Treatment of Osteoporosis?• R32. BMD is stable or increasing, and no fractures are present (Grade B; BEL 2).• R33. For patients taking antiresorptive agents, bone turnover markers at or below the median value for premenopausal women are achieved (see section 4.9) (Grade B; BEL 2).• R34. One fracture is not necessarily evidence of failure. Consider alternative therapy or reassessment forsecondary causes of bone loss for patients who have recurrent fractures while receiving therapy (Grade B;BEL 2).10. How Long Should Patients Be Treated?• R35. For treatment with bisphosphonates, if osteoporosisis mild, consider a “drug holiday”after 4 to 5years of stability. If fracture risk is high, consider adrug holiday of 1 to 2 years after 10 years of treatment (Grade B; BEL 1).• R36. Follow BMD and bone turnover markers duringa drug holiday period, and reinitiate therapy if bonedensity declines substantially, bone turnover markers increase, or a fracture occurs (Grade C; BEL 3).11. When Should Patients Be Referred to Clinical Endocrinologists?• R37. When a patient with normal BMD sustains afracture without major trauma (Grade C; BEL 4).• R38. When recurrent fractures or continued bone loss occurs in a patient receiving therapy without obvious treatable causes of bone loss (Grade C; BEL 4).• R39. When osteoporosis is unexpectedly severe or has unusual features (Grade C; BEL 4).• R40. When a patient has a condition that complicates management (for example, renal failure, hyperparathyroidism, or malabsorption) (Grade C; BEL 4).Thisfigure is taken from page 28 ofthe 2011 OsteoporosisPrevention and TreatmentGuidelines (in Japanese). a Inpatients taking bisphosphonates,measure after stopping drug forat least 6 months, and inpatients taking otherosteoporosis drugs, measureafter stopping drug for at least1 month. b Measure one typeeach of a resorption marker andformation marker. c Excludingeldecalcitol. d In patientsexpected to be on long-termbisphosphonate therapy,measure bone resorptionmarkers and BAP or P1NP.Changes in the diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis Together with significant changes in the disease concept of osteoporosis, new technology continues to be incorporatedinto clinical diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis. Withthe introduction of DXA to measure BMD, more precise diagnostic criteria have been established [11]. The measurement of bone metabolic markers, approved by NHI inroutine clinical practice in the field of osteoporosis, hasallowed (1) estimation of bone turnover state at the time of measurement, (2) prediction of the rate of BMD change innear future, (3) assessment of the effect of drug treatment,and (4) evaluation of bone quality [10].In addition, with the introduction into clinical practice ofvarious bone antiresorptive drugs which can prevent fractures based on scientific evidence, the incidence of fracturesdue to osteoporosis has decreased according toepidemiologic studies [12].In the future, with the goal of ideal treatment to increasebone mass, the risk of fracture or osteoporosis will be evaluated from the bone loss to decide whether to initiatedrug treatment, and strategies will be sought to maintain or increase QOL in osteoporosis and assess fracture risk in lifestyle-related diseases. In other words, there will be relentless efforts towards establishing a comprehensivesystem to manage osteoporosis.Change in views about the significance of measuringbone metabolic markersThe significance of measuring bone metabolic markers was originally considered important as a surrogate marker forBMD change rates, but now its significance as a means to evaluate bone quality [13] and to assess the future risk of fracture has been emphasized [14–16]. In addition, becausethe newly available antiresorptive drugs markedly inhibitbone metabolic markers, the measurement of bone metabolic markers is a useful means to assess drug efficacy [17, 18]. Although the use of bone metabolic markers now hasan important role in the daily management of osteoporosis, their use in Japan is still insufficient because ofinsurance coverage limitations [19]. Since the Japan Osteoporosis Society first created the 2001 guidelines,new bone metabolic markers have been introduced intoclinical practice. The availability of new osteoporosis treatments that promote bone formation has changed the clinical application of bone metabolic markers in current practice. Therefore, the necessity to revise the currentclinical practice led to the proposal to create these new2012 guidelines骨质疏松诊治方法1. 可采取何种措施预防骨丢失？推荐（R）1. 保持足量钙摄入；如果需要，利用钙添加剂亦最低摄入要求（A级；最佳证据水平[BEL]1）。
英文医学文献
英文医学文献全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：Medical literature in English is a vast and diverse field that encompasses a wide range of topics, from basic biomedical research to clinical trials and case studies. It plays a crucial role in the advancement of medical knowledge and the improvement of patient care worldwide.Another challenge of English medical literature is the potential for bias and misinformation. Not all research studies are of equal quality, and it is important for healthcare professionals to critically evaluate the evidence presented in medical literature before applying it to patient care. Thepeer-review process, in which research articles are reviewed by experts in the field before publication, helps to ensure the quality and reliability of medical literature. However, it is still crucial for healthcare professionals to approach medical literature with a critical eye and a thorough understanding of research methods and study design.第二篇示例：Medical literature in English is an essential component of the global healthcare system. It provides valuable information and research findings that help medical professionals stay current with the latest advancements in the field. English language medical literature covers a wide range of topics, including clinical research, case studies, reviews, and guidelines for treatment.第三篇示例：Medical literature refers to the body of scholarly publications and research articles that focus on the field of medicine. These articles are written by healthcare professionals, researchers, and experts in various medical specialties. They are essential for advancing medical knowledge, disseminating new discoveries, and improving patient care.第四篇示例：Medical literature in English plays a crucial role in the field of healthcare and medical research. It serves as a valuable resource for healthcare professionals, researchers, and students around the world, providing up-to-date information on a wide range of medical topics. In this article, we will explore the importance of English medical literature, its benefits, and how it contributes to advancements in the field of medicine.Importance of English Medical Literature。
[整理版]医学英语原文翻译1至5单元
![[整理版]医学英语原文翻译1至5单元](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/02c93e93b8d528ea81c758f5f61fb7360b4c2bcb.png)
1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。
这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。
生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的，如基因编码的复制，但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。
鉴于此，将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学，植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。
Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations . The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite mac hines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for example —many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成，要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。
医学文献翻译(中英对照)
The clinical and cost-effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy1 TITLE OF PROJECTThe clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy2 TAR TEAMLiverpool Reviews and Implementation Group (LR i G), University of Liverpool Correspondence to:Rumona Dickson, MsDirector, LR i GUniversity of LiverpoolRoom 2.12WhelanBuildingThe QuadrangleBrownlow HillLiverpoolL69 3GBTel: +44 (0) 151 794 5682Fax: +44 (0)151 794 5585Email: R.DicksonFor details of expertise within the TAR team, see section 7.3 PLAIN ENGLISH SUMMARYAllergic reactions to bee and wasp venom may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting, and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds. The most severe systemic allergic reactions (generalised reactions) are known as anaphylaxis, a reaction characterised by abnormally low blood pressure, fainting or collapse, and in extreme reactions these symptoms can cause death.Each year in the UK there are between two and nine deaths from anaphylaxis caused by bee and wasp venom. The immediate treatment for severe allergic reactions to bee and wasp venom consists of emergency treatment with drugs to decrease the patient’s response to the venom and support breathing, if required.To avoid further reactions, the use of sensitisation to bee and wasp venom, through a process known as venom immunotherapy (VIT), has been investigated. Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom into patients with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. Pharmalgen®has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis and treatment (using VIT) of allergy to bee venom (using Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (using Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995, and it is used by more than 40 centres across the UK. This review aims to assess whether using Pharmalgen®in VIT is clinically useful when treating people with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp stings. The review will compare preventative treatment withPharmalgen®to other treatment options, including high dose antihistamines, advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. If suitable data are available, the review will also consider the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT and other subgroups including children and people at high risk of future stings or severe allergic reactions to future stings.4 DECISION PROBLEM4.1 Clarification of research question and scopePharmalgen®is used for the diagnosis and treatment of immunoglobin E (IgE)-mediated allergy to bee and wasp venom. The aim of this report is to assess whether the use of Pharmalgen®is of clinical value when providing VIT to individuals with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp venom and whether doing so would be considered cost effective compared with alternative treatment options available in the NHS.4.2 BackgroundBees and wasps form part of the order Hymenoptera (which also includes ants), and within this order the species that cause the most frequent allergic reactions are the Vespidae (wasps, yellow jackets and hornets), and the Apinae (honeybees).1Bee and wasp stings contain allergenic proteins. In wasps, these are predominantly phospholipase A1,2 hyaluronidase2 and antigen 5,3 and in bees are phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase.4 Following an initial sting, a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction may occur in some individuals which produces the IgE antibody. This sensitises cells to the allergen, and any subsequent exposure to the allergen may cause the allergen to bind to the IgE molecules, which results in an allergic reaction.These allergens typically produce an intense, burning pain followed by erythema (redness) and a small area of oedema (swelling) at the site of the sting. The symptoms produced following a sting can be classified into non-allergic reactions, such as local reactions, and allergic reactions, such as extensive local reactions, anaphylactic systemic reactions and delayed systemic reactions.5-6 Systemic allergic reactions may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting,7 and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds.1The most severe systemic allergic reaction is known as anaphylaxis. Anaphylactic reactions are of rapid onset (typically up to 15 minutes post sting) and can manifest in different ways. Initial symptoms are usually cutaneous followed by hypotension, with light-headedness, fainting or collapse. Some people develop respiratory symptoms due to an asthma-like response or laryngeal oedema. In severe reactions, hypotension, circulatory disturbances, and breathing difficulty can progress to fatal cardio-respiratory arrest.Anaphylaxis occurs more commonly in males and in people under 20 years of ageand can be severe and potentially fatal.84.3 EpidemiologyIt is estimated that the prevalence of wasp and bee sting allergy is between 0.4% and 3.3%.9 The incidence of systemic reactions to wasp and bee venom is not reliably known, but estimates range from 0.15-3.3%,10-11 Systemic allergic reactions are reported by up to 3% of adults, and almost 1% of children have a medical history of severe sting reactions.9, 12 After a large local reaction, 5–15% of people will go on to develop a systemic reaction when next stung.13 In people with a mild systemic reaction, the risk of subsequent systemic reactions is thought to be about 18%.13 Hymenoptera venom are one of the three main causes of fatal anaphylaxis in the USA and UK.14-15 Insect stings are the second most frequent cause of anaphylaxis outside of medical settings.16 Between two and nine people in the UK die each year as a result of anaphylaxis due to reactions to wasp and bee stings.17 Once an individual has experienced an anaphylactic reaction, the risk of having a recurrent episode has been estimated to be between 60% and 79%.13In 2000, the register of fatal anaphylactic reactions in the UK from 1992 onwards was reported by Pumphrey to determine the frequency at which classic manifestations of fatal anaphylaxis are present.18 Of the 56 post-mortems carried out, 19 deaths were recorded as reactions to Hymenoptera venom (33.9%). A retrospective study in 2004 examined all deaths from anaphylaxis in the UK between 1992 and 2001, and estimated 22.19% to be reactions to Hymenoptera venom (47/212). This further breaks down into 29/212 (13.68%) as reactions to wasp stings, and 4/212 (1.89%) as reactions to bee stings. The remaining 14/212 were unidentified Hymenoptera stings (6.62%).194.4 Current diagnostic optionsCurrently, individuals can be tested to determine if they are at risk of systemic reactions to bee and wasp venom. The primary diagnostic method for systemic reactions to bee and/or wasp stings is venom skin testing.Skin testing involves intradermal injection with the five Hymenoptera venom protein extracts, with venom concentrati ons in the range of 0.001 to 1.0 μg/ml. This establishes the minimum concentration giving a positive result (a reaction occurring in the individual). As venom tests show unexplained variability over time,20 and as negative skin tests can occur following recent anaphylaxis, it is recommended that tests be repeated after 1 to 6 months.21Other methods of diagnosis in patients following an anaphylactic reaction include radioallergosorbent test (RAST), which detects allergen-specific IgE antibodies in serum. This test is less sensitive than skin testing but is useful when skin tests cannot be done, for example in patients with skin conditions.22-234.5 Current treatment optionsPreventative treatments include education on how to avoid bee and wasp venom,and prescription of high dose antihistamines. Patients with a history of moderate local reactions should be provided with an emergency kit,24 containing aH1-blocking antihistamine and a topical corticosteroid for immediate use following a sting. Patients with a history of anaphylaxis should be provided with an emergency kit containing a rapid-acting H1-blocking antihistamine, an oral corticosteroid and an auto-injector for self administration, containing epinephrine.Injected epinephrine (a sympathomimetic drug which acts on both alpha and beta receptors) is regarded as the emergency treatment of choice for cases of acute anaphylaxis as a result of Hymenoptera stings.25 For adults, the recommended dose is between 0.30 mg/ml and 0.50 mg/ml I.M, and 0.01 ml/kg I.M. for children. Individuals with a history of anaphylactic reactions are recommended to carry auto injectors containing epinephrine (commonly known as EpiPen®, Adrenaclick®, Anapen®or Twinject®). These are intended for immediate self-administration by individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to Hymenoptera stings and other allergens.Preventive measures following successful treatment of a systemic allergic reaction to Hymenoptera venom consists of either allergen avoidance or specific allergen immunotherapy, known as VIT. Venom immunotherapy is considered to be a safe and effective treatment.26 Currently, VIT can be used with several regimes, including Pharmalgen®(manufactured by ALK Abello, and licensed in the UK), Aquagen®and Alutard SQ®(both manufactured by ALK Abello and unlicensed in the UK but licensed in some parts of Europe), VENOMENHAL®(HAL Allergy, Leiden, Netherlands, unlicensed in the UK), Alyostal®(Stallergenes, Antony Cedex, France, unlicensed in the UK), and Venomil®(Hollister-Stier Laboratories LLC, unlicensed in the UK). Venom immunotherapy is recommended to prevent future systemic reactions. It is recommended that VIT is considered ‘when positive test results for specific IgE antibodies correlate with suspected triggers and pa tient exposure’.27 Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom, and treatment is divided into two periods: the build up phase and maintenance phase. Venom immunotherapy is now the standard therapy for Hymenoptera sting allergy,28 and is a model for allergen-specific therapy,29-30 with success rates (patients who will remain anaphylaxis free) being reported as more than 98% in some studies.4, 31 There are now 44 centres across the UK which provide VIT to people for bee and wasp sting allergy. Venom immunotherapy is normally discontinued after 3 to 5 years, but modifications may be necessary when treating people with intense allergen exposure (such as beekeepers) or those with individual risk factors for severe reactions. There is no method of assessing which patients will be at risk of further anaphylactic reactions following administration of VIT and those who will remain anaphylaxis free in the long term following VIT.27Local or systemic adverse reactions may occur as a result of VIT. They normally develop within 30 minutes of the injection. Each patient is monitored closely following each injection to check for adverse reactions. Progression to anincreased dose only occurs if the previous dose is fully tolerated.4.6 The technologyPharmalgen®is produced by ALK Abello, and has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis (using skin testing/intracutaneous testing) and treatment (using VIT) of IgE-mediated allergy to bee venom (Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995 (marketing authorisation number PL 10085/0004). The active ingredient is partially purified freeze dried Vespula spp. venom in Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom and freeze dried Apis mellifera venom in Pharmalgen®Bee Venom, each provided in powder form for solution for injection.Before treatment is considered, allergy to bee or wasp venom must be confirmed by case history and diagnosis. Treatment with Pharmalgen®Bee or Wasp Venom is performed by subcutaneous injections. The treatment is carried out in two phases: the initial phase and the maintenance phase.In the build up phase, the dose is increased stepwise until the maintenance dose (the maximum tolerable dose before an allergic reaction) is achieved. ALK Abello recommends the following dosage proposals: conventional, modified rush (clustered) and rush updosing. In conventional updosing, the patient receives one injection every 3-7 days. In modified rush (clustered) updosing, the patient receives 2-4 injections once a week. If necessary this interval may be extended up to two weeks. The 2-4 injections are given with an interval of 30 minutes. In rush updosing, while being hospitalised the patient receives injections with a 2-hour interval. A maximum of four injections per day may be given in the initial phase.The build up phase ends when the individual maintenance dose has been attained and the interval between the injections is increased to 2, 3 and 4 weeks. This is called the maintenance phase, and the maintenance dose is then given every 4 weeks for at least 3 years.Contra-indications to VIT treatment are immunological diseases (e. g. immune complex diseases and immune deficiencies); chronic heart/lung diseases; treatment with β-blockers; severe eczema. Side effects include superficial wheal and flare due to shallow injection; local swelling (which may be immediate or delayed up to 48 hours); mild general reactions such as urticaria, erythema, rhinitis or mild asthma; moderate or severe general reactions such as more severe asthma, angioedema or an anaphylactic reaction with hypotension and respiratory embarrassment; anaphylaxis (often starting with erythema and pruritus, followed by urticaria, angioedema, nasal or pharyngial congestion, wheezing, dyspnoea, nausea, hypotension, syncope, tachycardia or diarrhoea). 324.7 Objectives of the HTA projectThe aim of this review is to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®in providing immunotherapy to individuals with a history of type 1 IgE-mediated systemic allergic reaction to bee and wasp venom. The review willconsider the effectiveness of Pharmalgen®when compared to alternative treatment options available in the NHS, including advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings, high dose antihistamines and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. The review will also examine the existing health economic evidence and identify the key economic issues related to the use of Pharmalgen®in UK clinical practice. If suitable data are available, an economic model will be developed and populated to evaluate if the use of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy, within its licensed indication, would be a cost effective use of NHS resources.5 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCE5.1 Search strategyThe major electronic databases including Medline, Embase and The Cochrane Library will be searched for relevant published literature. Information on studies in progress, unpublished research or research reported in the grey literature will be sought by searching a range of relevant databases including National Research Register and Controlled Clinical Trials. A sample of the search strategy to be used for MEDLINE is presented inAppendix 1.Bibliographies of previous systematic reviews, retrieved articles and the submissions provided by manufacturers will be searched for further studies.A database of published and unpublished literature will be assembled from systematic searches of electronic sources, hand searching, contacting manufacturers and consultation with experts in the field. The database will be held in the Endnote X4 software package.Inclusion criteriaThe inclusion criteria specified in Table 1 will be applied to all studies after screening. The inclusion criteria were selected to reflect the criteria described in the final scope issued by NICE for the review. However, as there is likely to be a limited amount of RCT data, the inclusion criteria of study design may be expanded to include comparative studies and descriptive cohorts. The clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy Page 11 of 21Table 1: Inclusion criteria Intervention(s) Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy,Population(s) People with a history of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactions to:wasp venom and/or bee venomComparators Alternative treatment options available inthe NHS, without venom immunotherapyincluding:advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp venom,high-dose antihistamines,adrenaline auto-injector prescription andtrainingStudy design Randomised controlled trialsSystematic reviewsOutcomes Outcome measures to be considered include:number and severity of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactionsmortalityanxiety related to the possibility of futureallergic reactionsadverse effects of treatmenthealth-related quality of lifeOther considerations If the evidence allows, considerations willbe given to subgroups of people, according totheir:risk of future stings (as determined, forexample, by occupational exposure)risk of severe allergic reactions to futurestings (as determined by such factors asbaseline tryptase levels and co-morbidities)If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider separately people who have acontraindication to adrenaline.If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider children separately.Two reviewers will independently screen all titles and abstracts of papers identified in the initial search. Discrepancies will be resolved by consensus and where necessary a third reviewer will be consulted. Studies deemed to be relevant will be obtained and assessed for inclusion. Where studies do not meet the inclusion criteria they will be excluded.Data extraction strategyData relating to study design, findings and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Study details will be extracted using a standardised data extraction form. If time permits, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from studies presented in multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study with all relevant other publications listed.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed accordingto criteria based on the CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in healthcare.33-34 The quality of the individual clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and if necessary a third reviewer will be consulted.Methods of analysis/synthesisThe results of the data extraction and quality assessment for each study will be presented in structured tables and as a narrative summary. The possible effects of study quality on the effectiveness data and review findings will be discussed. All summary statistics will be extracted for each outcome and where possible, data will be pooled using a standard meta-analysis.35 Heterogeneity between the studies will be assessed using the I2 test.34 Both fixed and random effects results will be presented as forest plots.6 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING COST EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCEThe economic section of the report will be presented in two parts. The first will include a standard review of relevant published economic evaluations. If appropriate and data are available, the second will include the development of an economic model. The model will be designed to estimate the cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for VIT in individuals with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. This section of the report will also consider budget impact and will take account of available information on current and anticipated patient numbers and service configuration for the treatment of this condition in the NHS.6.1 Systematic review of published economic literatureThe literature review of economic evidence will identify any relevant published cost-minimisation, cost-effectiveness, cost-utility and/or cost-benefit analyses. Economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included in the review and critiqued as appropriate.Search strategyThe search strategies detailed in section 5 will be adapted accordingly to identify studies examining the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT in patients with a history of allergic reactions to bee or wasp venom. Other searching activities, including electronic searching of online health economic journals and contacting experts in the field will also be undertaken. Full details of the search process will be presented in the final report. The search strategy will be designed to meet the primary objective of identifying economic evaluations for inclusion in the cost-effectiveness literature review. At the same time, the search strategy will be used to identify economic evaluations and other information sources which may include data that can be used to populate a de novo economic model where appropriate. Searching will be undertaken in MEDLINE and EMBASE as well as in the Cochrane Library, which includes the NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED).Inclusion and exclusionIn addition to the inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1, specific criteria required for the cost-effectiveness review are described in Table 2. In particular, only full economic evaluations that compare two or more options and consider both costs and consequences will be included in the review of published literature. Any economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included as appropriate. Studies that do not meet all of the criteria will be excluded and their bibliographic details listed with reasons for exclusion.Table 2: Additional inclusion criteria (cost effectiveness) Study design Full economic evaluations that consider both costs and consequences (cost-effectiveness analysis,cost-utility analysis,cost-minimisation analysis and cost benefit analysis)Outcomes Incremental cost per life year gainedIncremental cost per quality adjustedlife year gainedData extraction strategyData relating to both study design and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Disagreement will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. If time constraints allow, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed according to a checklist updated from that developed by Drummond et al.36 This checklist will reflect the criteria for economic evaluation detailed in the methodological guidance developed by NICE.37 The quality of the individual cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. The information will be tabulated and summarised within the text of the report.6.2 Methods of analysis/synthesisCost effectiveness review of published literatureIndividual study data and quality assessment will be summarised in structured tables and as a narrative description. Potential effects of study quality willbe discussed.To supplement findings from the economic literature review, additional cost and benefit information from other sources, including the manufacturer submission(s) to NICE, will be collated and presented as appropriate.Development of a de novo economic model by the AGa. Cost dataThe primary perspective for the analysis of cost information will be the NHS. Cost data will therefore focus on the marginal direct health service costs associated with the intervention.Quantities of resources used will be identified from consultation with experts, primary data from relevant sources and the reviewed literature. Where possible, unit cost data will be extracted from the literature or obtained from other relevant sources (drug price lists, NHS reference costs and Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accounting cost databases).Where appropriate costs will be discounted at 3.5% per annum, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37 b. Assessmentof benefitsA balance sheet will be constructed to list benefits and costs arising from alternative treatment options. LRiG anticipates that the main measures of benefit will be increased QALYs.Where appropriate, effectiveness and other measures of benefit will be discounted at 3.5%, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37b. ModellingThe ability of LRiG to construct an economic model will depend on the data available. Where modelling is appropriate, a summary description of the model and a critical appraisal of key structures, assumptions, resources, data and sensitivity analysis (see Section d) will be presented. In addition, LRiG will provide an assessment of the model’s strengths and weaknesses and discuss the implications of using different assumptions in the model. Reasons for any major discrepancies between the results obtained from assessment group model and the manufacturer model(s) will be explored.The time horizon will be a patient’s lifetime in order to reflect the chronic nature of the disease.A formal combination of costs and benefits will also be performed, although the type of economic evaluation will only be chosen in light of the variations in outcome identified from the clinical- effectiveness review evidence.If data are available, the results will be presented as incremental cost per QALY ratios for each alternative considered. If sufficient data are not available to construct these measures with reasonable precision, incrementalcost-effectiveness analysis or cost-minimisation analysis will be undertaken. Any failure to meet the reference case will be clearly specified and justified, and the likely implications will, as far as possible, be quantified.d. Sensitivity analysisIf appropriate, sensitivity analysis will be applied to LRiG’s model in order to assess the robustness of the results to realistic variations in the levels of the underlying parameter values and key assumptions. Where the overall results are sensitive to a particular variable, the sensitivity analysis will explore the exact nature of the impact of variations.Imprecision inthe principal model cost-effectiveness results with respect to key parameter values will be assessed by use of techniques compatible with the modelling methodology deemed appropriate to the research question and to the potential impact on decision making for specific comparisons (e.g. multi-way sensitivity analysis, cost-effectiveness acceptability curves etc).7 HANDLING THE MANUFACTURER SUBMISSION(S)All data submitted by the drug manufacturers arriving before 22nd March 2011 and meeting the set inclusion criteria will be considered for inclusion in the review. Data arriving after this date will only be considered if time constraints allow. Any economic evaluations included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be assessed. This will include a detailed analysis of the appropriateness of the parametric and structural assumptions involved in any models in the submission and an assessment of how robust the models are to changes in key assumptions. Clarification on specific aspects of the model may be sought from the relevant manufacturer.Any 'commercial in confidence' data taken from a manufacturer submission will be clearly marked in the NICE report according to established NICE policy and removed from the subsequent submission to the HTA8 EXPERTISE IN THIS TAR TEAM AND COMPETING INTERESTS OF AUTHORSThis TAR team will be made up of the following individuals:Juliet HockenhullTeam lead /clinical systematicreviewerSenior economic modeller Professor Adrian BagustSystematic reviewer (clinical) Gemma CherrySystematic reviewer (economics) Dr Angela BolandEconomic modeller Dr Carlos Martin SaboridoInformation specialist Dr Yenal DundarMedical statistician James OyeeDirector Ms Rumona DicksonClinical advisor A team of clinical experts will beestablished to address clinicalquestions related to the technologyand to provide feedback on drafts ofthe final report9 REFERENCES1. Freeman T. Hypersensitivity to hymenoptera stings. NEJM. 2004;351:1978-84.。
研究生医学英语Unit 4翻译
Unit 4Drug Therapy in the Older Adult老年人的药物治疗Drug therapy in the older adult population is a complex phenomenon influenced by numerous biopsychosocial factors. The elderly are the largest group of consumers of prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. The average older adult uses 4.5 prescriptions and 2.1 OTC medications and fills between 12 to 17 prescriptions yearly. The incidence发生率of adverse有害的drug reactions in the elderly is two to three times that found in young adult. This is considered to be a conservative 保守的estimate估计, because drug reactions are less well recognized in older adults and because reactions can often mimic symptoms of specific disease states.药物治疗在老年人口是一个复杂的现象，因其被众多的生物心理社会因素影响。
老年人是处方药和非处方药的最大消费群体。
老年人平均使用4.5张处方和2.1张非处方药，每年填写12到17张处方。
老年人的药物不良反应发生率是年轻人的两到三倍。
这被认为是一个保守的估计，因为药物反应在老年人中较少被认识，因为反应往往可以模拟特定疾病状态的症状。
临床医学英语的课文参考译文整理版
第二单元骨质疏松与骨骼的危险因素骨质疏松可能几十年也没有任何症状。
因为除非骨折，它不会引起任何症状。
有些骨质疏松性骨折数年后才能诊断出来。
因此，只有发生带来痛苦的骨折时，患者才能意识到自己的骨质疏松。
而骨质疏松症状和骨折部位有关。
脊椎骨折可引起严重的带状疼痛，疼痛从后背扩散到身体的两侧。
几年时间，反复的脊椎骨折可引起身高变矮，脊椎弯曲和后背下端长期疼痛。
脊椎弯曲使得患者出现驼背现象，通常称为“罗锅”。
日常生活中发生的骨折叫做压迫性骨折。
例如：有些骨质疏松患者走路或下台阶时，脚部会出现压迫性骨折。
跌倒时通常发生髋部骨折。
如果患有骨质疏松，非常轻微的磕碰都能造成髋部骨折。
由于骨骼的质量较差，即使行外科手术治疗，髋部骨折也很难治愈。
根据国际骨质疏松基金会今天在世界骨质疏松日公布的报告披露，如果吸烟，每天饮酒两杯以上，不锻炼身体或饮食不佳，晚年就会患骨质疏松。
国际骨质疏松基金会主席Daniel Navid在迪拜召开的记者招待会上说：“预计到2050年，因骨质疏松造成的髋部骨折发生率，男性将增至310%，女性将增至240%。
骨质疏松导致的骨折通常意味着疼痛，功能丧失，严重病例会导致死亡。
”“战胜骨折”报告作者及国际骨质疏松基金会成员Cyrus Cooper教授说：“世界范围内，骨质疏松发病率正以流行病的发病增长——50岁以上,有1/3的女性和1/5的男性患骨质疏松性骨折。
但是，如果人们年轻时就认识到骨质疏松的危害并采取适当措施，将对晚年时期的骨骼健康有着巨大的积极影响。
”国际骨质疏松基金会敦促人们接受国际骨质疏松基金会一分钟骨质疏松危险因素检查。
此外，采取对骨骼有益的生活方式，如营养饮食，定期锻炼，不吸烟，不酗酒，这些都会有助于形成健壮的骨骼，防止骨折。
危险因素主要分为两大类：可修正的和不可修正的危险因素。
尽管我们无法控制危险因素，如年龄，性别，家族史，但还是有些能减轻其影响的办法。
可修正的危险因素可修正的危险因素主要源于不健康的饮食或生活方式的选择，包括营养不良，身高体重比偏低,饮食失调，喝酒，吸烟和缺乏锻炼。
医学英文翻译文献
英文文献翻译第1 篇 Effects of sevoflurane on dopamine, glutamate and aspartate release in an vitro model of cerebral ischaemia七氟醚对离体脑缺血模型多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放的影响兴奋性氨基酸和多巴胺的释放在脑缺血后神经损伤中起重要作用。
在当前的研究中，采用离体脑缺血模型观察七氟醚对大鼠皮质纹状体脑片中多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量的影响。
脑片以34℃人工脑脊液灌流，缺血发作以去除氧气和降低葡萄糖浓度（从4mmol/l至2mmol/l）≤30分钟模拟。
多巴胺释放量用伏特法原位监测，灌流样本中的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸浓度用带有荧光检测的高效液相色谱法测定。
脑片释放的神经递质在有或无4%七氟醚下测定。
对照组脑片诱导缺血后，平均延迟166s（n=5）后细胞外多巴胺浓度达最大77.0μmol/l。
缺血期4%七氟醚降低多巴胺释放速率，（对照组和七氟醚处理组脑片分别是6.9μmol/l/s和4.73μmol/l/s，p<0.05），没有影响它的起始或量。
兴奋性氨基酸的释放更缓慢。
每个脑片基础（缺血前）谷氨酸和天冬氨酸是94.8nmol/l和69.3nmol/l，没有明显被七氟醚减少。
缺血大大地增加了谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量（最大值分别是对照组的244%和489%）。
然而，4%七氟醚明显减少缺血诱导的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量。
总结，七氟醚的神经保护作用与其可以减少缺血引起的兴奋性氨基酸的释放有关，较小程度上与多巴胺也有关。
第2篇The Influence of Mitochondrial K ATP-Channels in the Cardioprotection of Proconditioning and Postconditioning by Sevoflurane in the Rat In Vivo线粒体K ATP通道在离体大鼠七氟醚预处理和后处理中心肌保护作用中的影响挥发性麻醉药引起心肌预处理并也能在给予再灌注的开始保护心脏——一种实践目前被称为后处理。
医用英语医学文献翻译4(缺59整理版)
UNIT 1 TEXT B刷牙，使用牙线，以及每年2次的牙齿检查是口腔卫生保健标准，但是保护你珍珠样洁白的牙齿的好处远比我们知道的还要多。
在一篇评论文章中，塔夫茨大学牙科医学院的一个教员破除了常见的牙科神话，并概述了饮食和营养如何影响儿童，青少年，孕妇，成年人和老年人的口腔健康。
误区1：口腔卫生的不良后果是限制嘴巴准妈妈也许不知道她们所吃的食物会影响到胎儿的牙齿发育。
在怀孕过程中的营养缺乏也许会使未出生的孩子在今后的生活中更容易出现蛀牙。
“在14周到4个月大的时候，缺乏钙，维生素D，维生素A，蛋白质和卡路里会导致口腔软组织缺损，” Carole Palmer说。
Carole Palmer是，教育学博士(EdD)，注册营养师(RD)，塔夫茨大学教授，公共健康和社会服务系营养和口腔健康推进部的负责人。
有数据表明缺乏足够的维生素B6和B12可能是导致患唇裂和阻碍味觉形成的危险因素。
在童年的时候，最普遍的疾病是蛀牙，大约比儿童哮喘高五倍。
“如果一个儿童因为蛀牙而嘴巴受伤，他/她在学校会比较难集中注意力，而且会更喜欢吃容易咀嚼的食物，这些食物含有的营养往往更少些。
甜甜圈和点心这样的食物大多营养品质低下，含糖量高于其他需要咀嚼的富含营养的食物，比如水果和蔬菜，” Palmer说。
“口腔并发症与不良的饮食习惯会造成认知和生长发育问题，以及导致肥胖。
”误区2：吃越多糖，越容易蛀牙这与你吃了多少糖无关，而是糖和牙齿接触的时间有多少。
“食物，比如慢慢溶解的糖果和苏打水在嘴巴里停留的时间会比较久。
这增加了牙齿暴露在口腔细菌由糖产生成的酸中的时间，” Palmer说。
有研究表明，十几岁的青少年大约40%的碳水化合物是由软饮料中摄取的。
这些源源不断地软饮料增加了牙齿腐烂的风险。
无糖碳酸饮料和酸性饮料，比如柠檬水，往往被认为比含糖饮料对牙齿更安全，但是经常食用的话仍会造成牙齿釉质脱矿。
误区3：宝宝因蛀牙失去牙齿是可以的这是常见的误区，认为宝宝因为蛀牙失去牙齿是无关紧要的，因为宝宝的乳牙总会在将来某一天脱落。
学术英语医学Unit1-3-7-9课文翻译
学术英语unit1,unit3,unit4,unit9课文翻译 Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻，但是大多数医生通情达理，还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法，大脑千头万绪，事无巨细，不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天，我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾，试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作，一个医生的脑海机灵转动，需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁，是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好，恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高，但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多，最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约，按时看病，并能按时做血液化验，但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来，她健康良好，在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者，并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验，这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗？她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行 30 分钟的事。
糖尿病：她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何？她最近是否和营养师谈过？她是否看过眼科医生？足科医生呢？她的血压还好，但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药？药片多了是否让她困惑？更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻？骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐，因为这可以预防骨质疏松症？而我现在又要给她加一种药丸，而这种药需要详细说明。
医学学术英语课文翻译Unit4
第四单元替代医学如果患病而常规疗法不起作用，或者如果患有慢性病症，你可以将传统或替代疗法作为最后的手段。
这种疗法有何好处？西方研究者如何看待这种疗法？本单元回顾了美国替代疗法，讨论了整合医学的未来发展。
TEXT A 融合传统中医和现代西医美国各界都对传统医学和补充医学感兴趣——医疗界、政府部门、媒体和公众。
越来越多的保险公司和管理式医疗机构为传统医学报销，大多数美国医学院开设传统医学课程。
艾森伯格全国研究表明，更多人在接受补充疗法。
为了便于研究替代疗法的有效性，美国国家补充与替代医学中心(NCCAM)于1999年获得五千万美元预算。
意识到需要提升植物药材科学数据的质量和数量，也为了对饮食补充剂安全性和有效性进行系统性评估，同年设立两个研究中心以研究植物药材的生物学作用。
许多患者同时接受传统和现代的疗法，需要将两种医学恰当且平稳地结合。
传统中医(TCM)的理论和技术涵盖了美国称为补充医学的多数做法，在医疗保健体系中日益重要。
若运用得当，传统中医费用合理，技术含量低，安全且有效。
针对针刺、草药、按摩和太极的研究正全球展开，可揭示传统中医的一些理论和实践。
雄心勃勃的研究设计和巨大的患者需求推动传统中医和现代医学在临床层面的结合，而学术研究者和学术机构对两种治疗体系的结合潜力越来越感兴趣。
针刺基于1997年NIH专家共识会议审查的证据，NIH专家共识发展小组保守建议，在多个情形下，针刺可以作为辅助疗法，替代疗法或综合管理方案的一部分。
该小组确认，针刺可用于治疗手术后和化疗引起的恶心和呕吐，也可治疗术后牙痛。
同时也建议针刺作为辅助疗法或可接受的替代疗法治疗成瘾、中风康复、头痛、经痛、网球肘、纤维肌痛、肌筋膜疼痛、骨关节炎、下背痛、腕管综合症和哮喘。
未来针刺临床试验将置于传统中医框架。
和主要以生物医学角度评估疗效的当代临床试验相比，这有可能对针刺疗效进行更恰当更有临床意义的评估。
现行的临床研究的科学严谨必须保持。
英语医学文献
英语医学文献English Medical LiteratureMedical literature refers to scientific research articles, studies, and publications that focus on various aspects of medicine and related fields. English is the dominant language used for publishing medical literature internationally. Here are some examples of English medical literature:1. Journal Articles: Medical researchers and professionals publish their findings in peer-reviewed medical journals. Examples of popular medical journals include The Lancet, New England Journal of Medicine, British Medical Journal (BMJ), and Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).2. Review Articles: Review articles provide a comprehensive overview of existing research on a specific medical topic. These articles analyze and summarize multiple primary research studies. They often discuss the state of knowledge, identify gaps, and suggest future directions for research.3. Clinical Trials: Medical research involving human participants often publishes results in English. Clinical trial reports describe experimentalprotocols, study design, results, and conclusions. These articles are important for the advancement of evidence-based medicine.4. Case Reports: Case reports describe unique or unusual patient cases, providing valuable insights into rare diseases, unusual presentations, or novel treatments. These reports often include a review of relevant literature and discussion of diagnostic challenges or successful interventions.5. Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses: These articles aim to synthesize results from multiple studies on a particular topic. Systematic reviews follow a predefined protocol to identify, assess, and summarize relevant research evidence. Meta-analyses statistically pool data from multiple studies to provide a more accurate estimate of treatment effects.6. Medical Textbooks: English medical literature also includes textbooks that cover various medical subjects like anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, etc. T extbooks are widely used by medical students and healthcare professionals for learning and reference purposes.7. Guidelines: Medical societies and organizations develop clinicalpractice guidelines to help healthcare professionals makeevidence-based decisions. These guidelines are often published in English and provide recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of specific diseases or conditions.8. Conference Papers: Medical conferences allow researchers to present their work to the scientific community. Conference papers often contain preliminary research findings and may later be published as full-length articles in medical journals.9. Research Proposals and Grant Applications: Medical researchers often write proposals and submit grant applications to secure funding for their research projects. These documents outline the study objectives, methods, significance, and expected outcomes.English medical literature contributes to global medical knowledge, facilitating collaboration, and fostering scientific advancement. It enables researchers, healthcare professionals, and policymakers to access and disseminate medical information worldwide.。
(整理)医学英语的一些翻译.
1、抗生素医嘱[Antibiotic order]·Prophylaxis [预防性用药] Duration of oder[用药时间] 24hr Procedure[操作，手术]·Empiric theraphy [经验性治疗]Suspected site and organism[怀疑感染的部位和致病菌] 72hr Cultures ordered[是否做培养]·Documented infection[明确感染]Site and organism[部位和致病菌] 5days·Other[其他]Explanation required [解释理由] 24hr·Antibiotic allergies[何种抗生素过敏]No known allergy [无已知的过敏]·Drug+dose+Route+frequency[药名+剂量+途径+次数]2、医嘱首页[Admission / transfer]·Admit / transfer to [收入或转入]·Resident [住院医师] Attending[主治医师]·Condition [病情]·Diagnosis[诊断]·Diet [饮食]·Acitivity [活动]·Vital signs[测生命体征]·I / O [记进出量]·Allergies[过敏]3、住院病历[case history]·Identification [病人一般情况]Name[性名]Sex[性别]Age [年龄]Marriage[婚姻]Person to notify and phone No.[联系人及电话] Race[民族]I.D.No.[身份证]Admission date[入院日期]Source of history[病史提供者]Reliability of history[可靠程度]Medical record No[病历号]Business phone No.[工作单位电话]Home address and phone No.[家庭住地及电话] ·Chief complaint[主诉]·History of present illness[现病史]·Past History[过去史]Surgical[外科]Medical[内科]Medications[用药]Allergies[过敏史]Social History[社会史]Habits[个人习惯]Smoking[吸烟]Family History[家族史]Ob/Gyn History[ 婚姻/生育史]Alcohol use[喝酒]·Review of Aystems[系统回顾]General[概况]Eyes,Ears,Nose and throat[五官] Pulmonary[呼吸]Cardiovascular[心血管]GI[消化]GU[生殖、泌尿系统]Musculoskeletal[肌肉骨骼]Neurology[神经系统]Endocrinology[内分泌系统]Lymphatic/Hematologic[淋巴系统/血液系统] ·Physical Exam[体检]Vital Signs[生命体征]P[脉博]Bp[血压]R[呼吸]T[温度]Height[身高]Weight[体重]General[概况]HEENT[五官]Neck[颈部]Back/Chest[背部/胸部]Breast[乳房]Heart[心脏]Heart rate[心率]Heart rhythm[心律]Heart Border[心界]Murmur[杂音]Abdomen[腹部]Liver[肝]Spleen[脾]Rectal[直肠]Genitalia[生殖系统]Extremities[四肢]Neurology[神经系统]cranial nerves[颅神经]sensation[感觉]Motor[运动]*Special P.E. on diseased organ system[专科情况]*Radiographic Findings[放射]*Laboratory Findings[化验]*Assessment[初步诊断与诊断依据]*Summary[病史小结]*Treatment Plan[治疗计划]4、输血申请单[Blood bank requisition form](1)reason for infusion[输血原因]▲红细胞[packed red cells, wshed RBCs]:*Hb<8.5 [血色素<8.5]*>20% blood volume lost [>20%血容量丢失]*cardio-pulmonary bypass with anticipated Hb <8[心肺分流术伴预计血色素<8]*chemotherapy or surgery with Hb <10[血色素<10的化疗或手术者]▲全血[whole blood]:massive on-going blood loss[大量出血]▲血小板[platelets]:*massive blood transfusion >10 units[输血10单位以上者]*platelet count <50×103/μl with active bleeding or surgery[血小板<5万伴活动性出血或手术者]*Cardio-pulmonary bypass uith pl<100×103/μl with octive bleeding[心肺分流术伴血小板<10万，活动性出血者]*Platelet count <20×103/μl[血板<2万]▲新鲜冰冻血浆[fresh frozen plasma]:*documented abnormal PT or PTT with bleeding or Surgery[PT、PTT异常的出血或手术病人]*specific clotting factor deficiencies with bleeding/surgerg[特殊凝血因子缺乏的出血/手术者]*blood transfusion >15units[输血>15个单位]*warfarin or antifibrinolytic therapy with bleeding[华法令或溶栓治疗后出血]*DIC[血管内弥漫性凝血]*Antithrombin III dficiency[凝血酶III 缺乏](2)输血要求[request for blood components]*patient blood group[血型]*Has the patient had transfusion or pregnancy in the past 3 months? [近3个月，病人是否输过血或怀孕过？]*Type and crossmatch[血型和血交叉]*Units or ml[单位或毫升]5、出院小结[discharge summary]Patient Name[病人姓名]Medical Record No.[病历号]Attending Physician[主治医生]Date of Admission[入院日期]Date of Discharge[出院日期]Pirncipal Diagnosis[主要诊断]Secondary Diagnosis[次要诊断]Complications[并发症]Operation[手术名称]Reason for Admission[入院理由]Physical Findings[阳性体征]Lab/X-ray Findings[化验及放射报告]Hospital Course[住院诊治经过]Condition[出院状况]Disposition[出院去向]Medications[出院用药]Prognosis[预后]Special Instruction to the Patient(diet, physical activity)[出院指导（饮食，活动量）]Follow-up Care[随随访]6、住院/出院病历首页[Admission/discharge record]·Patient name[病人姓名]·race[种族]·address[地址]·religion[宗教]·medical service[科别]·admit (discharge) date[入院（出院）日期]·Length of stay [住院天数]·guarantor name [担保人姓名]·next of kin or person to notify[需通知的亲属姓名]·relation to patient[与病人关系]·previous admit date[上次住院日期]·admitting physician [入院医生]·attending phgsician[主治医生]·admitting diagnosis[入院诊断]·final (principal) diagnosis[最终（主要）诊断]·secondary diagnosis[次要诊断]·adverse reactions (complications)[副作用（合并症）]·incision type[切口类型]·healing course[愈合等级]·operative (non-operative) procedures[手术（非手术）操作]·nosocomial infection[院内感染]·consutants[会诊]·Critical-No. of times[抢救次数]·recovered-No. of times[成功次数]·Diagnosis qualitative analysis[诊断质量]OP.adm.and discharge Dx concur [门诊入院与出院诊断符合率]Clinical and pathological Dx concur[临床与病理诊断符合率]Pre- and post-operative Dx concur [术前术后诊断符合率]·Dx determined with in 24 hours (3 days) after admission[入院后24小时（3天）内确诊]·Discharge status[出院状况]recovered[治愈]improved[好转]not improved[未愈]died [死亡]·Dispositon[去向]home[家]against medical ad[自动出院]autosy[尸检]transferred to[转院到]医学英语常用前后缀医学英语常用前后缀·a-[无，缺] ▲anemia[贫血] atonia[无张力] asymptomatic[无症状的] amenorrhea[闭经] ·ab-[分离] abduct [外展] abscision[切除] ·acou (acu)-[听觉] acumeter [听力计] acouophone[助听器] ·acro-[肢端] acromegaly[肢端肥大症] acromastitis[乳头炎] ·ad (af, an)-[邻近，向上] adrenal [肾上腺] adaxial[近轴的] annexa[附件] ·-ad[……侧]ventrad[向腹侧] cephalad[向头侧] ·adeno-[腺] adenocyte[腺细胞] adenoidism[腺体病] ·adipo-[脂肪] adiposis[肥胖症] adiponecrosis[脂肪坏死] ·adreno-[肾上腺] adrenocorticoid[肾上腺皮质激素] adrenalin[肾上腺素] adrenal[肾上腺] ·-aemia(emia)[血症] bacteremia[菌血症] leukemia[白血病] ·-albi (albino)-[白色] albumin[白蛋白] albinism[白化病] ·-algesia[痛觉] ▲hypoalgesia[痛觉减退] ·-algia[痛] ▲arthralgia[关节痛] ▲cephalgia[头痛] ▲neuralgia[神经痛] ·alkali-[碱] ▲alkalosis[碱中毒] ·alveo-[牙槽，小沟] ▲alveolitis[牙槽炎] ▲alveobronchiolitis[支气管肺泡炎] ·ambi-[复，双] ambiopia[复视] ambivert[双重性格] ·ambly-[弱] ▲amblyopia[弱视] ▲amblyaphia[触觉迟钝] ·amylo-[淀粉] ▲amyloidosis[淀粉酶] ▲amylase[淀粉酶] ·angio-[血管] ▲angiography[血管造影术]▲angioedema[血管性水肿] ▲angeitis[脉管炎] ▲angiofibroma[血管纤维瘤] ·ante-[前]▲antenatal[出生前的] ▲anteflexion[前屈] ·antero-[前] ▲anterolateral[前侧壁]▲anteroventral[前腹侧] ·anti-[抗，反] ▲antibiotics[抗生素] ▲antihypertensives[降压药] ▲anticoagulant[抗凝剂] ·rarchno-[蛛网膜] ▲arachnoiditis[蛛网膜炎] ·archo-[肛门，直肠] ▲archorrhagia[肛门出血] ▲archosyrinx[直肠灌注器] ·arterio-[动脉] ▲arteriospasm[动脉痉挛] ▲arteriosclerosis[动脉硬化] ·arthro-[关节] ▲arthrocentesis[关节穿刺]▲arthrotomy[关节切开术] ▲arthritis[关节炎] ·-ase[酶] ▲oxidase[氧化酶]▲proteinase[蛋白酶] ·-asthenia[无力] ▲myasthenia[肌无力] ▲neurasthenia[神经衰弱] ·audio(audito)-[听力] ▲audiology[听觉学] ▲audiometer[听力计] ·auto-[自己]▲autoimmune[自身免疫] ▲auto hemotherapy[自体血疗法] ·bacilli-[杆菌] ▲bacillosis[杆菌病] ▲bacilluria[杆菌尿] ·bacterio-[细菌] ▲bacteriology[细菌学] ▲bactericide[杀菌剂] ·baro-[压力] ▲barometer [压力计] ▲baroreceptor[压力感受器] ·bary-[迟钝]▲barylalia[言语不清] ▲baryacusia[听觉迟钝] ·bi-[双] ▲bicuspid[二尖瓣]] ▲bilateral[两侧的] ·bili-[胆汁] ▲bilirubin[胆红素] ·bio-[生命] ▲biology[生物学] ▲biopsy[活检] ·-blast[母细胞] ▲spermatoblast[精子细胞] ▲melanoblast[成黑色素细胞]▲osteoblast[成骨细胞] ·brachy-[短] ▲brachypnea[气短] ▲brachydactylia[短指畸形] ·brady-[迟缓] ▲bradycardia[心动过缓] ▲bradypsychia[精神不振] ·broncho-[支气管] ▲bronchoscopy[支气管镜检查] ▲bronchiostenosis[支气管痉挛] ▲bronchitis[支气管炎] ·bronchiolo-[细支气管] ▲bronchiolectasis[细支气管扩张] ·calci-[钙] ▲calcification[钙化] ▲calcicosilicosis[钙沉着症] ·carbo-[碳] ▲carbohydrate[碳水化合物]▲carbohaemia[碳酸血症] ·carcino-[癌] ▲carcinogen[致癌物] ·cardio-[心，贲门]▲cardiotonics[强心剂] ▲cardioplasty[贲门成形术] ·-cele[疝，肿物] ▲omphalocele[脐疝] ▲hysterocele[子宫脱垂] ▲ophthalmocele[眼球突出] ·celio-[腹] ▲celialgia[腹痛]▲celioscopy[腹腔镜检查] ·-centesis[穿刺] ▲arthrocentesis[关节穿刺术]▲abdominocentesis[腹穿] 3 回复：医学英语常用前后缀·cephalo-[头] ▲cephaloxia[斜颈] ▲cephalopathy[头部疾病] ▲cephalotomy[穿颅术] ·cerebello-[小脑] ▲cerebellitis[小脑炎] ▲cerebellum[小脑] ·cerebro-[大脑] ▲cerebritis[大脑炎] ▲cerebrology[脑学] ·chemo-[化学] ▲chemotherapy[化疗] ·chloro-[绿，氯] ▲chloroform[氯仿] ▲chloromycetin[氯霉素] ▲chlorophyll[叶绿素] ·cholangio-[胆道] ▲cholangitis[胆管炎] ▲cholangiectasis[胆管扩张] ·cholo-[胆] ▲cholagogue[利胆剂] ▲cholelithiasis[胆石症] ▲cholecystitis[胆囊炎]▲cholesterol[胆固醇] ·chondro-[软骨] ▲chondrosarcoma[软骨肉瘤] ▲chondrification[骨软化] ·chromo-[色素] ▲cytochrome[细胞色素] ▲chromosome[染色体] ·-cide[杀……剂]▲germicide[杀菌剂] ▲aborticide[堕胎药] ·circum-[周围] ▲circumoral[口周的]▲circumcision[包皮环切术] ·coagulo-[凝固] ▲coagulant[凝血剂] ·colo-[结肠]▲colotomy[结肠切开术] ▲coloptosis[结肠下垂] ·colpo (coleo)-[阴道] ▲coleospastia[阴道痉挛] ▲colposcope[阴道镜] ·contra-[反，逆] ▲contraindication[禁忌证]▲contraceptive[避孕药] ·counter-[反，逆] ▲counteragent[拮抗剂] ▲conuterpoison[解毒剂] ·cranio-[颅] ▲craniomalacia[颅骨软化] ▲cranioclasis[碎颅术] ·-cyst-[囊]▲cystomy[膀胱切开术] ▲dacryocyst[泪囊] ·-cyte-[细胞] ▲lymphocyte[淋巴细胞]▲cytolysis[细胞溶解] ·de-[除去] ▲detoxication[解毒] ·dento[牙] ▲dentistry[牙科学]▲dentalgia[牙痛] ·-derm-[皮肤] ▲epiderm[表皮] ▲dermatology[皮肤病学]▲dermoplasty[皮肤成形术] ·dextro-[右] ▲dextrocardia[右位心] ▲dexiotropic[右旋的] ·dis-[分离] ▲discission[分离术] ▲disinfection[消毒法] ·duodeno-[十二指肠]▲duodenitis[十二指肠炎] ▲duodenostomy[十二指肠造口术] ·-dynia[痛] ▲acrodynia[肢体痛] ▲urethrodynia[尿道痛] ·dys-[异常] ▲dysfunction[功能不良] ▲dyshormonism[内分泌障碍] ▲dysuria[排尿困难] ·-ectasis[扩张] ▲gastroectasis[胃扩张] ▲aerenterectasia[肠胀气] ▲bronchiectasia[支气管扩张] ·-ectomy[切除术] ▲appendectomy[阑尾切除术]▲lipectomy[脂肪切除术] ·-edema[水肿] ▲encephaledema[脑水肿] ▲myxedema[粘液性水肿] ·-emesia[呕] ▲hematemesia[呕血] ▲helminthemesia[吐虫] ·encephalo-[脑]▲encephaloma[脑瘤] ▲encephaledema[脑水肿] ·endo-[内] ▲endocarditis[心内膜炎]▲endoscope[内窥镜] ·entero-[肠] ▲enteritis[肠炎] ▲enterovirus[肠病毒] ·epi-[上，外] ▲epigastrium[上腹部] ·erythro-[红] ▲erythromycin[红霉素] ▲erythroderma[红皮病] ·esophago-[食管] ▲esophagoscope[食管镜] ▲esophagitis[食管炎] ·extra-[……外]▲extracellular[细胞外的] ▲extrasystole[额外收缩] ·facio-[面] ▲facioplegia[面瘫]▲facioplasty[面部成形术] ·-fast[耐] ▲acid-fast[抗酸的] ▲uviofast[耐紫外线] ·febri-[热] ▲febricula[低热] ▲febrifacient[致热的] ·feti-[胎儿] ▲feticulture[妊娠期卫生]▲fetometry[胎儿测量法] ·fibro-[纤维] ▲fibroblast[成纤维细胞] ▲fibrosis[纤维化] ·fore-[前] ▲forebrain[前脑] ▲forehead[前额] ·-form[形状] ▲oviform[卵形的]▲granuliform[颗粒状的] ·fungi-[真菌，霉菌] ▲fungicide[杀真菌剂] ▲fungistasis[制霉菌作用] ·gastro-[胃] ▲gastroptosis[胃下垂] ▲gastroenteritis[胃肠炎] ▲gastroscopy[胃镜检查] ▲gastratrophy[胃萎缩] ·-gen [原，剂] ▲glycogen[糖原] ▲pathogen[病原体]▲androgen[雄激素] ▲Estrogen[雌激素] ·-genic[……性] ▲cardiogenic[心源性的]▲allergenic[变应反应] ·giganto-[巨大] ▲gigantocyte[巨红细胞] ▲gigantism[巨大症] ·gingivo-[牙龈] ▲gingivitis[牙龈炎] ▲gingivostomatitis[牙龈口腔炎] ·glosso-[舌]▲glossoplegia[舌瘫痪] ·gluco-[糖] ▲glucoprotein[糖蛋白] ▲glucocorticoid[糖皮质激素] ·glyco-[糖] ▲glycogen[糖原] ▲glycouria[糖尿] ·-grade[级，度] ▲centigrade[摄氏温度计] ▲retrograde[逆行性] ·-gram[克，图] ▲microgram[微克]▲electroencephalogram[脑电图] ·-graph(y)[……仪（法）] ▲electrocardiogram[心电图] ▲bronchography[支气管造影术] ·gyneco-[妇女] ▲gynecology[妇科学] ▲gynecopathy[妇科病] ·hemo(hemato)-[血] ▲hemoglobin[血红蛋白] ▲ 4 回复：医学英语常用前后缀hematoma[血肿] ·hemi-[半] ▲hemiplegia[偏瘫] ▲hemicrania[偏头病] ·hepato-[肝]▲hepatitis[肝炎] ▲hepatocirrhosis[肝硬化] ▲hepatosplenomegaly[肝脾肿大] ·hidro-[汗] ▲hyperhidrosis[多汗症] ▲anhidrosis[无汗症] ·histo-[组织] ▲histology[组织学]▲histomorphology[组织形态学] ·holo-[全] ▲holonarcosis[全麻] ▲holoenzyme[全酶] ·homo-[同] ▲homotype[同型] ▲homologue[同系物] ▲homoplasty[同种移植术] ·hydro-[水] ▲hydropericardium[心包积水] ▲hydrolysis [水解] ·hypr-[高]▲hypercalcemia[高钙血症] ▲hyperthyroidism[甲亢] ·hypno-[睡眼] ▲hypnotics[安眠药] ▲hypnotherapy[催眠疗法] ·hypo-[低] ▲hypotension[低血压] ▲hypoglycemia[低血糖] ·hystero-[子宫] ▲hysterospasm[子宫痉挛] ▲hysteroptosis[子宫下垂] ·-ia[病]▲melancholia[忧郁症] ▲pyrexia[发热] ·-iatrics[医学] ▲pediatrics[儿科学] ▲geriatrics[老年病学] ·-iatry[医学] ▲psychiatry[精神病学] ▲pediatry[儿科学] ·immuno-[免疫]▲immunoglobulin[免疫球蛋白] ▲immunotherapy[免疫疗法] ·infra-[下] ▲infraorbital[眶下的] ▲infrared[红外线] ·inter-[间] ▲intervertebral[椎间的] ▲intercellular[细胞间的] ·intra-[内] ▲intravenous[静脉内的] ▲intracranial[颅内的] ▲intramuscular[肌肉内的] ·-ist[家] ▲pathologist[病理学家] ▲anatomist[解剖学家] ·-itis[炎症] ▲cellulitis[蜂窝织炎] ▲myocarditis[心肌炎] ·leuco (leuko)-[白] ▲leucorrhea[白带] ▲leukocytosis[白细胞增多] ▲leukemia[白血病] ·lipo-(脂) ▲lipotrophy[脂肪增多] ▲lipase[脂酶] ·-lith[结石]▲cholelith[胆结石] ▲cholelithiasis[胆石症] ·-logy[学] ▲terminology[术语学]▲Cardiology[心脏病学] ·lumbo-[腰] ▲lumbosacral[腰骶部的] ▲lumbago[腰背痛]▲lumbodynia[腰痛] ·lympho-[淋巴] ▲lymphedema[淋巴水肿] ▲lymphocytopenia[淋巴细胞减少] ·-lysis(lytic)[松解，分解了] ▲aythrolysis[关节松解术] ▲spasmolytic[解痉的] ·macro-[大] ▲macrophage[巨噬细胞] ▲macromolecule[大分子] ·mal-[不良]▲malnutrition[营养不良] ▲malfunction[功能不全] ·-megaly[巨大] ▲cardiomegaly[心扩大] ▲cephalomegaly[巨头畸形] ·meningo-[脑膜] ▲meningitis[脑膜炎]▲meningocephalitis[脑膜脑炎] ·meno-[月经] ▲dysmenorrhea[痛经] ▲menopause[停经] ·-meter[表，计] ▲spirometer[肺活量计] ▲pyrometer[高温表] ·-metry[测量法]▲iodometry[碘定量法] ·micro-[小] ▲micropump[微泵] ▲microliter[微升] ·mono-[单-]▲mononucleosis[单核细胞增多] ▲monomer[单体] ·multi-[多] ▲multinuclear[多核的]▲multipara[经产妇] ·myelo-[髓] ▲myelocele[脊髓膨出] ▲myelocyte[髓细胞] ·myo-[肌] ▲myocarditis[心肌炎] ▲myofibroma[肌纤维瘤] ·naso-[鼻] ▲nasoscope[鼻镜]▲nasitis[鼻炎] ·neo-[新] ▲neoplasm[瘤] ▲neomycin[新霉素] ·nephro-[肾]▲nephropathy[肾病] ▲nephrosclerosis[肾硬变] ·neuro-[神经] ▲neuroma[神经瘤]▲neurodermatitis[神经性皮炎] ·non-[非] ▲non-electrolyte[非电解质] ▲nonfetal[非致命的] ·nulli-[无] ▲nullipara[未产妇] ▲nulligravida[未孕妇] ·nutri-[营养] ▲nutrition[营养]▲nutrology[营养学] ·oculo-[眼] ▲oculist[眼科医生] ▲oculus dexter[右眼] ▲oculus sinister[左眼] 5 回复：医学英语常用前后缀·oligo-[少] ▲oligophrenia[智力发育不全]▲oliguria[少尿] ·-oma[肿瘤] ▲adenoma[腺瘤] ▲osteoma[骨瘤] ·onco-[肿瘤]▲oncology[肿瘤学] ▲oncogene[癌基因] ·ophthalmo-[眼] ▲ophthalmocele[眼球突出]▲ophthalmoplegia[眼肌麻痹] ·-osis[病] ▲cirrhosis[肝硬化] ▲mycosis[霉菌病] ·osteo-[骨] ▲osteomalacia[骨软化] ▲osteoarthritis[骨关节炎] ·oto-[耳] ▲otolith[耳石]▲otoplasty[耳成形术] ▲otopyosis[耳化脓] ·pan-[全] ▲panimmunity[多种免疫]▲pantalgia[全身痛] ▲pantatrophia[全身营养不良] ·-para[产妇] ▲primipara[初产妇]▲nullipara[未产妇] ·-pathy[病] ▲dermatopathy[皮肤病] ▲Cardiomyopathy[心肌病] ·pedia-[儿童] ▲pediatrician[儿科医师] ▲pediatrics[儿科学] ·-penia[减少]▲leucopenia[白细胞减少] ▲thrombopenia[血小板减少] ·per-[经] ▲percutaneous[经皮肤的] ·peri-[周围] ▲pericarditis[心包炎] ▲perianal[肛周的] ·pharmaco-[药]▲pharmacokinetics[药代动力学] ▲physicochemistry[药典] ·physio-[物理▲physiotheraphy[理疗] ▲physicochemistry[物理化学] ·-plasty[成形术] ▲angioplasty[血管成形术] ▲homoplasty[同种移植] ▲gastroplasty[胃成形术] ·-plegia[瘫] ▲paraplegia[截瘫] ▲hemiplegia[偏瘫] ·pleuro-[胸膜] ▲pleuritis[胸膜炎] ▲pleurocentesis[胸腔穿刺术] ·-pnea[呼吸] ▲orthopnea[端坐呼吸] ▲tachypnea[呼吸急促] ·pneumo-[气，肺]▲pneumothorax[气胸] ▲pneumococcus[肺炎球菌] ·poly-[多] ▲polyuria[多尿]▲polycholia[胆汗过多] ·post-[后] ▲postpartum[产后] ▲postoperation[术后] ·pre-[前]▲premenopause[绝经前期] ▲premature[早搏] ▲preload[前负荷] ·pseudo-[假]▲psudohypertrophy[假性肥大] ▲psudomembranous[假膜的] ·psycho-[精神，心理]▲psychology[心理学] ▲psychiatry[精神病学] ·-ptosis[下垂] ▲nephroptosis[肾下垂]▲hysteroptosis[子宫下垂] ·-ptysis[咯] ▲pyoptysis[咯脓] ▲hemoptysis[咯血] ·pyo-[脓]▲pyorrhea[溢脓] ▲pyosis[化脓] ·radio-[放射] ▲radiotherapy[放疗] ▲radiology[放射学] ·recto-[直肠] ▲rectitis[直肠炎] ▲rectectomy[直肠切除术] ·retino-[视网膜]▲retinitis[视网膜炎] ▲retinodialysis[视网膜分离] ·rhino-[鼻] ▲rhinitis[鼻炎]▲rhinorrhea[鼻漏] ·-rrhagia[出血] ▲gastorrhagia[胃出血] ▲hemorrhage[出血]▲pneumorrhagia[肺出血] ·-rrhaphy[缝合术] ▲neurorrhaphy[神经缝合术]▲Vasorrhaphy[输卵管缝合术] ·-rrhea[流出] ▲diarrhea[腹泻] ▲menorrhea[月经] ·schisto-[裂] ▲schistosomiasis[血吸虫病] ▲schistoglossia[舌裂] ·scirrho-[硬]▲scirrhosarca[硬皮病] ▲scirrhoma[硬癌] ·sclero-[硬] ▲scleroderma[硬皮病]▲sclerometer[硬度计] ·-scope(y)[镜，检查] ▲stethoscope[听诊器] ▲otoscope[耳镜]▲proctoscopy[直肠镜检查法] ·semi-[半] ▲semicoma[半昏迷] ▲semiliquid[半流汁] ·spondylo-[脊椎] ▲spondylopathy[脊椎病] ▲spondylitis[脊椎炎] ·-stomy[造口术]▲colostomy[结肠造口术] ▲ilecolostomy[回结肠吻合术] ·sub-[下，亚] ▲subacute[亚急性] ▲subabdominal[下腹部的] ·super-[在…上] ▲superficial[浅的] ▲superoxide[超氧化物] ·supra-[上] ▲supraventricular[室上性的] ▲suprarenalism[肾上腺机能亢进] ·tachy-[快] ▲tachycardia[心动过速] ▲tachypnea[呼吸急促] ·-therapy[治疗] ▲massotherapy[按摩治疗] ▲pharmacotherapy[药物治疗] ·thermo-[热] ▲thermometer[温度计]▲thermatology[热疗学] ·thrombo-[血栓，血小板] ▲thrombolysis[溶栓]▲thrombocytopenia[血小板减少症] ▲thrombosis[血] ·-tomy[切开术] ▲tracheotomy[气管切开术] ▲ovariotomy[卵巢切开术] ·tracheo-[气管] ▲tracheoscope[气管镜]▲tracheorrhagia[气管出血] ·trans-[经，转移] ▲transurethral[经尿道] ▲transfusion[输血] ·-trophy[营养] ▲dystrophy[营养不良] ▲atrophy[萎缩] ·ultra-[超过] ▲ultraviolet[紫外线] ▲ultrasound[超声] ·utero-[子宫] ▲uteroscope[子宫镜] ▲uterotonic[宫缩剂] ·vaso-[血管] ▲vasomotion[血管舒缩] ▲Vasodilator[血管扩张剂] 6 回复：医学英语常用前后缀·cephalo-[头] ▲cephaloxia[斜颈] ▲cephalopathy[头部疾病] ▲cephalotomy[穿颅术] ·cerebello-[小脑] ▲cerebellitis[小脑炎] ▲cerebellum[小脑] ·cerebro-[大脑]▲cerebritis[大脑炎] ▲cerebrology[脑学] ·chemo-[化学] ▲chemotherapy[化疗] ·chloro-[绿，氯] ▲chloroform[氯仿] ▲chloromycetin[氯霉素] ▲chlorophyll[叶绿素] ·cholangio-[胆道] ▲cholangitis[胆管炎] ▲cholangiectasis[胆管扩张] ·cholo-[胆]▲cholagogue[利胆剂] ▲cholelithiasis[胆石症] ▲cholecystitis[胆囊炎] ▲cholesterol[胆固醇] ·chondro-[软骨] ▲chondrosarcoma[软骨肉瘤] ▲chondrification[骨软化] ·chromo-[色素] ▲cytochrome[细胞色素] ▲chromosome[染色体] ·-cide[杀……剂] ▲germicide[杀菌剂] ▲aborticide[堕胎药] ·circum-[周围] ▲circumoral[口周的] ▲circumcision[包皮环切术] ·coagulo-[凝固] ▲coagulant[凝血剂] ·colo-[结肠] ▲colotomy[结肠切开术]▲coloptosis[结肠下垂] ·colpo (coleo)-[阴道] ▲coleospastia[阴道痉挛] ▲colposcope[阴道镜] ·contra-[反，逆] ▲contraindication[禁忌证] ▲contraceptive[避孕药] ·counter-[反，逆] ▲counteragent[拮抗剂] ▲conuterpoison[解毒剂] ·cranio-[颅] ▲craniomalacia[颅骨软化] ▲cranioclasis[碎颅术] ·-cyst-[囊] ▲cystomy[膀胱切开术] ▲dacryocyst[泪囊] ·-cyte-[细胞] ▲lymphocyte[淋巴细胞] ▲cytolysis[细胞溶解] ·de-[除去] ▲detoxication[解毒] ·dento[牙] ▲dentistry[牙科学] ▲dentalgia[牙痛] ·-derm-[皮肤] ▲epiderm[表皮] ▲dermatology[皮肤病学] ▲dermoplasty[皮肤成形术] ·dextro-[右] ▲dextrocardia[右位心] ▲dexiotropic[右旋的] ·dis-[分离] ▲discission[分离术] ▲disinfection[消毒法] ·duodeno-[十二指肠]▲duodenitis[十二指肠炎] ▲duodenostomy[十二指肠造口术] ·-dynia[痛] ▲acrodynia[肢体痛] ▲urethrodynia[尿道痛] ·dys-[异常] ▲dysfunction[功能不良] ▲dyshormonism[内分泌障碍] ▲dysuria[排尿困难] ·-ectasis[扩张] ▲gastroectasis[胃扩张] ▲aerenterectasia[肠胀气] ▲bronchiectasia[支气管扩张] ·-ectomy[切除术] ▲appendectomy[阑尾切除术]▲lipectomy[脂肪切除术] ·-edema[水肿] ▲encephaledema[脑水肿] ▲myxedema[粘液性水肿] ·-emesia[呕] ▲hematemesia[呕血] ▲helminthemesia[吐虫] ·encephalo-[脑]▲encephaloma[脑瘤] ▲encephaledema[脑水肿] ·endo-[内] ▲endocarditis[心内膜炎]▲endoscope[内窥镜] ·entero-[肠] ▲enteritis[肠炎] ▲enterovirus[肠病毒] ·epi-[上，外] ▲epigastrium[上腹部] ·erythro-[红] ▲erythromycin[红霉素] ▲erythroderma[红皮病] ·esophago-[食管] ▲esophagoscope[食管镜] ▲esophagitis[食管炎] ·extra-[……外]▲extracellular[细胞外的] ▲extrasystole[额外收缩] ·facio-[面] ▲facioplegia[面瘫]▲facioplasty[面部成形术] ·-fast[耐] ▲acid-fast[抗酸的] ▲uviofast[耐紫外线] ·febri-[热] ▲febricula[低热] ▲febrifacient[致热的] ·feti-[胎儿] ▲feticulture[妊娠期卫生]▲fetometry[胎儿测量法] ·fibro-[纤维] ▲fibroblast[成纤维细胞] 7 回复：医学英语常用前后缀▲fibrosis[纤维化] ·fore-[前] ▲forebrain[前脑] ▲forehead[前额] ·-form[形状]▲oviform[卵形的] ▲granuliform[颗粒状的] ·fungi-[真菌，霉菌] ▲fungicide[杀真菌剂]▲fungistasis[制霉菌作用] ·gastro-[胃] ▲gastroptosis[胃下垂] ▲gastroenteritis[胃肠炎] ▲gastroscopy[胃镜检查] ▲gastratrophy[胃萎缩] ·-gen [原，剂] ▲glycogen[糖原]▲pathogen[病原体] ▲androgen[雄激素] ▲Estrogen[雌激素] ·-genic[……性]▲cardiogenic[心源性的] ▲allergenic[变应反应] ·giganto-[巨大] ▲gigantocyte[巨红细胞] ▲gigantism[巨大症] ·gingivo-[牙龈] ▲gingivitis[牙龈炎] ▲gingivostomatitis[牙龈口腔炎] ·glosso-[舌] ▲glossoplegia[舌瘫痪] ·gluco-[糖] ▲glucoprotein[糖蛋白]▲glucocorticoid[糖皮质激素] ·glyco-[糖] ▲glycogen[糖原] ▲glycouria[糖尿] ·-grade[级，度] ▲centigrade[摄氏温度计] ▲retrograde[逆行性] ·-gram[克，图] ▲microgram[微克] ▲electroencephalogram[脑电图] ·-graph(y)[……仪（法）] ▲electrocardiogram[心电图] ▲bronchography[支气管造影术] ·gyneco-[妇女] ▲gynecology[妇科学] ▲gynecopathy[妇科病] ·hemo(hemato)-[血] ▲hemoglobin[血红蛋白] ▲hematoma[血肿] ·hemi-[半]▲hemiplegia[偏瘫] ▲hemicrania[偏头病] ·hepato-[肝] ▲hepatitis[肝炎]▲hepatocirrhosis[肝硬化] ▲hepatosplenomegaly[肝脾肿大] ·hidro-[汗]▲hyperhidrosis[多汗症] ▲anhidrosis[无汗症] ·histo-[组织] ▲histology[组织学]▲histomorphology[组织形态学] ·holo-[全] ▲holonarcosis[全麻] ▲holoenzyme[全酶] ·homo-[同] ▲homotype[同型] ▲homologue[同系物] ▲homoplasty[同种移植术] ·hydro-[水] ▲hydropericardium[心包积水] ▲hydrolysis [水解] ·hypr-[高]▲hypercalcemia[高钙血症] ▲hyperthyroidism[甲亢] ·hypno-[睡眼] ▲hypnotics[安眠药] ▲hypnotherapy[催眠疗法] ·hypo-[低] ▲hypotension[低血压] ▲hypoglycemia[低血糖] ·hystero-[子宫] ▲hysterospasm[子宫痉挛] ▲hysteroptosis[子宫下垂] ·-ia[病]▲melancholia[忧郁症] ▲pyrexia[发热] ·-iatrics[医学] ▲pediatrics[儿科学] ▲geriatrics[老年病学] ·-iatry[医学] ▲psychiatry[精神病学] ▲pediatry[儿科学] ·immuno-[免疫]▲immunoglobulin[免疫球蛋白] ▲immunotherapy[免疫疗法] ·infra-[下] ▲infraorbital[眶下的] ▲infrared[红外线] ·inter-[间] ▲intervertebral[椎间的] ▲intercellular[细胞间的] ·intra-[内] ▲intravenous[静脉内的] ▲intracranial[颅内的] ▲intramuscular[肌肉内的] ·-ist[家] ▲pathologist[病理学家] ▲anatomist[解剖学家] ·-itis[炎症] ▲cellulitis[蜂窝织炎] ▲myocarditis[心肌炎] ·leuco (leuko)-[白] ▲leucorrhea[白带] ▲leukocytosis[白细胞增多] ▲leukemia[白血病] ·lipo-(脂) ▲lipotrophy[脂肪增多] ▲lipase[脂酶] ·-lith[结石]▲cholelith[胆结石] ▲cholelithiasis[胆石症] ·-logy[学] ▲terminology[术语学]▲Cardiology[心脏病学] ·lumbo-[腰] ▲lumbosacral[腰骶部的] ▲lumbago[腰背痛]▲lumbodynia[腰痛] ·lympho-[淋巴] ▲lymphedema[淋巴水肿] ▲lymphocytopenia[淋巴细胞减少] ·-lysis(lytic)[松解，分解了] ▲aythrolysis[关节松解术] ▲spasmolytic[解痉的] ·macro-[大] ▲macrophage[巨噬细胞] ▲macromolecule[大分子] ·mal-[不良]▲malnutrition[营养不良] ▲malfunction[功能不全] ·-megaly[巨大] ▲cardiomegaly[心扩大] ▲cephalomegaly[巨头畸形] ·meningo-[脑膜] ▲meningitis[脑膜炎]▲meningocephalitis[脑膜脑炎] ·meno-[月经] ▲dysmenorrhea[痛经] ▲menopause[停经] ·-meter[表，计] ▲spirometer[肺活量计] ▲pyrometer[高温表] ·-metry[测量法]▲iodometry[碘定量法] ·micro-[小] ▲micropump[微泵] ▲microliter[微升] ·mono-[单-] ▲mononucleosis[单核细胞增多] ▲monomer[单体] ·multi-[多] ▲multinuclear[多核的]▲multipara[经产妇] ·myelo-[髓] ▲myelocele[脊髓膨出] ▲myelocyte[髓细胞] ·myo-[肌] ▲myocarditis[心肌炎] ▲myofibroma[肌纤维瘤] ·naso-[鼻] ▲nasoscope[鼻镜]▲nasitis[鼻炎] ·neo-[新] ▲neoplasm[瘤] ▲neomycin[新霉素] ·nephro-[肾]▲nephropathy[肾病] ▲nephrosclerosis[肾硬变] ·neuro-[神经] ▲neuroma[神经瘤]▲neurodermatitis[神经性皮炎] ·non-[非] ▲non-electrolyte[非电解质] ▲nonfetal[非致命的] ·nulli-[无] ▲nullipara[未产妇] ▲nulligravida[未孕妇] ·nutri-[营养] ▲nutrition[营养] ▲nutrology[营养学] ·oculo-[眼] ▲oculist[眼科医生] ▲oculus dexter[右眼] ▲oculus sinister[左眼]医学英语缩写一览表医学英语缩写一览表·aa.-of each[各] ·Ab.-antibody[抗体] ·abd.-abdomen[腹部] ·ABG-arterial blood gas[动脉血气] ·abn.-abnormal[异常] ·ABp-arterial blood pressure[动脉压] ·Abs.-absent[无] ·abstr.-abstract[摘要] ·a.c.-before meals[饭前] ·Ach.-actylcholine[乙酰胆碱] ·ACH.-adrenal cortical hormone[肾上腺皮质激素] ·ACT.-active coagulative time[活化凝血时间] ·ACTH.-adrenocorticotripic[促肾上腺皮质激素] ·ad.(add.)-adde[加] ·ad effect.-ad effectum [直到有效] ·ADH.-antidiuretic hormone[抗利尿激素] ·ad lib-at liesure[随意] ·adm.(admin)-adminstration[给药] ·ad us est.-for external use[外用] ·af.-atrial fibrillation[房颤] ·aF.-atrial flutter[房扑] ·A/G ratio.-albumin-globulin ratio[白-球蛋白比] ·AIDS.-acquired immune deficiency syndrome[爱滋病] ·al.-left ear[左耳] ·alb.-albumin[白蛋白] ·AM.-before noon[上午] ·amb.-ambulance[救护车] ·amp.(ampul)-ampoule[安瓿] ·ANA.-anesthesia[麻醉] ·anal.-analgesic[镇痛药] ·ap.-before dinner[饭前] ·appr.(approx.)-approximately [大约] ·AR.-aortic regurgitation[主闭] ·AS.-aortic stenosis[主狭] ·ASA.-aspirin[阿斯匹林] ·ASD.-atrial septal defect[房缺] ·AST.-aspartate transaminase[谷草转氨酶] ·atm.(atmos.)-atomsphere[大气压] ·ATS.-antitetanic serum[抗破伤风血清] ·av.-average[平均] ·Ba.-Barium[钡] ·BBT.-basal body temperature[基础体温] ·BCG.-bacille Calmette- Guerin[卡介苗] ·biblio.-biliography[参考文献] ·bid.-twice a day[每日二次] ·b.m.-basal metabolism[基础代谢] ·Bp.-blood pressure[血压] ·bpm-baets per minute[次/分] ·BS.-blood sugar[血糖] ·BW.-body weight[体重] ·C.- centigrade[摄氏温度计] ·CA.-carcinoma[癌] ·Cal.-cancer[癌] ·Cal. – calorie[卡] ·Cap. –capsule[囊] ·C.B.C-complete blood count[血常规] ·CC.-chief complaint[主诉] ·CC.list.-critical condition list[病危通知单] ·CCU.- Coronary care unit[冠心病监护室] ·CD.-caesarean delivered[剖腹产] ·CDC.-calculated date of confinement[预产期] ·CEA.-carcinoembryonic antigen[癌胚抗原] ·CG.-control group[对照组] ·CK.-creatine kinase[肌酸激酶] ·Cl.-centilitre[毫开] ·cm.-centimetre[毫米] ·CNS.-central nervous system[中枢神经系统] ·Co.-compound[复方] ·contra.-contraindicated[禁忌] ·CT.- computerized tomography[计算机断层扫描] ·C.V-curriculum vitae[简历] ·DBp-diastolic blood pressure[舒张压] ·DD.- differential diagnosis[鉴别诊断] ·dept.-department[科] ·diag.-diagonsis[诊断] ·DIC-disseminate intravascular coagulation[弥漫性血管内凝血] ·dl.-deciliter[分升] ·DM.-diabetic mellitus[糖尿病] ·DM.-diastolic murmur[舒张期杂音] ·D.O.A-dead on arrival[到达时已死亡] ·DOB.-date of birth[出生日期] ·Dr.-doctor[医生] ·DIW.-dextrose in water[葡萄糖液] ·D-5-W,-5% dextrose in water[5%葡萄糖液] ·DU-duodenal ulcer[十二指肠溃疡] ·ECG.(EKG.)- electrocardiograph[心电图] ·ECHO .-echogram[超声] ·EDD.(EDC)-expected date of delivery (confinement)[预产期] ·ENT. – ears, nose and throat[五官科] ·EMG. –electromyogram[肌电图] ·ER. – emergency room[急诊室] ·et al.-and elsewhere[等等] ·etc. – and so forth[等等] ·F.(Fahr.)-Fahrenheit [华氏] ·F- Female[女性] ·F.B.S.- fasting blood sugar[空腹血糖] ·FDP.-fibrinogen degradation products[纤维蛋白原降解产物] ·FFA. – free fatty acid[游离脂肪酸] ·FUO. – fever of unknown origin[不明原因发热] ·FX. – fracture [骨折] ·GH. – growth hormone[生长素] ·GI.- gastrointestinal[消化] ·GITS. – gastrointestinal therapy system[胃肠治疗系统] ·gtt. – drops[滴] ·GU.- gastric ulcer[胃溃疡] ·Hb. –hemoglobin[血红蛋白] ·HBp.-high blood pressure[高血压] ·HCG. – human choroionic gonadotropic hormone[人绒毛膜促性腺激素] ·HDL.- high density lipoprotein[高密度脂蛋白] ·HR.-heart rate[心率] ·ht.-height[身高] ·HTN.-hypertension[高血压] ·Hx.-history [病历] ·Hypo.-hypodermic injection[皮下注射] ·IABP.-intra – aortic balloon pacing[主动脉内囊反搏] ·I/O.-intake and output [进出量] ·ICU. – intensive care unit[重症监护病房] ·ie. –that is [即] ·Ig. – immunoglobulin[免疫球蛋白] ·Im. – iutramuscular[肌内的] ·INH.- inhalation[吸入] ·INH.- isoniazid[异烟肼] ·Inj.- injection[注射] ·Int.- intern[实习生] ·IP.- in-patient[住院病入] ·Iu.- international unit[国防单位] ·IV.-intravenously[静脉内] ·J.- joule[焦耳] ·K.U.B- Kidney,ureter and bladder[肾、输尿管和膀胱] ·LBp.-low blood pressure [低血压] ·LC. – laparoscopic cholecystectomy[腹腔镜胆囊切除术] ·LDL.-Low density lipoprotein[低密度脂蛋白] ·Liq. – liquid[液体] ·LMP.- last menstrual period[未次月经] ·LP. –lumbar puncture[腰穿] ·M. –male[男性] ·MCD.-mean corpuscular diameter[平均红细胞直径] ·MCH.-mean corpuscular hemoglobin[平均红细胞血红蛋白量] ·MCHC.-mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration[平均红细胞血红蛋白浓度] ·MCV.-mean corpuscular volume[平均红细胞体积] ·MI.-myocardial infarction[心梗] ·min.-minute[分] ·mixt。
药学英语课文翻译 课后翻译节选 中英双语对照 第四版
本篇包括人卫第四版Unit 3B，Unit4A，5A，8A，10A，12AB，13A等七篇课文Unit 3 Text B The Other Side of Antibiotics抗生素的另一面Antibiotics have eliminated or controlled so many infectious diseases that virtually everyone has benefited from their use at one time or another. Even without such personal experience, however, one would have to be isolated indeed to be unaware of the virtues, real and speculative, of these “miracle” drugs1. The American press, radio, and television have done a good job of reporting the truly remarkable story of successes in the chemical war on germs. What′s more, any shortcomings on their part have been more than made up for by the aggressive public relations activity of the pharmaceutical companies which manufacture and sell antibiotics.抗生素可以消除或控制很多种感染疾病，以致几乎每人生病时都习惯于使用它而受益，但是如果一个人没有这样的亲身经历，他必定是离群索居才会不知道这些“特效药物”或真实或推测的优点。
医学常用医学专业英文翻译
医学常用医学专业英文翻译Medical Translations in Common Medical SpecialitiesMedical field has a wide array of specialities and sub-disciplines, each with its own unique terminology. In order to maintain effective communication between healthcare professionals and patients, accurate translation of medical terms from English to other languages becomes crucial. This article aims to provide common medical translations in various medical specialities.1. Internal Medicine- Gastroenterology: The study of the digestive system- Gastritis: 胃炎- Hepatitis: 肝炎- Pancreatitis: 胰腺炎- Colonoscopy: 结肠镜检查- Endoscopy: 内窥镜检查- Cardiology: The study of the heart and its diseases- Myocardial infarction: 心肌梗塞- Arrhythmia: 心律不齐- Atherosclerosis: 动脉粥样硬化- Angioplasty: 血管成形术- Echocardiogram: 超声心动图- Endocrinology: The study of the endocrine system and hormonal disorders- Diabetes mellitus: 糖尿病- Hypothyroidism: 甲状腺功能低下- Hyperthyroidism: 甲状腺功能亢进- Insulin resistance: 胰岛素抵抗- Thyroidectomy: 甲状腺切除术2. Pediatrics- Pediatrics: The medical care of infants, children, and adolescents- Vaccination: 疫苗接种- Asthma: 哮喘- Pediatrician: 儿科医生- Growth chart: 儿童生长曲线图- Croup: 喉炎- Neonatology: The care of newborn infants, especially the ill or premature ones- Premature birth: 早产- Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU): 新生儿重症监护室- Respiratory distress syndrome: 呼吸窘迫综合征- Jaundice: 黄疸- Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA): 动脉导管未闭3. Surgery- Orthopedic surgery: The branch of surgery concerning the musculoskeletal system- Fracture: 骨折- Arthroscopy: 关节镜检查- Hip replacement: 髋关节置换- Spinal fusion: 脊柱融合术- Osteoporosis: 骨质疏松症- Neurosurgery: The surgical specialty that deals with the nervous system- Brain tumor: 脑肿瘤- Cerebrovascular accident (CVA): 脑血管意外- Epilepsy: 癫痫- Lumbar puncture: 腰穿- Meningitis: 脑膜炎- Plastic surgery: The branch of surgery concerned with reconstructive or cosmetic surgery- Rhinoplasty: 鼻部整形术- Breast augmentation: 乳房增大手术- Liposuction: 抽脂手术- Facelift: 提眉手术- Scar revision: 疤痕修复手术4. Obstetrics and Gynecology- Obstetrics: The branch of medicine concerned with childbirth and midwifery- Cesarean section: 剖腹产- Miscarriage: 流产- Prenatal care: 产前护理- Labor induction: 人工催生- Ectopic pregnancy: 异位妊娠- Gynecology: The medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system- Pap smear: 宫颈涂片检查- Endometriosis: 子宫内膜异位症- Fibroids: 子宫肌瘤- Menopause: 更年期- Hysterectomy: 子宫切除术These translations are just a few examples of the medical terms in different specialities. It is important to note that accurate translation requires a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as specific medical knowledge. Medical professionals and translators need to work together to ensure effective communication in the field of medicine.。
医药英语教程第四单元课文翻译
Computing from basement to bedside从地下室到床旁的计算The use of computers inareas related to medicine dates from the mid-1960s,and very costly. Their main use-automating simple repetitive tasks was not well suited to the complex nature of medicine,though they had potential user in related areas.An example of this was the use of computers to automate the creation of Index Medicus,an index of articles published in medical journals.Subsequently,the database was made available online, under the name Medline ,increasing speed and efficiency in locating relevant puters also began to be used in laboratories in simple testing and for making results available.在医学史上于上世纪60年代中期计算机的使用是非常昂贵的。
虽然他们在相关领域有潜在用户，但他们的主要用途是简单的重复性任务，不适合复杂性质的药物。
这方面的一个例子是电脑自动索引的创建使用，发表在医学期刊论文索引。
随后，在名称索引下，数据基地提供了可在线使用，提高速度和效率在定位相关文章。
电脑也开始被用于简单的测试和在实验室的制造研发中可用。
医学英语新教材下册unit4翻译(DOC)
Section B ReadingsPassage 1Hyperactivity Disorder多动症Symptoms and Signs1 For over 50 years physicians have been evaluating and treating children who show various combinations of motoric overactivity, impulsivity, distractibility, and inattentiveness. During that time, the terminology describing these children has changed, reflecting the shifting ideas about etiology and about the relationship of the symptoms of overactivity to the symptoms of inattentiveness. Called at different times minimal brain damage, minimal brain dysfunction, hyperactive child syndrome, hyperactive reaction of childhood, and attention-deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, the syndrome is now known as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In DSM-IV, ADHD is divided into three subtypes：a combined type (most frequent), a pre- dominantly inattentive type, and a predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type. This most recent diagnostic terminology reflects current thinking about the possible heterogeneity of this disorder.症状和体征1 内科医生们一直在进行着对一类孩子长达五十多年的诊断和治疗，这些孩子都体现出了一种或几种如下特点，即：肢体运动过于活跃，性格易冲动，注意力涣散，和粗心大意。
医学通识英语课本各单元翻译
Unit 1在历史的长河中，中国古代社会形成了“早、多、男”的生育观（child-bearing outlook ）。
而新型生育文化的核心是“男女平等，少生优生”。
但是，在现阶段，代孕仍然有市场。
有些富人想要更多的儿子来继承家族企业；有些女人因为年龄问题生不了孩子，或者因为要保持身材而不生孩子；有些妇产医院（maternity hospital）的医生为了挣外快而参与代孕。
代孕成为某些人建立完整家庭的一种选择。
这些复杂的社会因素相互作用，影响着中国的代孕市场。
Over the Chinese history, since the ancient times, a child-bearing outlook had been developed and adopted by the society: giving birth at an early age, giving birth to as many children as possible, and the male-bearing preference. But at the core of the new child-bearing value, “Men and women are equal, and having fewer and better children is preferred.” In today’s world, surrogacy is still proliferating in that some rich people want to have more sons to inherit the family’s fortune, or some women have lost the ability to bear children at an elder age, or some women simply don’t want to bear children in or order to keep a slim figure, or some doctors in maternity hospitals take part in the surrogacy dealing to make profits. Surrogacy is an option for those people to have a complete family. These social factors interact with each other so much so that they have affected the underground surrogate market in China.Unit 2根据中国妇联所搜集的数据来看，整容业在2010年已发展成为产值达3000亿人民币的产业。
医学英语翻译外国文献
Association between IL28B gene polymorphisms and plasmaHCV-RNA levels in HIV/HCV-co-infected patients.Labarga P, Soriano V, Caruz A, Poveda E, Di Lello F, Hernandez-Quero J, Moreno S, Bernal E, Miró JM, Leal M, Gutierrez F, Portilla J, Pineda JA; on behalf of CoRIS.aInfectious Diseases Department, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain bMolecular Biology Department, Jaen University, Jaen, Spain cInfectious Diseases Unit, Hospital de Valme, Seville, Spain dInfectious Diseases, Hospital San Cecilio, Granada, Spain eInfectious Diseases Service, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain fService of Internal Medicine, Hospital Reina Sofía, Murcia, Spain gInfectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain hInfectious Diseases Service, Hospital Virgen del Rocio, Seville, Spain iInfectious Diseases Unit, Hospital de Elche, Elche, Spain jInfectious Diseases Unit, Hospital de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.AbstractBACKGROUND: IL28B polymorphisms influence both the rate of spontaneous hepatitis C virus (HCV) clearance and response to interferon α (IFNα)-based therapy. This observation has been reproduced in HIV-co-infected individuals. Controversy exists about the impact of IL28B alleles on HCV load. METHODS: CoRIS is a nationwide, open cohort of newly diagnosed HIV-1 adults in Spain. In the subset of HCV-co-infected individuals, the relationship between plasma HCV-RNA and IL28B (rs12979860) genotypes was evaluated.RESULTS: A total of 4670 HIV-1-infected patients had been included in CoRIS up to June 2010. All were naive for IFNα. HCV antibodies were reac tive in 895 (19%). Of them, 289 specimens were available and tested positive for plasma HCV-RNA, with median values of 959 900 IU/ml. The rs12979860 genotype distribution in HCV viremic patients was CC 45%, CT 42.2% and TT 12.8%. The median plasma HCV-RNA according to IL28B genotypes was: CC 1 385 000, CT 848 939 and TT 251 189 IU/ml (P = 0.006). The percentage of patients with HCV-RNA more than 600 000 IU/ml was: CC 67.7%, CT 56.6% and TT 35.1% (P = 0.001). In multivariate analysis, IL28B CC/CT genotypes, infection with HCV genotypes 1/4 and prior intravenous drug users were independent predictors of HCV-RNA more than 600000 IU/ml.CONCLUSION: HIV/HCV-co-infected patients with the C allele (CC/CT) at rs12979860 show significantly higher plasma HCV-RNA load than TT carriers. Notably, plasma HCV-RNA levels associated with poorer response to IFNα-based therapy are significantly more frequent in CC/CT than TT carriers. Hypothetically, patients harboring the rs12979860 allele C could display a lower activity of endogenous IFNα, allowing higher HCV replication while keeping an enhanced susceptibility to exogenous IFNα therapy.PMID: 21378537 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]selected towards the adverse genotypes rs12979860CT/TT compared to non-transplanted HCV-infected patients (p=0.046). Patients with the donor genotype rs12979860CC had higher peak ALT and HCV RNA serum concentrations than those with CT/TT (p=0.04 and 0.06, respectively). No associations were observed between ALT / HCV RNA serum concentrations and recipient genotypes (p>0.3). More important, donor IL28B rs12979860 CC vs. CT/TT genotypes were associated with rapid, complete early, and sustained virologic response (RVR, cEVR, SVR) to treatment with PEG-IFN-α and ribavirin (p=0.003, 0.0012, 0.008, respectively), but weaker associations of recipient genotypes with RVR, cEVR and SVR were observed as well (p=0.0046, 0.115, 0.118, respectively).CONCLUSIONS: We provide evidence for a dominant, but not exclusive impact of the donor rather than the recipient IL28B genetic background on the natural course and treatment outcome of HCV liver graft reinfection.Copyright © 2010. Published by Elsevier B.V.PMID: 21147186 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]/pubmed/21147186PubMed找以上在此找的Randomized Trial of Stents versus Bypass Surgery for Left Main Coronary Artery DiseaseSeung-Jung Park, M.D., Young-Hak Kim, M.D., Duk-Woo Park, M.D., Sung-Cheol Yun, Ph.D., Jung-Min Ahn, M.D., Hae Geun Song, M.D., Jong-Young Lee, M.D., Won-Jang Kim, M.D., Soo-Jin Kang, M.D., Seung-WhanLee, M.D., Cheol Whan Lee, M.D., Seong-Wook Park, M.D., Cheol-Hyun Chung, M.D., Jae-Won Lee, M.D., Do-Sun Lim, M.D., Seung-Woon Rha, M.D., Sang-Gon Lee, M.D., Hyeon-Cheol Gwon, M.D., Hyo-Soo Kim, M.D., In-Ho Chae, M.D., Yangsoo Jang, M.D., Myung-Ho Jeong, M.D., Seung-Jea Tahk, M.D., and Ki Bae Seung, M.D.April 4, 2011 (10.1056/NEJMoa1100452)AbstractArticleReferencesBACKGROUNDPercutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is increasingly used to treat unprotected left main coronary artery stenosis, although coronary-artery bypass grafting (CABG) has been considered to be the treatment of choice.Full Text of Background...METHODSWe randomly assigned patients with unprotected left main coronary artery stenosis to undergo CABG (300 patients) or PCI with sirolimus-eluting stents (300 patients). Using a wide margin for noninferiority, we compared the groups with respect to the primary composite end point of major adverse cardiac or cerebrovascular events (death from any cause, myocardial infarction, stroke, or ischemia-driven target-vessel revascularization) at1 year. Event rates at2 years were also compared between the two groups.Full Text of Methods...RESULTSThe primary end point occurred in 26 patients assigned to PCI as compared with 20 patients assigned to CABG (cumulative event rate, 8.7% vs. 6.7%; absolute risk difference,2.0 percentage points; 95% confidence interval [CI], −1.6 to 5.6; P=0.01 for noninferiority).By 2 years, the primary end point had occurred in 36 patients in the PCI group as compared with 24 in the CABG group (cumulative event rate, 12.2% vs. 8.1%; hazard ratio with PCI, 1.50; 95% CI, 0.90 to 2.52; P=0.12). The composite rate of death, myocardial infarction, or stroke at 2 years occurred in 13 and 14 patients in the two groups, respectively (cumulative event rate, 4.4% and 4.7%, respectively; hazard ratio, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.43 to 1.96; P=0.83). Ischemia-driven target-vessel revascularization occurred in 26 patients in the PCI group as compared with 12 patients in the CABG group (cumulative event rate, 9.0% vs. 4.2%; hazard ratio, 2.18; 95% CI, 1.10 to 4.32; P=0.02).Full Text of Results...CONCLUSIONSIn this randomized trial involving patients with unprotected left main coronary artery stenosis, PCI with sirolimus-eluting stents was shown to be noninferior to CABG with respect to major adverse cardiac or cerebrovascular events. However, the noninferiority margin was wide, and the results cannot be considered clinically directive. (Funded by the Cardiovascular Research Foundation, Seoul, Korea, and others; PRECOMBAT number, NCT00422968.)Full Text of Discussion...Read the Full Article...Use of Fibrates in the United States and Canada1.Cynthia A. Jackevicius, PharmD, MSc;2.Jack V. Tu, MD, PhD;3.Joseph S. Ross, MD, MHS;4.Dennis T. Ko, MD, MSc;5.Daniel Carreon, PharmD;6.Harlan M. Krumholz, MD, SM[+] Author Affiliations1.Author Affiliations: Department of Pharmacy Practice and Administration, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California (Drs Jackevicius and Carreon); Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Drs Jackevicius, Tu, and Ko); Department of Health Policy, Management, and Evaluation, Faculty of Medicine (Drs Jackevicius and Tu) and Division of Cardiology, Schulich Heart Centre, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre (Drs Tu and Ko), University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California (Dr Jackevicius); University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Dr Jackevicius); Department of Medicine, Section of General Internal Medicine (Dr Ross), Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Section of Health Policy and Administration (Dr Krumholz), and Section of Cardiovascular Medicine (Dr Krumholz), Yale UniversitySchool of Medicine, Center for OutcomesResearch and Evaluation, Yale New HavenHospital, New Haven, Connecticut (Drs Rossand Krumholz); and Robert Wood JohnsonClinical Scholars Program, New Haven,Connecticut (Dr Krumholz)AbstractContext Interest in the role of fibrates intensified after the publication of the negative results from the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) trial, which assessed therapy with fenofibrate plus statins. The evidence for clinical benefit in outcomes with the use of fibrates is heavily weighted on the use of the older fibrates such as gemfibrozil and clofibrate. Objectives To examine trends in the current use of fibrates and to examine the relationship between differences in the availability and use of brand-name vs generic formulations of fenofibrate and the economic implications in the United States compared with Canada. Design, Setting, and Patients Population-level, observational cohort study using IMS Health data fromthe United States and Canada of patients prescribed fibrates between January 2002 and December 2009. Main Outcome Measures Fibrate prescriptions dispensed and expenditures.Results In the United States, fibrate prescriptions dispensed increased from 336 prescriptions/100 000 population in January 2002 to 730 prescriptions/100 000 population in December 2009, an increase of 117.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 116.0%-117.9%), whereas in Canada, fibrate prescriptions increased from 402 prescriptions/100 000 population in January 2002 to 474 prescriptions/100 000 population in December 2009, an increase of 18.1% (95% CI, 17.9%-18.3%) (P <.001). In the United States, fenofibrate prescriptions dispensed increased from 150 prescriptions/100 000 population in January 2002 to 440 prescriptions/100 000 population in December 2009, an increase of 159.3% (95% CI, 157.7%-161.0%), comprising 47.9% of total fibrate prescriptions in 2002 and 65.2% in 2009. In Canada, fenofibrate prescriptions increased from 321prescriptions/100 000 population in January 2002 to 429 prescriptions/100 000 population in December 2009. The annual ratio of generic to brand-name fenofibrate use in the United States ranged from 0:1 to 0.09:1 between 2002 and 2008, while the ratio in Canada steadily increased from 0.51:1 to 1.89:1 between 2005 and 2008. In the United States, crude fenofibrate expenditures increased from $11 535/100 000 population/month in 2002 to $44 975/100 000 population/month in 2009, while the rates in Canada declined from $17 695/100 000 population/month in 2002 to $16 112/100 000 population/month in 2009. Fibrate expenditures per 100 000 population were 3-fold higher in 2009 in the United States compared with Canada.Conclusion During the past decade, prescriptions for fibrates (particularly fenofibrate) increased in the United States, while prescriptions for fibrates in Canada remained stable.KEYWORDS:Atazanavir Plus Ritonavir or Efavirenz as Part of a 3-Drug Regimen for Initial Treatment of HIV-1A Randomized Trial+ Author Affiliations1.From Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLAMedical Center and the University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Harvard School of Public Health, Boston,Massachusetts; University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami,Florida; Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard MedicalSchool, Boston, Massachusetts; National Institute of Allergy andInfectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland; Social & ScientificSystems, Silver Spring, Maryland; Frontier Science & TechnologyResearch Foundation, Amherst, New York; Stanford University,Palo Alto, California; Bristol-Myers Squibb, Plainsboro, New Jersey;Gilead Sciences, Foster City, California; GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park,Illinois; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina;University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California; andUniversity of Washington and Harborview Medical Center, Seattle, Washington.AbstractBackground:Limited data compare once-daily options for initial therapy for HIV-1.Objective: To compare time to virologic failure; first grade-3 or -4 sign, symptom, or laboratory abnormality (safety); and change or discontinuation of regimen (tolerability) for atazanavir plus ritonavir with efavirenz-containing initial therapy for HIV-1.Design: A randomized equivalence trial accrued from September 2005 to November 2007, with median follow-up of 138 weeks. Regimens were assigned by using a central computer, stratified by screening HIV-1 RNA level less than 100 000 copies/mL or 100 000 copies/mL or greater; blinding was known only to the site pharmacist. ( registration number: NCT00118898) Setting: 59 AIDS Clinical Trials Group sites in the United States and Puerto Rico. Patients: Antiretroviral-naive patients.Intervention:Open-label atazanavir plus ritonavir or efavirenz, each given with with placebo-controlled abacavir–lamivudine or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate(DF)–emtricitabine.Measurements:Primary outcomes were time to virologic failure, safety, and tolerability events. Secondary end points included proportion of patients with HIV-1 RNA level less than 50 copies/mL, emergence of drug resistance, changes in CD4 cell counts, calculated creatinine clearance, and lipid levels.Results: 463 eligible patients were randomly assigned to receive atazanavir plus ritonavir and 465 were assigned to receive efavirenz, both with abacavir–lamivudine; 322 (70%) and 324 (70%), respectively, completed follow-up. The respective numbers of participants in each group who received tenofovir DF–emtricitabine were 465 and 464; 342 (74%) and 343 (74%) completed follow-up. Primary efficacy was similar in the group that received atazanavir plus ritonavir and and the group that received efavirenz and did not differ according to whether abacavir–lamivudine or tenofovir DF–emtricitabine was also given. Hazard ratios for time to virologic failure were 1.13 (95% CI, 0.82 to 1.56) and 1.01 (CI, 0.70 to 1.46), respectively, although CIs did not meet prespecified criteria for equivalence. The time to safety (P = 0.048) and tolerability (P < 0.001) events was longer in persons given atazanavir plus ritonavir than in those given efavirenz with abacavir–lamivudine but not with tenofovir DF–emtricitabine.Limitations: Neither HLA-B*5701 nor resistance testing was the standard of care when A5202 enrolled patients. The third drugs, atazanavir plus ritonavir and efavirenz, were open-label; the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors wereprematurely unblinded in the high viral load stratum; and 32% of patients modified or discontinued treatment with their third drug.Conclusion: Atazanavir plus ritonavir and efavirenz have similar antiviral activity when used with abacavir–lamivudine or tenofovir DF–emtricitabine.Primary Funding Source: National Institutes of Health.英国医学杂志Group therapy for adolescents with repeated self harm: randomised controlled trial with economic evaluationOPEN ACCESS1. J M Green, professor of child psychiatry 16,2. A J Wood, consultant adolescent psychiatrist2,3. M J Kerfoot, honorary professor of mental healthstudies1,4. G Trainor, nurse consultant3,5. C Roberts, reader in biostatistics1,6. J Rothwell, research associate1,7. A Woodham, research assistant1,8. E Ayodeji, lecturer in child and adolescent mentalhealth4,9. B Barrett, lecturer in health economics5,10. S Byford, reader in health economics5,11. R Harrington, professor of child psychiatry (deceased)1 + Author Affiliations1. 1Psychiatry Research Group, University of Manchester,Manchester M13 9PL, UK2. 2Tier 4 Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services,Young People’s Centre, Chester, UK3. 3Greater Manchester West Mental Health NHSFoundation Trust, Manchester4. 4School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Salford,Salford5. 5Centre for the Economics of Mental Health Institute ofPsychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK6. 6Manchester Biomedical Research Centre andAcademic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester1. Correspondence to: Jonathan Green****************************.uk•Accepted 18 December 2010Next Section AbstractObjective To examine the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of group therapy for self harm in young people.Design Two arm, single (assessor) blinded parallel randomised allocation trial of a group therapy intervention in addition to routine care, compared with routine care alone. Randomisation was by minimisation controlling for baseline frequency of self harm, presence of conduct disorder, depressive disorder, and severity of psychosocial stress.Participants Adolescents aged 12-17 years with at least two past episodes of self harm within the previous 12 months. Exclusion criteria were: not speaking English, low weight anorexia nervosa, acute psychosis, substantial learning difficulties (defined by need for specialist school), current containment in secure care.Setting Eight child and adolescent mental health services in the northwest UK.Interventions Manual based developmental group therapy programme specifically designed for adolescents who harm themselves, with an acute phase over six weekly sessionsfollowed by a booster phase of weekly groups as long as needed. Details of routine care were gathered from participating centres. Main outcome measures Primary outcome was frequency of subsequent repeated episodes of self harm. Secondary outcomes were severity of subsequent self harm, mood disorder, suicidal ideation, and global functioning. Total costs of health, social care, education, and criminal justice sector services, plus family related costs and productivity losses, were recorded. Results183 adolescents were allocated to each arm (total n=366). Loss to follow-up was low (<4%). On all outcomes the trial cohort as a whole showed significant improvement from baseline to follow-up. On the primary outcome of frequency of self harm, proportional odds ratio of group therapy versus routine care adjusting for relevant baseline variables was 0.99 (95% confidence interval 0.68 to 1.44, P=0.95) at 6 months and 0.88 (0.59 to 1.33, P=0.52) at 1 year. For severity of subsequent self harm the equivalent odds ratios were 0.81 (0.54 to1.20, P=0.29) at 6 months and 0.94 (0.63 to 1.40, P=0.75) at 1 year. Total 1 year costs were higher in the group therapy arm (£21 781) than for routine care (£15 372) but the difference was not significant (95% CI −1416 to 10782, P=0.132).Conclusions The addition of this targeted group therapy programme did not improve self harm outcomes for adolescents who repeatedly self harmed, nor was there evidence of cost effectiveness. The outcomes to end point for the cohort as a whole were better than current clinical expectations.Trial registration ISRCTN 20496110Previous SectionNext Section IntroductionSelf harm in adolescents is a major public health problem in many countries. It is associated with recurrent psychosocial problems12 and poor long term outcome,3 and it may mark an emerging personality disorder.4 Self harm tends to recur; the reported risk of repetition in adolescents ranges from 10% within six months to 42% during a 21-month follow-up, with a median recurrence of 5-15% each year.5 The risk of suicide after self harm in adolescence is around 0.1-0.5% over 10 years26 with retrospective studies reporting a repetition rate of 36% over10-12 years7 and lifetime mortality rates of 4-11%.89 Self harm shows comorbidity with axis I psychiatric disorders in 43% to 70% of cases, with evidence that the number of comorbid conditions is associated with increased risk of a serious suicide attempt.10 Around two thirds of children and adolescentspresenting with self harm score positively for depressive disorders1112131415; suicidal adolescents with chronic and recurrent affective illness are at increased risk of repetition.111617 18 The persistence of major depressive disorder predicts substantially increased risk of further self harm in young adulthood when other factors are controlled.19 The incidence of self harm is increasing in some areas of the UK.20Self harming adolescents contribute substantially to the workload of health services, in terms of both emergency risk assessment and longer term management. A further substantial burden is placed on wider social care and education. At the time of a self harm event, the young person commonly presents to an accident and emergency department; current National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidance1 for England and Wales is for overnight medical hospital admission as a minimum response and more lengthy medical or psychiatric admission is often needed in situations of risk or more severe disorder. A follow-up study of young adults who had deliberately poisoned themselves as adolescents21found that their lifetime service costs were significantly greater than those of matched controls. They used more service provided accommodation, special education, and hospital services, incurred greater criminal justicecosts, and received more social security benefits.Despite this large burden, very little is known about the cost-effectiveness of interventions.22 In one of the few studies to date, Byford and colleagues23undertook a cost-effectiveness analysis of a home based social work intervention for children and adolescents who deliberately poisoned themselves. They found no significant differences between the two groups in terms of the main outcome measures or costs, although in a subgroup of children without major depression, suicidal ideation was significantly lower in the intervention group at follow-up with no significant differences in cost.The design and delivery of effective treatments for this group are complex and have to accommodate considerable variations in presentation.1 A subgroup of patients needs emergency inpatient management; the majority require long term treatment approaches in the context of multi-agency partnerships. A Cochrane review of psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for self harm24found continuing uncertainty about which forms of treatment are most effective and insufficient evidence against which to make firm recommendations. Across all age ranges, a promising additional benefit over standard carewas found for problem solving therapy (summary odds ratio across five studies 0.70; 0.45 to 1.11) and provision of an emergency contact card (summary odds ratio across two studies 0.45; 0.19 to 1.07), but neither of these results reached statistical significance. The authors noted a number of key limitations across all studies reviewed. These included insufficient sample sizes, leading to possible type 2 errors in effectiveness estimates; lack of adequate description of the services used as comparison groups; and use of service data (usually further hospital attendance) rather than interview data to define the primary outcome of repetition, which could introduce biases in outcome estimates, owing to variation in service use and the possibility that the intervention itself could alter willingness to seek hospital help.Hawton and colleagues24noted that only two of the studies reviewed focused on adolescent self harm, despite the importance of the problem in this age group and the likelihood that the treatment needs of adolescents differ from those of adults. Trials of adolescent focused treatments are therefore of high priority to inform service provision. Harrington and colleagues15tested a brief family intervention for adolescents (total n=149) against standard aftercare and found no significanteffect on repetition (odds ratio 1.02; 95% CI 0.41 to 2.5; P=0.97). The same group then undertook a developmental group psychotherapy programme designed to focus on the multiple clinical problems typical in this population (depression, experience of abuse, behavioural disorder, substance misuse, poor self esteem and body image, and family conflict and disruption) and to combine effectively with other interventions (pharmacotherapy, individual and family therapies) using a group therapy format that was cost-effective of clinician time. A pilot randomised trial of developmental group psychotherapy compared with routine care in 63 adolescents referred with repeated self harm to child and adolescent mental health services25 showed a significant relative reduction of repeated self harm over 29 weeks of follow-up (2/31 in developmental group psychotherapy versus 10/31 in routine care; odds ratio 6.3; 95% CI 1.4 to 28.7). The total number of self harm episodes per participant during follow-up was also lower for the treatment group (mean 0.6) than for the routine care group (mean 1.8), but this difference was not statistically significant. This trial was one of the few to have suggested effectiveness of an intervention in patients of any age. A replication in northern Australia, with remote supervision from the UK developing team (n=72)26 failedto show a treatment effect. This study, however, recruited from general referrals to child and adolescent mental health services where patients were identified to have self harming behaviour, rather than from specific self harm referrals, and it only recruited 57% of its target for analytical power.The Assessment of Treatment In Suicidal Teenagers (ASSIST) trial reported here was intended as a definitive test of this group intervention using a large sample with a pragmatic design and including a detailed health economic evaluation. Our objective was to use a large parallel group randomised trial to compare the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of developmental group psychotherapy plus routine care with that of routine care alone for adolescents presenting with repeated self harm in the previous year. We addressed some of the methodological weaknesses in previous studies identified by Hawton and colleagues24by recruiting a large cohort size, making detailed description of routine treatment undertaken, and triangulating two independent interview based ascertainments of the primary outcome rather than using service data on hospital attendance.Previous SectionNext Section MethodsParticipantsParticipating centres were established child and adolescent mental health services teams in the northwest of England, who served substantial geographical areas and were experienced in the assessment and management of young people with self harm. They delivered the developmental group psychotherapy in partnership with the ASSIST research team.Participants were adolescents aged between 12 years and 16 years 11 months who had presented with two or more episodes of self harm during the previous 12 months. In the context of this study “self harm” was deemed to include the non-accidental overdose of drugs or other toxic substances, or non-accidental self inflicted injuries such as scratching, cutting, burning, or strangulation. Exclusion criteria were non-English speakers, severe low weight anorexia nervosa, current psychotic illness, attendance at special learning disability school, current containment in secure care (young people in other forms of looked after care such as adoption, fostering, or non-secure residential units were, however, included).InterventionsExperimental treatmentDevelopmental group psychotherapy was a manual based treatment specifically designed for self harming adolescents.25 The programme integrated techniques from a number of other therapies that have previously been applied to depressed or suicidal adolescents and their families, including cognitive behavioural therapy, dialectical behavioural therapy, and group psychotherapy.152728 Group goals were oriented around themes that previous research suggested were important in adolescents who harm themselves, such as poor peer relationships, bullying, and family problems. Adolescents learned strategies to deal with these difficulties using group based techniques such as role play. The groups had a rolling entry; young people started attending as soon as their initial assessment and randomisation were completed and attendance continued until the young person felt ready to leave. Therapists had a minimum of three years of relevant post-qualifying experience. They had initial training in fidelity to the model from AJW and GT (the original developers of the intervention), who also led subsequent regular supervision, comprising urgent telephone consultation during working hours and attendance at a monthly supervision group. In the base site, developmental group psychotherapy was provided by AJW and GT and included patients considered clinically challenging by。
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UNIT 1 TEXT B刷牙，使用牙线，以及每年2次的牙齿检查是口腔卫生保健标准，但是保护你珍珠样洁白的牙齿的好处远比我们知道的还要多。
在一篇评论文章中，塔夫茨大学牙科医学院的一个教员破除了常见的牙科神话，并概述了饮食和营养如何影响儿童，青少年，孕妇，成年人和老年人的口腔健康。
误区1：口腔卫生的不良后果是限制嘴巴准妈妈也许不知道她们所吃的食物会影响到胎儿的牙齿发育。
在怀孕过程中的营养缺乏也许会使未出生的孩子在今后的生活中更容易出现蛀牙。
“在14周到4个月大的时候，缺乏钙，维生素D，维生素A，蛋白质和卡路里会导致口腔软组织缺损，” Carole Palmer说。
Carole Palmer是，教育学博士(EdD)，注册营养师(RD)，塔夫茨大学教授，公共健康和社会服务系营养和口腔健康推进部的负责人。
有数据表明缺乏足够的维生素B6和B12可能是导致患唇裂和阻碍味觉形成的危险因素。
在童年的时候，最普遍的疾病是蛀牙，大约比儿童哮喘高五倍。
“如果一个儿童因为蛀牙而嘴巴受伤，他/她在学校会比较难集中注意力，而且会更喜欢吃容易咀嚼的食物，这些食物含有的营养往往更少些。
甜甜圈和点心这样的食物大多营养品质低下，含糖量高于其他需要咀嚼的富含营养的食物，比如水果和蔬菜，” Palmer说。
“口腔并发症与不良的饮食习惯会造成认知和生长发育问题，以及导致肥胖。
”误区2：吃越多糖，越容易蛀牙这与你吃了多少糖无关，而是糖和牙齿接触的时间有多少。
“食物，比如慢慢溶解的糖果和苏打水在嘴巴里停留的时间会比较久。
这增加了牙齿暴露在口腔细菌由糖产生成的酸中的时间，” Palmer说。
有研究表明，十几岁的青少年大约40%的碳水化合物是由软饮料中摄取的。
这些源源不断地软饮料增加了牙齿腐烂的风险。
无糖碳酸饮料和酸性饮料，比如柠檬水，往往被认为比含糖饮料对牙齿更安全，但是经常食用的话仍会造成牙齿釉质脱矿。
误区3：宝宝因蛀牙失去牙齿是可以的这是常见的误区，认为宝宝因为蛀牙失去牙齿是无关紧要的，因为宝宝的乳牙总会在将来某一天脱落。
Palmer指出婴儿牙齿蛀牙可能会损害它们下方的恒牙牙冠的生长。
如果婴儿过早的市区牙齿，恒牙可能会爆发式的错位长出而需要正畸。
误区4：骨质疏松仅仅影响脊柱和臀部骨质疏松可能会导致牙齿脱落。
牙齿是长在脸骨的颌里的，这些同样会受到骨质疏松的影响。
“所以，颌同样会承受缺乏必需营养，比如钙和维生素D的饮食的后果。
”Palm er说。
颌骨，牙龈，嘴唇和软、硬颚不断的在生活中补充它们自己。
良好的饮食习惯是保持口腔颌支持它们最佳结构所必需的。
”误区5：义齿改善一个人的饮食如果假牙不合适，老年人会首选容易咀嚼，营养品质低的食品，如蛋糕或者糕点。
“首先，假牙佩戴者应该确保正确地安装假牙。
与此同时，如果有咀嚼困难或者嘴巴不适，他们仍然可以食用煮熟的蔬菜代替生的蔬菜，食用罐头水果代替生的水果，以及食用碎牛肉代替牛排。
同时，他们应喝大量的水或者嚼无糖口香糖防止口干，”Palmer说。
误区6：牙齿腐烂只是年轻人的问题成年人和老年人，牙龈萎缩会导致牙根腐烂（沿牙齿根部腐烂）。
常用的药物如抗抑郁剂，利尿剂，抗组胺药，以及镇静剂会因减少唾液分泌而增加牙齿腐烂的风险。
“唾液缺乏意味着口腔清洗更缓慢。
这就增加了口腔问题的风险，” Palmer说。
“在这种情况下，经常喝水可以成年人和老年人更容易患上慢性病，比如糖尿病，是患牙周病（从牙龈发炎开始，可以导致牙齿脱落）的危险因素。
“2型糖尿病患者比非糖尿病人有两倍风险患上牙周病。
此外，牙周病会加重糖尿病，所以细致的口腔保健可以帮助改善糖尿病的控制，”Palmer说帮助清洁口腔。
”UNIT 2 TEXT A为什么盲人比有视力的人能更快地理解言语呢？--功能性脑部扫描显示一些盲人脑部发生了重塑，这给了他们超常的听觉理解力,在圣地亚哥，有关超人的书籍充斥着各种页面。
超人的精神超能力，包括他拥有的听觉超能力和阅读超能力，就像他拥有的可以躲避子弹的速度和折断钢铁的力量一样至关重要。
但似乎超人并不是这世上唯一拥有这种快速能力的人。
9月份的圣地亚哥神经科学年会上科学家宣布他们发现了一群真实的个体拥有如超人般的精神能力，这些人就是盲人。
并且，功能性的脑部扫描图像可以展示他们如何获得这些超常的大脑技能。
一种普遍的观念是，盲人加强了他们剩余的感知能力，用来弥补失去的视力。
盲人音乐家们，如Stevie Wonder 和Ray Charles，他们在音乐上的杰出成绩归功于他们高度敏锐的听力。
德国Tübingen大学Hertie临床脑科研究所研究人员的发现支持这种观点。
盲人能够比绝大多数的拥有正常视力的人更容易地理解他人说话。
当我们快速说话的时候，我们每分钟生成6个音节。
那些处于极度活跃状态的广播播音员在喋喋不休的最后，每秒钟也就产生10个音节。
这是正常视力的人们表达的绝对限制。
人类不能超越这个限制。
科学家们用1台电脑合成器以这样的速度生成语言。
“那听上去就像噪音”，Ingo Hertrich对我说，他是这项研究中的其中一位科学家。
“我完全听不懂，或许听上去更想一些陌生的外国人非常快地对我说话一样。
”Hertrich和他的同事Hermann Ackermann 及Susanne Dietrich三人，想要找出到底这些盲人的大脑里发生了什么，导致他们拥有这种理解极快速度听觉语言的超能力。
他们给盲人及正常视力的人听极快速度的说话声，同时通过脑部扫描仪（功能性核磁成像或MRI核磁共振）检测他们大脑的活跃区域，他们发现，在盲人的大脑皮层中，平时用来处理视觉信息的区域，现在正处理听觉信难怪盲人可以拥有超人般理解快速听力的能力了。
通常，这些位于颅骨后端的大脑区域称为V1区，只负责处理视觉。
对人类来说，视觉是一项很重要的感觉以至于大脑的一大部分被分配来处理视觉信息—-比起其他感觉，处理视觉的皮质区域更广。
对于盲人来说，所有这个区域的大脑能力就浪费了，但不知何故一个盲人的大脑自我修复了，将大脑的听觉中枢与视觉中枢连接起来息。
Ackermann认为大脑重塑来将听力连接到控制视力的区域这件事上，失去视力的年龄似乎是很关键的。
在那些出生时就失去视力的婴儿来说，视觉中枢完全不会对任何听觉或是视觉刺激有反应。
大脑的这个区域在功能上不能连接，因为在生命早期，视觉输入在正确地建立大脑视觉网络的过程中是至关重要的。
然而，年轻一些的人在这种连接成功建立后丧失视力，是可以将听觉信息变更到视觉处理中枢的。
另一方面，年纪大一些的人丧失视力后大脑很少能够重塑，因为视觉体验影响这个过程的关键时期限制在我们生命的早期阶段。
（所有这个研究中的受试者在2岁-15岁之间失去的视力。
）但是，大脑中枢是如何将耳朵和原本连接到眼睛的大脑区域连接起来的呢？事实是，我们的大多数感觉之间拥有相互影响的线路，这被称为交叉模式。
在大脑的听觉和视觉中枢之间有一些联系，因为这两种感觉必须一起工作。
看一个人的嘴唇运动可以帮助理解他所说的话。
我们也需要将视觉和听觉集中注意到同一件事、同一方位，所以视觉和听觉中枢之间有信息的交换。
比如说，控制我们眼球运动的肌肉神经，也连接到大脑的听觉中枢。
这种大脑视觉和听觉中枢的连接在失去视力后会加强。
一些大脑皮质里也控制视觉和听觉的区域，比如纺锤体，在人失去视力后会扩大范围来利用视觉中枢里的闲置网络。
有趣的是，研究人员发现盲人只能利用右侧的视觉中枢来理解快速的语言信息。
Ackermann怀疑这可能是因为右侧大脑专门负责处理低频率的信息，说话就是很典型的一种，但这个假说还没被证实。
这个研究小组正在研究盲人使用左侧大脑视觉中枢来做些什么，并希望能在明年的会议上报告成果。
研究人员们最大的兴趣在大脑中风。
通过研究盲人的大脑如何通过自身修复来代偿失去的功能，研究人员希望能发现新的有用的信息来帮助中风病人康复。
但Ackermann也着重强调了研究的一个重要结论在于帮助盲人。
然而看得见总是更好的，但失去视力的人们也需要特定的超常能力来做得赶得上拥有视力的人。
他发现盲人能够在常人阅读一本书的时间里用文字到言语转换的计算机程序来阅读三本书。
这种超常的能力将使盲人在学校学习中处理大量书本上的文字信息时获益。
或许，这将会开创一种新的工作机会来开发他们的高速阅读技能，用来翻译或者其他诸如对Lois Lane超快速的语言理解力，而我们其他人听起来只不过像是一通胡言乱语。
UNIT 3 TEXT A你知道什么是听，但什么是听力损失？听力损失，或听力障碍（说：我—削减等），当与耳或耳朵的一个或多个部分的问题（“障碍”的意思是不正确或以及它应该工作）。
谁的人有听力损失可能会听到一些声音或什么都没有。
人们也可以用词聋，耳聋或听力困难，当他们谈论听力损失。
3在1000个婴儿出世与听力障碍，是最常见的出生缺陷。
听力问题也会在以后的生活中发展。
怎么听的作品要了解如何以及为什么听力损失发生，它有助于了解耳朵是如何工作的。
耳朵由三个不同的部分：外耳，中耳和内耳的。
这些部件一起工作，所以你能听到声音和过程。
外耳，或羽片（你可以看到的部分），拿起声波的波，然后穿过外耳道。
当声波撞击耳膜在中耳，中耳开始振动。
当耳膜振动，它将三个小骨头在你的耳朵。
这些骨头被称为锤（或锤），砧（或砧骨），和箍筋（或阶段）。
他们帮助声音传向内耳。
振动，然后前往耳蜗，这是充满了液体，内衬表面生有上千条纤毛的细胞。
有两种类型的毛细胞：细胞外和内。
声波振动使得纤毛运动。
外毛细胞以声音信息，扩大它（开大声一点），并调整它的。
内毛细胞发送声音信息到你的听觉神经，然后将其发送给你的大脑，让你听到听力损失的类型有几种不同类型的听力损失：导电性，感官，混合（导电和感官相结合），神经，和中央。
• 导电性（说：坤—DUK- TIV）听力损失。
这种情况通常发生在与外或中耳的一部分的一个问题。
大多数的传导性聋孩子有轻度听力损失，通常是暂时的，在大多数情况下，药物治疗可以帮助。
• 感官（说：森-这些稀土元素）听力损失。
这发生在耳蜗是不是因为微小的毛细胞受损或摧毁正常工作。
根据不同的损失，一个孩子可能：听到最多的声音（虽然他们会听到低沉的）；在安静而不是噪声；只听到一些声音；或者根本听不到声音。
感觉性听力障碍几乎都是永久性的和一个孩子的说话能力通常会受到影响。
• 神经（说：泊UL）听力损失。
发生这种情况时，有从耳蜗到大脑的连接有问题。
神经装置相关的神经，使神经性听力丧失是进行从耳蜗到大脑的神经受损的消息。
• 中央的听力损失。
这发生在耳蜗工作正常，但部分的大脑不。
这是一个不常见的类型及听力损失的治疗更加困难。
是什么原因导致听力损失？听力损失可能发生，因为一个人是天生的部分的耳朵，没有形成正确的和不好的。
其他问题可能发生后由于外伤或疾病，包括：• 中耳液• 严重的感染，如脑膜炎颅脑损伤• 听很大声的音乐，尤其是通过耳机或耳塞• 重复暴露在响亮的声音，如机械很多孩子有耳部感染，也可引起听力丧失。