翻译的语言对比规律(语义.词法.句法.思维)资料
翻译的语言对比规律II
The people of a small country can
certainly defeat aggression by a big
country, if only they dare to rise in struggle,
dagrasp in their
As we resumed walking I blurted out, “It’s a lucky thing it happened that way. You wouldn’t have met Mother.(教材)
我们继续往前走，我又冒出一句话：“这样 倒是一件幸事。不然你就遇不上妈妈了。”
The people of a small country can certainly defeat aggression by a big country, if only they dare to rise in struggle, dare to take up arms and grasp in their own hands the destiny of their own country.
一个政府压制它的人民,以便使其成为自己 手中的驯服工具——即使是为了正当的目 的——它也会发现,靠受压制的人是不可能 真正成就什么大事的。
出西门，循山脚，高低约数里，渐见山峰 屹立，石作横纹。
出西门，循山脚，高低约数里，渐见山峰 屹立，石作横纹。
Following him passed the Western Gate, I went along the foot of the hill for about several of undulating country, when a mountain peak with rocks in horizontal formations gradually came into view.
翻译的语言对比规律 I
2）部分或大部分对应
译语和原语词在意义上部分或大部分重叠， 这是英汉词语意义对应的主要表现。 e.g. parent 父亲或母亲 brother兄、弟 milk 奶（抽象）；人奶，牛奶，羊奶（具体） morning 早晨、上午
3)语气词
汉语语气助词分类类： a. 陈述语气词: 的、了、呢（呐）、罢了、
而已、啦等 b. 疑问语气词: 吗、吧、呢、啦、啊、么等； c. 祈使语气词:吧、罢、呀、啊、啦等。
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” replied his wife, “how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.”
5. I have tried all I could do to silence such a story. 我已经想尽办法去压下这个谣传了。
6. It was reported that the general was dead, but officials refused to confirm the story.
我还没有望见那座住宅，天早已暗下来了，只有 西边天际还剩下一抹朦胧的琥珀色的余辉，但是 我仍可借助皎洁的月光，看清小路上的每一颗石 子，每一片草叶。
“No, read it over first correctly, without a single mistake.”
不行，先给我准确的念一遍，不许有一个错。
1）概念意义（Conceptual Meaning）：概念意义 是词义的核心，它直接地、明确地表示所指对象。 实际上也就是词典给词下的定义。
英汉对比翻译知识点总结
英汉对比翻译知识点总结翻译是一门复杂的艺术，尤其是英汉翻译，因为中英两种语言有着根本的差异。
对于翻译工作者来说，了解和掌握英汉两种语言的特点和规律是非常重要的。
在翻译过程中，需要考虑语言的语法、词汇、文化以及表达方式等方面的差异。
下面将对英汉翻译中的一些常见知识点进行总结和比较。
1.语法结构英汉两种语言的语法结构有很大的差异。
中文语法灵活，句子结构简洁，通常不需要使用冠词、时态、语气等。
而英语语法则更为严谨，句子结构复杂，使用了丰富的时态、语气和冠词等。
在翻译时，需要注意将英文句子中的时态和语气等信息准确地转化为中文，同时也要保持句子结构的自然流畅。
2.词汇中英两种语言的词汇差异也是翻译中需要关注的重点之一。
英语词汇丰富多样，有着丰富的同义词和近义词，而中文的词汇相对简洁，往往需要通过上下文来理解词义。
在翻译时，需要根据上下文和语境来选择合适的词语，保持译文的意思准确清晰。
3.文化背景文化背景是影响翻译质量的重要因素之一。
英汉两种文化有着不同的价值观、习俗、传统等，因此在翻译时需要考虑到文化差异。
有些词语、习惯用语或者成语在中英两种文化中可能有着不同的含义和使用方式，因此需要特别留意，以免产生误解或者歧义。
4.表达方式英语和中文的表达方式也有着一定的差异。
中文语言善于表达抽象意义，通过修饰词和成语来表达情感和意象。
而英语语言更注重直接的表达和逻辑推理。
在翻译时，需要根据原文的表达方式来选择合适的中文表达方式，以保持译文的准确和自然。
5.口语和书面语中英两种语言的口语和书面语也有着不同的风格和表达方式。
英语口语更为活泼自然，词汇量较大，而中文口语则更为简洁直接，词汇量较小。
在翻译时，需要根据文体和语境来选择合适的口语和书面语表达方式，以保持译文的自然流畅。
总之，英汉翻译是一项需要耐心、细心和专业知识的工作。
翻译工作者需要对比英汉两种语言的语法、词汇、表达方式以及文化背景等方面的差异，才能够做出高质量的翻译作品。
翻译的语言对比规律 III
4. 顺向思维与逆向思维
不同的民族，在观察一些事物现象时，所取的角 度以及思维方式有时极为不同，况且，许多事物 都具有对立面，往往此一方面不好描述时，换一 个角度从另外一方面描述则更贴切。 所以，在英语中从正面来说的，可能在汉语中要 从反面来叙述更加恰当，有些时候英语的反说可 能要处理为汉语的正说才符合习惯。
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
A wave of cigarette smoke accompanied him in. 他进门时带进来一缕香烟烟雾。 一缕香烟烟雾随着他飘进来。 Alarm began to take entire possession of him. 他开始变得惊恐万状。 The happiness- the superior advantages of the young women about her, gave Rebecca inexpressible pangs of envy.
I talked to him with brutal frankness。 我对他讲的话，虽然逆耳，却是忠言。 No year passes now without evidence of the truth of statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult. 行政管理工作已变得越来越困难，年年都 证明确实如此。
1.抽象思维与形象思维 2.客体思维与主体思维 3.直线思维与曲线思维 4.顺向思维与逆向思维
1.抽象思维与形象思维
英语重视抽象思维，擅长使用抽象概念表 达具体事物。语言上英语常常使用大量涵 义模糊、指称笼统的抽象名词来表达复杂 的理性概念。 汉语重视形象思维，擅长使用形象的方法 表达抽象概念。语言上汉语更倾向于用具 体形象的词语来表达虚的概念。 翻译时常需要一个“化抽象为具体”的过 程
第二章 翻译中的语言对比分析
第二章翻译中的语言对比分析1．语义的差异1)词汇意义：完全对应；部分对应：不对应：一词多义tuberculosis The U.S．State Department The Pacific ocean marriage gun sister cousin beddo，overkillHe is a loose man．He is a loose woman．2)搭配能力to cut wheat to cut cake to cut finger-nailswear glasses and thick jersey3)词序方面A little ，yellow，ragged，lame unshaven beggar．2．词法差异英语——静态--- 综合性语言—词的关系靠词本身的形态变化来表现汉语——动态——分析性语言---词的关系靠词序或虚词／助词／量词等来表现1)英语名词化Don't believe him．You should know he is a good kidder.Would you like to take a walk with him?That Would be the confirmation that it Was in general use．2)英语介词优势，Mother is On the telephone with father．She is On maternity leave．，The failure gave me a heavy blow and l was at a loss about my future.3)英语中形容词，副词的动态特征I'm doubtful whether he is Still alive．Water is incompatible with fire.I must be Off now, for my sister IS expecting me．After staying in bed for a week，he iS now Up and about．4)英语中有动词时态的体现, 汉语无Mrs. Long has just been here，and she told me all about it．" What was l talking Of?”said he, beginning again when they were all in the street．5)代词使用上的差异Money is a wonderful thing6)量词的增补表达法Before l arrived in sight of it，a11 that remained Of day was a beamless，amber light along the west；but l could see every pebble on the path，and every blade Of grass：by that splendid moon．P1ease go there and give it to him.7)增补语气词,汉语中有,英语中无“My dear Mr. Bennet,” replied his wife，“how can you be SO tiresome! You must know，that I’m thinking of marrying one of them／my daughters．3．句法的差异1) 形合与意合的差异The gate was opened, and the audience came crowding in.The more you give, the more you will get.If it insures a shop and then receives a suspicious claim, it will investigate the claim as ameans of protecting itself against false claims.It's easy to dodge a spear in the open, but hard to guard against an arrow shot from hiding.. ,A fall into the pit, a gain in your wit.Grasp all, lose all.Out of sight, out of mind.Man's warm blood makes it difficult for him to live along in the sea without some kind of warmth..With all its disadvantages this design is considered to be one of the best.2) 句序的差异Nothing has happened since we parted:As the weather was fine, we decided to climb the mountain.4．思维的差异1) 语篇的衔接与连贯Everywhere man is altering the balance of nature. He is facilitating the spread of plants and animals into new regions, sometimes deliberately, sometimes unconsciously. He is covering huge areas with new kinds of plants, or with homes, factories, slag-heaps and other productsof his civilization. He exterminates some species on a large scale, but favors the multiplicationof others，人类到处都在改变着自然界的平衡。
第4章 翻译的语言对比规律
In the end I had to have a caesarean, which just knocked me for six.
最后我只好做剖腹产，这下 可把我彻底摧垮了。
But to almost everybody she was a fine and picturesque country gir征。
Jane was as much gratified by this as her mother could be, though in a quieter way. 简和母亲一样，觉得非常得意， 只是不像母亲那样唧唧喳喳。
小试牛 刀
小试牛刀
I believe then that I would die there,and I saw with a terrible clarity the thing of the valley below.
2、“My dear Mr. Bennet,” replied his wife,“how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.” “亲爱的贝内特先生，”太太 答道，“你怎么这么令人讨厌! 告诉你吧，我在琢磨他娶她们 中的一个做太太呢。”
不过，几乎在每个人看来， 她只不过是一个标致如画 的乡下姑娘而已。
Yet few knew, and still fewer considered this.
然而，这一点很少有人察 觉，更少有人关注。
That altered ,frightened, fat face told his secret well enough. 。 他的胖脸蛋下得走了样， 他心里的打算一看就知道。
翻译2
化抽象为具体 化被动为主动
homework
Now that you are in for it, you must carry on. Cigarettes were the death of me. If you confer a benefit, never remember it; if you receive one, remember it always. Her sighs made it clear that she was unhappy. They had no running water where they lived. Nor did they have any conveniences of life such as gas and electricity.
关于家务事，第一点要说的就是它们 它们的重复性。 它们 它们差不多每天都有，而且做完后隔一段时间 它们 还得再做。 家务事的第一个特点，是反反复复。几乎天天 都有，而且做完之后，过一定时间又要重做一 番。
指示代词翻译处理： 指示代词翻译处理：
如实保留 删去不译 换成它所指代的名词 改成“其”，“之”之类的汉语代词。 如：“家务事的第一个特点即其反复性” 其
西方人喜欢抽象，中国人喜欢具体 英语句子主语：抽象名词或其他无生命 的东西；汉语的主语：人或有生命的东 西。 英语多用被动语态，而汉语多用主动
The forty years, 1840-1880, brought almost ten million migrants to America. My good fortune has sent you to me, and we will never part. 在1840至1880这四十年中，近一千万 近一千万 移民移居美国。 移民 我很幸运 我很幸运，能够得到你，让我们永不 分离吧。
第五章 翻译的语言对比规律
第五章翻译的语言对比规律一、语义的差异（1）完全对应New York, mathematics, pneumonia, head, mouth, airport（2）部分或大部分对应1.I have no experience as a parent.2.She is my cousin.（3）完全或大部分不对应things 教材P68-69 S1-5如出一撤P1571.Opening/ closing speech2.bite off more than one can chew3.scratch one’s head4.scratch the surface5.my English stinks6.It all happened in the twinkling of an eye.7.He is well over forty.8.This hotel tries to create a homelike atmosphere9.He tried to concentrate on the news over the radio, but hiseyes kept on closing.10.H e shook his head.特别提醒P15911.A ll of us know he ( the speaker) is a busybody.12.(not ) for love or money13.O ur firm is on the rocks.14.H e was quite at fault.15.H is fingers are all thumbs.大同小异P1591.National minority2.Sum total3.License suspension4.You should think twice before doing it.5.Some students like to burn the midnight oil.6.I’ll eat my hat/head/boots if …7.In no case will they look on with folded arms.8.That night they had a heart to heart talk.9.The committee sat on our proposal for several months.搁置10.I didn’t enjoy hot weather in summer, but we have to livewith it, don’t we?但是没办法11.H e just clammed up and wouldn’t talk.拒不开口搭配P1611.sound sleep sound judgment准确判断2.heavy rain / snow; heavy weather恶劣天气3.keep a diary keep/ observe Spring Festival过春节keep hens/pets4.instant coffee/ instant noodle审视角度P162fire engine fire hose tear gas dump truckdust cover reading lampcombination lock placement test pocket moneynext-door neighbor broad jumpstop watch borrowed prosperity思维方式P1621.the rush to learn English rush hours Christmas rush,football craze2.he has no ear for music3.The noise gets on my nerves.4.have a butterfly in the stomach.心里紧张5.Words and figures differ on this check.差异悬殊P1641.The employee was summarily dismissed.2.The murderer was arrested red-handed.3.Bad habits die hard.4.What’s done cannot be undone.5.It’s better to be the safe side.还是稳妥点好6.My husband sends me flowers once in a blue moon.千载难逢7.Today we have reached a stage of realizing that rivers can bepolluted past praying for.现在我们意识到河流受到污染可能已到了无法挽救的地步。
翻译的语言对比规律
一语义的差异 二句法的差异
一语义的差异
完全对应
aluminum
铝 New York 纽约
physics
物理 hand 手 She is a cat. 她是一个心地狠毒的女人
部分或大部分对应
Cat 完全不对应 Teenager 十三到十九岁的男女 青少年 ，十几岁的孩子
thing
例： As we resumed walking I blurted out , “It’s a lucky thing it happened that way . You wouldn’t have met mother.” 我们继续往前走，我又冒出一句话：“这样倒是 一件幸事。不然你就遇不上妈妈了。” 英语形合句不需要一刀切的全译成汉语意合句， 汉语也可以用形合句翻译成英语的形合句。 It will be no use to us , if twenty such should come since you will not visit them. 既然你不肯去拜访，即使搬来二十个，那对我们 又有什么用。
1.Ibelieved then that I would die there, and I saw with a terrible clarity the thing Of the valley below. 这时我觉的我要死在那儿了，而下面山谷里的景致却看得异 常清晰。 2.The large mammalian brain is the most complicated thing , for its size , known to us . 大型哺乳动物的大脑，就其体积而言，是我们所知晓的最复 杂的机体。
差异之四：语序之not
英汉互译技巧--英汉语言差异及对翻译的影响PPT课件
英语词尾变化反映词性，体现意义。
2021
6
2.1 形合法与意合法之转换
e.g.
1) The talks had been _____ but much remained to be done.
A. fruitful
B. effective
C. advantageous
D. valid
Inflectional morphemes / affixes: “-s”: the plural marker “-’s”: the genitive case the verbal endings,
“-s” : the third person singular present tense, “-ing” : the present participle, “-(e)d” : the past tense and past participle; “-er”: the comparative degree “-est” : the superlative degree
Crows hovering over rugged old trees wreathed with, rotten vine the day is about done. Yonder is a tiny bridge over a sparkling stream, And on the far bank, a pretty little village. but the traveler has to go on down this ancient road, the west wind moaning, his bony horse groaning, trudging towards the sinking sun, farther and farther away from home.
英汉语言文化对比及翻译方法技巧
3. 英汉句法对比
We had been dismayed at home while reading of the natural calamities that followed one another for three years after we left China in 1959.
我们于1959年离开中国。此后，中国连续 三年遭受到自然灾害。当我们在国内读到 这方面的消息时，心情颇为低沉。
Red Butler Scarletto’ Hara 哈拉 Ashley Wilkes Melanie Hamilton 雷特· 巴特勒 斯卡利特· 奥
阿什礼· 威尔克斯 梅拉尼· 汉密尔顿
All roads lead to Rome.
异化：条条大路通罗马。 归化：殊途同归。
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” replied his wife, “…”. 异化：“亲爱的贝内特先生，” 太太答到 ……
第二讲
英汉语言文化对比 及翻译方法和技巧
英汉语言的对比
1. 综合语和分析语
英语属于综合语，而综合语的特征是运 用形态变化（即词的形式变化）来表达 语法关系的。 汉语属于分析语，分析语的特征是不用 形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关 系。
1. 综合语和分析语
He moved astonishingly fast. He moved with astonishing rapidity. His movements were astonishingly rapid. His movements astonished us by their rapidity. His rapid movements astonished us. The rapidity with which he moved astonished us. The rapidity of his movements was astonishing. He astonished us by moving rapidly. He astonished us by his rapid movements. He astonished us by the rapidity of his movements.
英汉翻译教程--汉英语言对比【精品-doc】
英汉翻译教程--汉英语言对比第一部分汉英语言对比翻译教学和研究的经验表明：翻译理论和技巧必须建立在不同语言和文化的对比分析基础上。
英汉互译的几项基本原则和技巧，如选词（Diction）、转换（Conversion）、增补（Amplification）、省略（Omission）、重复（Repetition）、替代（Substitution）、变换（Variation）、倒置（Inversion）、拆离（Division）、缀合（Combination）、阐释（Annotation）、浓缩（Condensation）、重组（Reconstruction），以及时态、语态、语气、习语、术语等的译法，都集中地体现了英汉的不同特点。
机器翻译是让计算按照人们所制定的程序和指令进行不同语言的对比转换，也离不开对比分析。
翻译之所以困难，归根结底是因为语言差异和文化差异。
因此，对比、分析和归纳这些差异，便是翻译学的重要任务。
不同语言的对比分析不仅有利于教学和翻译，也有助于语言交际。
通过对比分析，人们可以进一步认识外语和母语的特性，在进行交际时，能够有意识地注意不同语言各自的表现方法，以顺应这些差异，防止表达错误，避免运用失当，从而达到交际的目的。
（连淑能，《英汉对比研究》）纪德是最理解莎士比亚的法国作家之一。
在他看来，“没有任何作家比莎士比亚更值得翻译”，但同时，“也没有任何作家比他更难翻译，译文更容易走样”。
纪德对莎士比亚的理解是双重的，既是精神的，也是语言的。
他在与莎士比亚的相遇与相识中，经历了一系列的考验。
对他在翻译中经历的这番历史奇遇，他曾在为七星文库出版的《莎士比亚戏剧集》撰写的前言中作了详尽的描述：描述了两种文化与两种语言之间的遭遇，也揭示了翻译中译者所面临的种种障碍。
纪德首先看到的，是语言与文化层面的逻辑性，这涉及到不同语言的思维方法。
他说：“莎士比亚很少考虑逻辑性，而我们拉丁文化缺了逻辑性就踉踉跄跄。
翻译的语言对比规律
语义的差异 词法的差异 句法的差异 思维的差异
英汉语言对比
Sino- Tibetan family 每个音节有固定的声调是汉藏语系语言在 语音上的重要特点。声调能区别词汇意义 汉藏语系各语言以词序和虚词为表达语法 意义的重要手段。词序比较固定。虚词种 类较多，在句中表示各种不同的语法意义。 汉藏语系语言词类上的一个特点是有量词。 量词的作用主要表示事物的单位和动作行 为的量。 Indo-European family
语义
汉语的语义严谨，涵义窄，变化少， 不大依赖上下文 英语词义灵活，涵义广，变化多，同 一词在不同的的语境和上下文里意义 截然不同
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Indo-European family 印欧语系各语言原来都是屈折语，原始的 印欧语的名词有3个性，3个数和8个格的变 化（例如俄语这个特点保存得比较完好）； 广泛利用词缀和词干元音音变来表达语法 意义；名词和大部分形容词有格、性和数 的变化；动词有时态、语态和语体的变化， 主语和动词在变化中互相呼应。另外，印 欧语系各语言的词都有重音。
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linguistically is the contrast between
hypotaxis and parataxis.
Hypotaxis： Hypotaxis refers to a construction where constituents have been linked through the use of conjunction.
他们断然拒绝了这个建议。 请把发动机熄灭。 他穿得很时髦，十分吸引人 你说的话笑死我了。/你的动 作笑死我了。 她宠坏了小孩。
--He took a snack to kill his hunger. --He killed time every day at the park. --He killed the motion when it came from the committee. --He killed the spirit of the group. --The news killed their hope. --These flowers kill easily. --He killed three bottles of whisky in a week.
他吃零食充饥。 他每天上公园消磨时间。 他否决了委员会提出的动议 他抹杀了团体精神。
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
这消息使他们的希望破灭了。 这些花很容易枯死。 他一周内喝了三瓶威士忌。
4. Differences in lexicology
1) Part of speech (词性)
中文中没有的: articles: a, an ,the relative words (pronouns: who, whom, whose that,which, as ; adverbs: when, where, why; ) 英文中没有的: measure words modal particles
2. Syntax
1) Similar sentence elements
subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial,
complement
2) Similar basic sentence pattern
SV/SVO/SVOC
II. Differences between English and Chinese
--He killed the man/the dog.
--They killed the proposal. --Please kill the engine. --He is dressed to kill. --You are killing me. --She kills her child with kindness.
（１） Preposed adverbs 前置的时态副词 （过去，曾经，已经，现在， 正在，将要．．．）
（２） tense auxiliary words 附着的时态副词
（过， 着，了，起来．．．） （３） postposed auxiliary words 后置的时态语气词 （了，来着．．．）
翻译时应使用这些时态结构助词来表示原文的时态意义.
４) Word collocation
cut ： cut wheat 割麦子 cut cake 切蛋糕 cut finger-nails 剪指甲 wear ：He wore dark glasses, and thick jersey, and stopped up his ears with cotton wool. 他戴黑眼镜，穿厚毛衣，耳朵里塞了棉花。
3)word order
iron and steel ourselves and the enemy fire and water old and new right and left sooner or later back and forth twos and threes tables and graphics
1) hypotaxis in English; parataxis in Chinese
As E. A. Nida points out in his “Translating Meaning”, …so far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference
所谓“形合”就是主要靠语言本身语法手段。 英语句子的特点是强调形式和功能，因而英语句法 特征是形合.句子成分之间的关系要求用形式标记表明：
英语名词的性、数、格; 谓语动词的时态、语态; 主句与从句之间的关系代词、关系副词和连词等形态和形式词;
都行使其语法功能,起着纽带作用，将句子各成分衔 接在一起。英语语法外显性的表现。
5. Syntactic differences
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
hypotaxis vs parataxis
Complex vs Simplex
End-weight vs Top-heavy Subject-prominent vs Topic- prominent Static vs Dynamic Sentence order
3) Non-correspondence or almost noncorrespondence
Teenager: 13至19岁的青少年 Clock－watcher: 老是看钟等下班的人 Dink = double income no kids 丁克家族
糖葫芦 文房四宝
Tanghulu, a sugar-coated fruit on the stick the four treasures of the study (writing brush, inkstick, inkstone and paper) 文明礼貌月 Socialist Ethics and Coursty Month 乌纱帽 an official post 五岳 the Five Sacred Mountains 五经 The Five Classics (The Book of Poetry, The Book of History, The Book of Changes, The Book of Rites and The Spring and Autumn Annuals)
2) Partial correspondence or mostly correspondence
A character or phrase in Chinese may semantically correspond to several words in English or vice versa. cousin 堂兄（弟姐妹），表兄（弟姐妹），姨兄 （弟姐妹） wife: 妻子、爱人、老伴、内人、贱内、夫人、老婆； president: 总统、主席、校长、议长、会长、社长；
2. Different nature of language
English is a synthetic Language So-called synthetic Language refers to that the meaning of the language is expressed by the change of the form of the word itself such as case, number, tense and so on. Chinese is an analytic language So-called analytic language means that the relationship of words is expressed not by the form of word itself-----but by empty word, particle and word order and so on.
3. Semantic differences
1) Full correspondence
Only found in generally adopted technical terms or coincidence among common words Radar=雷达 New York =纽约 Tianjin University=天津大学 The U.S. State Department =美国国务院 The Pacific Ocean =太平洋 helicopter =直升飞机
measure words:
Unit words of nouns （个，只，份，把，块，张）
Unit words of verbs （趟，遭，次，遍，场，回）
翻译时要作适当增补：
一张纸，一块肥皂，一条巧克力（表状态特征）
一个忠告，一条消息，一段时间（表抽象名词）
Particle
汉语有几类时态助词：
①Mr. Smith used to be an army officer, but he is in prison now. 史密斯先生过去是一个军官，而现在在监狱里。
2) Preference of use parts of speech
E: nouns, adjectives, prepositions C: verbs
Parataxis： Parataxis refers to a construction in which the members within a sentence, or else a sequence of sentences, are put one after the other without any expression of their connection or relations.