科技翻译论文
科技文献中英文对照翻译
Sensing Human Activity:GPS Tracking感应人类活动:GPS跟踪Stefan van der Spek1,*,Jeroen van Schaick1,Peter de Bois1,2and Remco de Haan1Abstract:The enhancement of GPS technology enables the use of GPS devices not only as navigation and orientation tools,but also as instruments used to capture travelled routes:assensors that measure activity on a city scale or the regional scale.TU Delft developed aprocess and database architecture for collecting data on pedestrian movement in threeEuropean city centres,Norwich,Rouen and Koblenz,and in another experiment forcollecting activity data of13families in Almere(The Netherlands)for one week.Thequestion posed in this paper is:what is the value of GPS as‘sensor technology’measuringactivities of people?The conclusion is that GPS offers a widely useable instrument tocollect invaluable spatial-temporal data on different scales and in different settings addingnew layers of knowledge to urban studies,but the use of GPS-technology and deploymentof GPS-devices still offers significant challenges for future research.摘要：增强GPS技术支持使用GPS设备不仅作为导航和定位工具,但也为仪器用来捕捉旅行路线:作为传感器,测量活动在一个城市或区域范围内规模。
机器翻译技术论文
机器翻译技术论文机器翻译是使用计算机实现一种自然语言文本到另一种自然语言文本的翻译。
下面是店铺整理的机器翻译技术论文，希望你能从中得到感悟!机器翻译技术论文篇一机器翻译在翻译实践中的应用摘要: 本文研究机器翻译在翻译实践中的应用,其由两部分组成:第一部分概述机器翻译,第二部分通过一个具体的翻译任务演示谷歌翻译工具的用法。
关键词: 机器翻译谷歌翻译译后编辑一、机器翻译概述机器翻译是指将翻译过程的部分或全部使用机器实现自动化(Austermühl,2006)。
一般认为机器翻译的思想起源于1949年写作的韦弗备忘录,而后机器翻译的发展经历了重大的起伏。
时至今日,机器翻译的研究和产品如雨后春笋般不断涌现出来,机器翻译已然成为一个具有重大社会意义、政治意义、商业价值、科学价值和哲学意义的重要课题。
机器翻译系统可以依据不同的标准分为不同的种类。
根据机器翻译系统的使用环境可以分为三类:低端机器翻译系统、用户定制的高端机器翻译系统和基于因特网的机器翻译系统。
低端机器翻译系统的目标客户是个人,用户定制的高端机器翻译系统的目标客户是公司,基于因特网的机器翻译系统则是一种通过因特网使用的。
根据机器翻译系统使用的技术可以分为下图所示的五类:基于规则的机器翻译系统、基于语料库的机器翻译系统、多引擎机器翻译系统、在线机器翻译系统和口语机器翻译系统(Feng,2004)。
一般而言,由于自然语言中诸如歧义、复杂句法、成语和照应关系之类问题,机器翻译的输出结果并不能令用户满意。
于是一些人认为机器翻译系统对于译员而言毫无用处。
我认为这是一种误解。
翻译的过程一般可以分为两个阶段:第一阶段是翻译出译稿,第二阶段是修改译稿以求译文可以达到要求。
在多数情况下使用机器翻译的目的仅仅是将第一阶段自动化,即翻译出译稿。
然后由译员修改译稿,最终产出达到要求的译文。
由此可见,机器翻译在将文本翻译成译稿的过程中大有用处。
在使用机器翻译将文本翻译成译稿的过程中,我们还可以使用多种方法提高机器翻译输出结果的质量。
人工智能对翻译的影响论文
人工智能对翻译的影响论文在当今这个信息技术飞速发展的时代，人工智能（AI）已经成为推动社会进步和科技创新的重要力量。
特别是在语言翻译领域，人工智能的应用正日益深入，对翻译行业产生了深远的影响。
本文将探讨人工智能对翻译的影响，分析其优势与挑战，并展望其未来的发展趋势。
引言翻译作为跨文化交流的桥梁，历来是国际交流中不可或缺的一部分。
随着全球化的不断深入，翻译需求日益增长，传统的翻译方式已经难以满足现代社会的需求。
人工智能技术的引入，为翻译行业带来了革命性的变化。
通过机器学习、自然语言处理等技术，人工智能翻译系统能够实现快速、准确的语言转换，极大地提高了翻译效率。
人工智能翻译技术的发展人工智能翻译技术的发展经历了从早期的基于规则的翻译系统到现代基于统计和神经网络的翻译系统。
早期的翻译系统依赖于语言学家制定的规则，这些规则虽然在一定程度上能够实现语言的转换，但往往缺乏灵活性和准确性。
随着大数据和计算能力的提升，基于统计的翻译系统开始兴起，它们通过分析大量的双语文本数据，学习语言之间的对应关系，从而实现更加准确的翻译。
近年来，神经网络翻译（NMT）技术的出现，更是将翻译质量推向了一个新的高度。
NMT利用深度学习技术，模拟人脑的神经网络结构，能够更好地理解语言的语义和语境，提供更加自然流畅的翻译结果。
人工智能翻译的优势1. 高效率：人工智能翻译系统能够在短时间内处理大量文本，显著提高翻译速度。
2. 低成本：与传统人工翻译相比，AI翻译减少了人力成本，降低了翻译费用。
3. 可定制性：AI翻译系统可以根据用户需求进行定制，满足不同领域的专业翻译需求。
4. 持续学习：AI翻译系统具备自我学习和优化的能力，随着使用时间的增长，翻译质量会不断提升。
人工智能翻译面临的挑战尽管人工智能翻译技术取得了显著进展，但它仍然面临着一些挑战：1. 语言的复杂性：语言不仅仅是文字的组合，还包含了丰富的文化和情感色彩，AI翻译系统在理解和表达这些细微差别方面还有待提高。
讯飞论文翻译
讯飞论文翻译去年11月，谷歌在美国发布了无线耳机Pixel Buds，凭借着实时翻译的功能，成功吸晴。
由于它支持40种语音，甚至可以被当作是一台简单的翻译机。
需要配合Pixel手机才能支持。
并不是安卓手机通用。
其实我们在惊叹谷歌高科技的时候，国内在语音识别领域的佼佼者，科大讯飞在年初的发布了自己的智能翻译机——译呗实时翻译机，基于科大讯飞核心口语翻译技术，能够快速准确地实现中对多语口语间的即时互译。
看着像个旧时代的小灵通，但内里却是新时代的高科技！在衣食住行等日常生活领域，晓译翻译机已经达到了大学英语六级水平，不论是学习、工作、出国旅行，它都能做你口袋里的便携翻译官！也可以是你的贴身外教！科大讯飞晓译翻译机搭载了国际领先的语音合成、语音识别、口语翻译引擎，以大量日常对话内容为翻译基础，对时下热词新词进行及时更新，并按照平时说话的方式翻译出来，准确率达到97%。
科大讯飞译呗翻译机体型小巧，比iPhone手机还小。
带上它无需导游，中文进出来英文，英文进出来中文，就可以与外国朋友沟通。
并通过自带专属APP与Wi-Fi网络或手机热点进行绑定，以匹配海量云端资源，拥有超过4000万条平行语句，基本覆盖了日常生活、旅游出差等各个场景。
翻译的同时，由于是通过热点和wifi与手机链接，科大讯飞译呗翻译机迅即就可以将双方的对话记录通过APP记录并显示出来。
如此一来，这就是一个随身的语音速记员。
你就不用担心遗漏重要内容了。
有了如此人工智能的基础，无论是在国内还是国外，想与人时时进行沟通，还是自学使用，还是娱乐搜索它都可以轻松面对。
集同声互译、学习、娱乐多种功能于一身，是一款真正的随身便携翻译器，有了它，你还学英语干嘛？。
科技英语翻译与功能对等理论论文
科技英语翻译与功能对等理论论文摘要：风格层面的功能对等主要体现在科技英语的语篇是否突出了层次的清晰、构思的严谨、措辞的简洁以及重点表达的思想等四个方面的特点，这四个特点也是科技英语翻译在翻译过程中应该遵循的基本原则和重要规范。
一、功能等理论概述功能对等理论是美国语言学家和翻译家尤金·奈达在1964年出版的《翻译科学初探》中提出来的，他提出了“形式对等”和“动态对等”两个翻译概念，其中“形式对等”是指翻译的过程中将原文的含义和特征原封不动地进行直译的翻译，或者接复制至目的文本中；而“动态对等”是翻译中用最贴切的对等语再现原来的信息，达到从语义到语体的过程。
奈达认为“形式对等”与“动态对等”的最大区别在于翻译的接受语所达到的效果，他对“动态对等”做了强调，并在此基础上提出了具有影响力的功能对等，并根据对等的程度对功能对等做了不同层次的划分，属于最高层次的功能对等是读者通过阅读译文所体会到的感想与原文的读者读到原文时所感受到的体会是一致的，这是最理想的翻译的境界。
最低层次的功能对等是实现译文读者的对原文的想象，即译文读者通过阅读译文能够想象到原文读者对原文欣赏时的心理体验，这是阅读译文最基本的要求。
功能对等理论的核心是译文读者对译文的反映，直译与意译一直是存在于翻译中具有争论的两个方面，其争论的焦点在于译文与原文之间的关系，直译要求要尊重原文，准确地翻译原文；而意译要求将原文理解后以便于读者接受的语言翻译出来。
由于原文的读者与译文的读者在接受信息方面存在一定的差异，因此，要达到原文与译文之间的真正对等是不可能的，奈达的对等功能强调的是相对意义的对等，在翻译的实践中要以语言的差异进行灵活地翻译，可以和原文有一定的出入，但是，翻译的本质还是对文本信息内涵的传递，通过相对的对等，可以避免翻译过程中一些过分关注原文而造成译文难以理解的缺陷。
二、科技英语特点及分类科技英语是指在自然科学以及工程技术方面所使用的英语，包括涉及的教科书、著作以及论文和报告等，从广义上来讲，科技英语就是所有与科学有关的英语。
自然科学类研究性论文翻译(中英对照)
Fortunately, inedible vegetable oils, mostly produced by seedbearing trees and shrubs can provide an alternative to petrodiesel.
众所周知，种子贮藏期间的劣变过程受到几个因素的影响。在贮藏期间，高温高湿会加速种子的劣变，而降低这些因素中的任何一个都可大大延长种子otential storage of seeds involve, among other activities, the evaluation of germination and seed vigor.
质量控制、种子潜在贮藏等方法也可用于评价种子的萌发及其活力。
The benefits of high-quality vegetable seed include (i) rapid and uniform germination; (ii) the production of seedlings and plantlets that are better to able to withstand environmental stresses; (iii) the establishment of desired plant population targets and (iv) more uniform crop maturity and increased harvest efficiency.
因而，长期贮藏的种子内的淀粉和可溶性蛋白的含量会显著下降。同时，种子内存在的大量还原糖会引起蛋白质的糖基化作用和脂质的过氧化作用，这两种作用会加速电解质的渗漏并造成种胚的大量损害或劣变。
科技论文翻译
遗传学 genetics 力学/机械学 mechanics 热动力学 thermodynamics 天文物理学 astrophysics 园艺学 horticulture 畜牧业 animal husbandry
科技英语新词
Sina twitter, weibo， tweet 微博 podcast 播客 cybersquatting 抢注域 名 cyberspace 网络空间 Tele-office 远程办公 twitern (twitter实习生)
Clarity (明确性)
Clarity greatly facilitates effective communication between these professionals.
Accuracy(准确性)
Use accurate language to express the meanings exactly and clearly in scientific studies.
vocabulary?理论科学purescience?应用科学appliedscience?模型model?假设hypothesis?现行的科学定律theworkinglawofscience?生命周期thelifecycle?方程式equation?放射性radioactivity?金属疲劳metalfatigue?人类学anthropologyvocabularyextendedreading?物理科学thephysicalscience?地球科学theearthscience?生命科学thelifescience?天文学astronomy?古生物学paleontology?海洋学oceanography?气象学meteorology?植物学botany?动物学zoology?遗传学genetics?力学机械学mechanics?热动力学thermodynamics?天文物理学astrophysics?园艺学horticulture?畜牧业animalhusbandry科技英语新词?sinatwitterweibotweet微博?podcast播客?cybersquatting抢注域名?cyberspace网络空间?teleoffice远程办公?twiterntwitter实习生?flextime弹性工作制?ecommence电子商务?ejournal电子期刊?brexit英国退出欧盟的戏谑说法tryit?itisessentialthattheoverallprogramstrategybecompletelymappedoutbeforeanyofthedetailedprogrammingactuallybegins
英语科技论文长句翻译中的常见问题和处理技巧
英语科技论文长句翻译中的常见问题和处理技巧英汉双语思维方式及语言表达习惯的不同增加了翻译的难度，特别是长句的翻译一直是英译汉中的重点和难点。
在英语科技论文翻译中，蓝译编译认为，翻译长句的过程可分为两个阶段：一是拆句即分析源语句子结构、理解内容；二是组句即整理源语句中的信息点、用目标语重新表达。
翻译实践中发现，在这两个阶段中最常见的问题，是语序问题和断句的问题。
一、语序问题的处理技巧。
英语的修饰成分多、长度长，而且多位于中心词的后面，但在汉语中定语和状语长度短，往往位于中心词之前。
翻译时就有必要对这些附属结构的顺序进行变动，维持原句的顺序肯定是不符合汉语表达习惯的。
译者要灵活运用常见的长句翻译方法，特别是综合使用顺译法和逆译法，把握信息点的重要性，考虑英汉排列信息的特点，按照各自的语言表达习惯重新排列信息。
一般来说，英语句子注重信息的主次之分，主要信息放在突出位置，次要信息作为辅助性的描写或叙述手段。
同时，英语有时态，可以通过动词的变化显出动作发生的先后顺序，而且英语大量使用分词和从句，位置也灵活，可前可后。
相比之下，汉语简单一些，叙事多借助并列结构即并列分句和并列谓语，按照时间顺序和逻辑顺序排列各成分的顺序。
汉语的信息重心并不在于形式，而体现在内在逻辑关系上。
二、断句的问题的处理技巧。
汉语多流水句，一个长句可能有多个主语，而英语中一句话只能有一个主语，因此有些情况下需要把长句断开翻译。
原文里的一句话在译文时可能分成两句或多句，尤其是在并列句中如果内容具有同等的重要性，或是相互间的关系不那么密切，往往可以分割开来。
译者首先要确定句子主干，确定原句的时态、语态、语气，从整体上把握句子结构。
然后区分主(句)从(句)，识别修饰语。
在第一步确定整个句子的中心内容的基础上分析各个分层的意思，判断分析各成分的内在逻辑关系和各自功能，搞清整个长句的层次，推断句子思维逻辑和表达重心。
分析清楚长句结构后，关键一点就是在何处断句，具体要把握以下原则：在结论、结果前断句；在句子语气变化处断开；在反问句、感叹句等句式变化处断开；在句子信息由总向分或者由分向总处断开；在分句顺序变化处断开。
科技英语论文写作及翻译
LOGO第一章记叙文体的英译与写作第二章法律文体的英译与写作第三章应用文体英译与写作第四章广告文体英译与写作QQ:105448245424学时科技英语(二)EST ⅡREFERENCES:1、张梦井，杜耀文汉英科技翻译指南，航空工业出版社，19962、王运，实用科技英语翻译技巧，科技文献出版社，19923、熊第霖，英文科技写作，国防工业出版社，20011 记叙文体的汉译英1. 1 科技论文的汉译英问题1. 2 摘要的英译与写作1. 3 国际会议文献的英译与写作1. 1 科技论文的汉译英问题一、科技论文的分类◆按学科的性质和功能⏹基础学科论文⏹技术学科论文⏹应用学科论文◆按照写作目的和发挥的作用⏹学术性论文⏹技术性论文⏹学位论文◆按论文内容所属学科数学论文物理论文化学论文天文学论文机械工程技术论文建筑工程技术论文◆按研究和写作方法理论推导型实(试)验研究型观测型设计计算型发现发明型争鸣型综述型Title标题Abstract摘要Keywords关键词Table of contents目录Nomenclature术语表Introduction引言正文Acknowledgement致谢Reference参考文献Appendix附录Methods方法Results结果Discussion讨论Conclusion结论二、科技论文的一般结构LOGOacknowledgmentReferencesTitle 标题Author 作者Abstract 摘要Introduction 引言4 Summary and conclusion三、论文标题的英译与写作1、标题的作用⏹Generalizing the Text⏹Attracting the Reader⏹Facilitating the Retrieval2、标题的长度（单词总数）及词性⏹标题不宜过长，大多为12个单词以内。
⏹标题中用得最多的是名词（包括动名词），除名词外，用得较多的是介词，有时使用形容词、冠词、连词、副词。
生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in the Citrus Genus: Number of Copies and Phylogenetic Diversity of Seven GeneThe first objective of this paper was to analyze the potential role of allelic variability of carotenoid biosynthetic genes in the interspecifi diversity in carotenoid composition of Citrus juices. The second objective was to determine the number of copies for each of these genes. Seven carotenoid biosynthetic genes were analyzed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. RFLP analyses were performed with the genomic DNA obtained from 25 Citrus genotypes using several restriction enzymes. cDNA fragments of Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcyb, Lcy-e, Hy-b, and Zep genes labeled with [R-32P]dCTP were used as probes. For SSR analyses, two primer pairs amplifying two SSR sequences identified from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Lcy-b and Hy-b genes were designed. The number of copies of the seven genes ranged from one for Lcy-b to three for Zds. The genetic diversity revealed by RFLP and SSR profiles was in agreement with the genetic diversity obtained from neutral molecμLar markers. Genetic interpretation of RFLP and SSR profiles of four genes (Psy1, Pds1, Lcy-b, and Lcy-e1) enabled us to make inferences on the phylogenetic origin of alleles for the major commercial citrus species. Moreover, the resμLts of our analyses suggest that the allelic diversity observed at the locus of both of lycopene cyclase genes, Lcy-b and Lcy-e1, is associated with interspecific diversity in carotenoid accumμLation in Citrus. The interspecific differences in carotenoid contents previously reported to be associated withother key steps catalyzed by PSY, HY-b, and ZEP were not linked to specific alleles at the corresponding loci.KEYWORDS: Citrus; carotenoids; biosynthetic genes; allelic variability; phylogeny INTRODUCTIONCarotenoids are pigments common to all photosynthetic organisms. In pigment-protein complexes, they act as light sensors for photosynthesis but also prevent photo-oxidat ion induced by too strong light intensities. In horticμLtural crops, they play a major role in fruit, root, or tuber coloration and in nutritional quality. Indeed some of these micronutrients are precursors of vitamin A, an essential component of human and animal diets. Carotenoids may also play a role in chronic disease prevention (such as certain cancers), probably due to their antioxidant properties. The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is now well established. Carotenoids are synthesized in plastids by nuclear-encoded enzymes. The immediate precursor of carotenoids (and also of gibberellins, plastoquinone, chlorophylls,phylloquinones, and tocopherols) is geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). In light-grown plants, GGPP is mainly derivedcarotenoid, 15-cis-phytoene. Phytoene undergoes four desaturation reactions catalyzed by two enzymes, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and β-carotene desaturase (ZDS), which convert phytoene into the red-colored poly-cis-lycopene. Recently, Isaacson et al. and Park et al. isolated from tomato and Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively, the genes that encode the carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO) which, in turn, catalyzes the isomerization of poly-cis-carotenoids into all-trans-carotenoids. CRTISO acts on prolycopene to form all-trans lycopene, which undergoes cyclization reactions. Cyclization of lycopene is abranching point: one branch leads to β-carotene (β, β-carotene) and the other toα-carotene (β, ε-carotene). Lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b) then converts lycopene intoβ-carotene in two steps, whereas the formation of α-carotene requires the action of two enzymes, lycopene ε- cyclase (LCY-e) and lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b). α- carotene is converted into lutein by hydroxylations catalyzed by ε-carotene hydroxylase (HY-e) andβ-carotene hydroxylase (HY-b). Other xanthophylls are produced fromβ-carotene with hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by HY-b and epoxydation catalyzed by zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP). Most of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes have been cloned and sequenced in Citrus varieties . However, our knowledge of the complex regμLation of carotenoid biosynthesis in Citrus fruit is still limited. We need further information on the number of copies of these genes and on their allelic diversity in Citrus because these can influence carotenoid composition within the Citrus genus.Citrus fruit are among the richest sources of carotenoids. The fruit generally display a complex carotenoid structure, and 115 different carotenoids have been identified in Citrus fruit. The carotenoid richness of Citrus flesh depends on environmental conditions, particμLarly on growing conditions and on geogr aphical origin . However the main factor influencing variability of caro tenoid quality in juice has been shown to be genetic diversity. Kato et al. showed that mandarin and orange juices accumμLated high levels of β-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin, respectively, whereas mature lemon accumμLated extremely low levels of carotenoids. Goodner et al. demonstrated that mandarins, oranges, and their hybrids coμLd be clearly distinguished by theirβ-cryptoxanthin contents. Juices of red grapefruit contained two major carotenoids: lycopene and β-carotene. More recently, we conducted a broad study on the organization of the variability of carotenoid contents in different cμLtivated Citrus species in relation with the biosynthetic pathway . Qualitative analysis of presence or absence of the different compounds revealed three main clusters: (1) mandarins, sweet oranges, and sour oranges;(2) citrons, lemons, and limes; (3) pummelos and grapefruit. Our study also enabled identification of key steps in the diversification of the carotenoid profile. Synthesis of phytoene appeared as a limiti ng step for acid Citrus, while formation of β-carotene and R-carotene from lycopene were dramatically limited in cluster 3 (pummelos and grapefruit). Only varieties in cluster 1 were able to produce violaxanthin. In the same study , we concluded that there was a very strong correlation between the classification of Citrus species based on the presence or absence of carotenoids (below,this classification is also referred to as the organization of carotenoid diversity) and genetic diversity evaluated with bi ochemical or molecμLar markers such as isozymes or randomLy amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). We also concluded that, at the interspecific level, the organization of the diversity of carotenoid composition was linked to the global evolution process of cμLt ivated Citrus rather than to more recent mutation events or human selection processes. Indeed, at interspecific level, a correlation between phenotypic variability and genetic diversity is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic disequilibrium resμLting from the history of cμLtivated Citrus. Thus from numerical taxonomy based on morphologicaltraits or from analysis of molecμLar markers , all authors agreed on the existence o f three basic taxa (C. reticμLata, mandarins; C. medica, citrons; and C. maxima, pummelos) whose differentiation was the resμLt of allopatric evolution. All other cμLtivated Citrus specie s (C. sinensis, sweet oranges; C. aurantium, sour oranges;C. paradi si, grapefruit; and C. limon, lemons) resμLted from hybridization events within this basic pool except for C. aurantifolia, which may be a hybrid between C. medica and C. micrantha .Our p revious resμLts and data on Citrus evolution lead us to propose the hypothesis that the allelic variability supporting the organization of carotenoid diversity at interspecific level preceded events that resμLted in the creation of secondary species. Such molecμLar variability may have two different effects: on the one hand, non-silent substitutions in coding region affect the specific activity of corresponding enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway, and on the other hand, variations in untranslated regions affect transcriptional or post-transcriptional mechanisms.There is no available data on the allelic diversity of Citrus genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. The objective of this paper was to test the hypothesis that allelic variability of these genes partially determines phenotypic variability at the interspecific level. For this purpose, we analyzed the RFLPs around seven genes of the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids (Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcy-b, Lcy-e, Hy-b, Zep) and the polymorphism of two SSR sequences found in Lcy-b and Hy-b genes in a representative set of varieties of the Citrus genus already analyzed for carotenoid constitution. Our study aimed to answer the following questions: (a) are those genes mono- or mμLtilocus, (b) is the polymorphism revealed by RFLP and SSR markers inagreement with the general histor y of cμLtivated Citrus thus permitting inferences about the phylogenetic origin of genes of the secondary species, and (c) is this polymorphism associated with phenotypic (carotenoid compound) variations.RESΜLTS AND DISCUSSIONGlobal Diversity of the Genotype Sample Observed by RFLP Analysis. RFLP analyses were performed using probes defined from expressed sequences of seven major genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway . One or two restriction enzymes were used for each gene. None of these enzymes cut the cDNA probe sequence except HindIII for the Lcy-e gene. Intronic sequences and restriction sites on genomic sequences werescreened with PCR amplification using genomic DNA as template and with digestion of PCR products. The resμLts indicated the absence of an intronic sequence for Psy and Lcy-b fragments. The absence of intron in these two fragments was checked by cloning and sequencing corresponding genomic sequences (data not shown). Conversely, we found introns in Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e genomic sequences corresponding to RFLP probes. EcoRV did not cut the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e. In the same way, no BamHI restriction site was found in the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, and Hy-b. Data relative to the diversity observed for the different genes are presented in Table 4. A total of 58 fragments were identified, six of them being monomorphic (present in all individuals). In the limited sample of the three basic taxa, only eight bands out of 58 coμLd not be observed. In the basic taxa, the mean number of bands per genotype observed was 24.7, 24.7, and 17 for C. reticμLata, C. maxima, and C. medica, respectively. It varies from28 (C. limettioides) to 36 (C. aurantium) for the secondary species. The mean number of RFLP bands per individual was lower for basic taxa than for the group of secondary species. This resμLt indicates that secondary species are much more heterozygous than the basic ones for these genes, which is logical if we assume that the secondary species arise from hybridizations between the three basic taxa. Moreover C. medica appears to be the least heterozygous taxon for RFLP around the genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, as already shown with isozymes, RAPD, and SSR markers.The two lemons were close to the acid Citrus cluster and the three sour oranges close to the mandarins/sweet oranges cluster. This organization of genetic diversity based on the RFLP profiles obtained with seven genes of the carotenoid pathway is very similar to that previously obtained with neutral molecμLar markers such as genomic SSR as well as the organization obtained with qualitative carotenoid compositions. All these resμLts suggest that the observed RFLP and SSR fragments are good phylogenetic markers. It seems consistent with our basic hypothesis that major differentiation in the genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway preceded the creation of the secondary hybrid species and thus that the allelic structure of these hybrid species can be reconstructed from alleles observed in the three basic taxa.Gene by Gene Analysis: The Psy Gene. For the Psy probe combined with EcoRV or BamHI restriction enzymes, five bands were identified for the two enzymes, and two to three bands were observed for each genotype. One of these bands was present in all individuals. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. These resμLts lead us to believe that Psy is present at two loci,one where no polymorphism was found with the restriction enzymes used, and one that displayed polymorphism. The number of different profiles observed was six and four with EcoRV and BamHI, respectively, for a total of 10 different profiles among the 25 individuals .Two Psy genes have also been found in tomato, tobacco, maize, and rice . Conversely, only one Psy gene has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana and in pepper (Capsicum annuum), which also accumμLates carotenoids in fruit. According to Bartley and Scolnik, Psy1 was expressed in tomato fruit chromoplasts, while Psy2 was specific to leaf tissue. In the same way, in Poaceae (maize, rice), Gallagher et al. found that Psy gene was duplicated and that Psy1 and notPsy2 transcripts in endosperm correlated with endosperm carotenoid accumμLation. These resμLts underline the role of gene duplication and the importance of tissue-specific phytoene synthase in the regμLation of carotenoid accumμLation.All the polymorphic bands were present in the sample of the basic taxon genomes. Assuming the hypothesis that all these bands describe the polymorphism at the same locus for the Psy gene, we can conclude that we found allelic differentiation between the three basic taxa with three alleles for C. reticμLata, four for C. maxima, and one for C. medica.The alleles observed for the basic taxa then enabled us to determine the genotypes of all the other species. The presumed genotypes for the Psy polymorphic locus are given in Table 7. Sweet oranges and grapefruit were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were heterozygous; they shared the same mandarin allele with sweet oranges but had a different pummelo allele. Clementine was heterozygous with two mandarin alleles; one shared with sweetoranges and one with “Willow leaf” mandarin. “Meyer” lemon was heterozygous, with the mandarin allele also found in sweet oranges, and the citron allele. “Eureka”lemon was also heterozygous with the same pummelo allele as sour oranges and the citron allele. The other acid Citrus were homozygous for the citron allele.The Pds Gen. For the Pds probe combined with EcoRV, six different fragments were observed. One was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual was two or three. ResμLts for Pds led us to believe that this gene is present at two loci, one where no polymorphism was found with EcoRV restriction, and one displaying polymorphism. Conversely, studies on Arabidopsis, tomato, maize, and rice showed that Pds was a single copy gene. However, a previous study on Citrus suggests that Pds is present as a low-copy gene family in the Citrus genome, which is in agreement with our findings.The Zds Gene. The Zds profiles were complex. Nine and five fragments were observed with EcoRV and BamHI restriction, respectively. For both enzymes, one fragment was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual ranged from two to six for EcoRV and three to five for BamHI. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. It can be assumed that several copies (at least three) of the Zds gene are present in the Citrus genome with polymorphism for at least two of them. In Arabidopsis, maize, and rice, like Pds, Zds was a single-copy gene .In these conditions and in the absence of analysis of controlled progenies, we are unable to conduct genetic analysis of profiles. However it appears that some bands differentiated the basic taxa: one for mandarins, one for pummelos, and one for citrons with EcoRV restriction and one for pummelos and onefor citrons with BamHI restriction. Two bands out of the nine obtained with EcoRV were not observed in the samples of basic taxa. One was rare and only observed in “Rangpur” lime. The other was found in sour oranges, “V olkamer” lemon,and “Palestine sweet” lime suggesting a common ancestor for these three genotypes.This is in agreement with the assumption of Nicolosi et al. that “V olkamer” lemon resμLts from a complex hybrid combination with C. aurantium as one parent. It will be necessary to extend the analysis of the basic taxa to conclude whether these specific bands are present in the diversity of these taxa or resμLt from mutations after the formation of the secondary species.The Lcy-b Gene with RFLP Analysis.After restriction with EcoRV and hybridization with the Lcy-b probe, we obtained simple profiles with a total of four fragments. One to two fragments were observed for each individual, and seven profiles were differentiated among the 25 genotypes. These resμLts provide evidence that Lcy-b is present at a single locus in the haploid Citrus genome. Two lycopene β-cyclases encoded by two genes have been identified in tomato. The B gene encoded a novel type of lycopene β-cyclase whose sequence was similar to capsanthin-capsorubin synthase. The B gene expressed at a high level in βmutants was responsible for strong accumμLation ofβ-carotene in fruit, while in wild-type tomatoes, B was expressed at a low level.The Lcy-b Gene with SSR Analysis. Four bands were detected at locus 1210 (Lcy-b gene). One or two bands were detected per variety confirming that this gene is mono locus. Six different profiles were observed among the 25 genotypes. As with RFLPanalysis, no intrataxon molecμLar polymorphism was found within C. Paradisi, C. Sinensis, and C. Aurantium.Taken together, the information obtained from RFLP and SSR analyses enabled us to identify a complete differentiation among the three basic taxon samples. Each of these taxons displayed two alleles for the analyzed sample. An additional allele was identified for “Mexican” l ime. The profiles for all secondary species can be reconstructed from these alleles. Deduced genetic structure is given in. Sweet oranges and clementine were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were also heterozygous sharing the same mandarin allele as sweet oranges but with another pummelo allele. Grapefruit were heterozygous with two pummelo alleles. All the acid secondary species were heterozygous, having one allele from citrons and the other one from mandarins except for “Mexican” lime, which had a specific allele.柑桔属类胡萝卜素生物合成途径中七个基因拷贝数目及遗传多样性的分析摘要：本文的首要目标是分析类胡萝卜素生物合成相关等位基因在发生变异柑橘属类胡萝卜素组分种间差异的潜在作用；第二个目标是确定这些基因的拷贝数。
科技的利弊英语议论文
科技的利弊
科技在当今社会扮演着日益重要的角色，它既给我们的生活带来了便利，又引
发了一系列问题。
在这篇文章中，我们将讨论科技的利弊，以及对社会、环境和个人生活的影响。
科技的好处
科技的发展为人类带来了巨大的便利。
首先，科技大大提高了我们的生产效率，带动了经济的发展。
通过科技，我们能够轻松地和世界各地的人进行交流，拓宽了我们的视野。
此外，科技还为医疗、教育、交通等领域带来了革命性的变化，使得这些领域更加高效、便捷。
科技的坏处
然而，科技的发展也伴随着一些负面影响。
首先，科技的过度使用可能导致人
们过度依赖科技产品，忽视了人与人之间的沟通和情感联系。
此外，科技的发展也对环境造成了一定程度的破坏，比如电子废料的增加和能源消耗的加剧。
另外，科技的快速发展也带来了一定的安全隐患，比如个人隐私泄露和网络犯罪等问题。
科技的未来
在未来，科技将继续发展，给我们的生活带来更多的便利。
但同时，我们也需
要认识到科技所带来的问题，并寻找解决方案。
比如，我们可以提倡绿色科技，减少对环境的伤害；积极推动科技与人文精神的结合，促进人们更加健康地使用科技产品。
在总结，科技既是利器，也是双刃剑。
我们需要在享受科技便利的同时，不忘
对科技的合理使用提出更多思考。
只有这样，我们才能更好地应对科技发展所带来的挑战，实现科技与人类的和谐共处。
浅谈科技论文翻译时的一些技巧 聂燕
浅谈科技论文翻译时的一些技巧聂燕摘要：思维活动是翻译过程中最活跃最基本的活动，翻译理论同思维规律、思维内容密不可分。
掌握英汉思维的差异对于提高翻译者对语言转换的恰当性很有意义。
科技英语外文资料中术语较多、论证严密，因此在翻译时尤其需要注意逻辑严密、术语准确以及表达简明。
关键词：文化差异；语言转换的恰当性；术语准确；忠于原文；语句通顺；表达简明语言是思维的载体。
思维和语言之间存在一定的对应关系，思维方式影响语言表达。
思维和语言互相推动彼此的发展。
英汉民族由于文化差异形成了不同的思维方式、特征、风格等，即英汉思维差异,从而形成了英汉两种语言不同的表达方式。
故英汉互译的本质是英汉两种思维的转换。
思维活动是翻译过程中最活跃最基本的活动，翻译理论与思维规律及思维内容密不可分。
因此，掌握英汉思维的差异对于提高翻译者对语言转换的恰当性很有意义。
借助外文资料进行课题研究时，需要根据要求选择合适的科技论文资料进行辅助，常常需要查阅外文资料翻译成汉语，其中就有英文译汉语环节。
英语科技论文的特征之一是上下文语义联系紧密，所以把握科技论文的语义联系才使译文质量有保证。
在语篇中,句内以及句间的语义关系须完整,语义成分之间的关联需要依靠衔接手段来达到。
英译汉时,译者须依据汉语的自然语篇特点,适当调整译语的衔接方式,使译文达到语义连贯通顺的效果。
英汉语的衔接手段使用频率不同,英语重形合,衔接手段丰富、使用频率高,汉语重意合,较少使用街接手段,而是利用省略或重复某语义成分等。
为达到相同或相似的语义关联,英汉语可能使用不同的衔接形式,因此在翻译时可能无法做到完全对等。
此次探讨围绕英译汉进行。
科技英语资料中术语较多、论证严密，故在翻译时尤其需要注意逻辑严密、术语准确以及表达简明。
一、选词很重要英译汉时正确选词很重要，这是保证译文资料质量的重要前提。
在翻译英文资料时选词注意以下几个方面：1、根据原文联系上下文正确理解原文词义，推敲确切用词。
学术论文文献阅读与机助汉英翻译
学术论文文献阅读与机助汉英翻译IntroductionAs technology advances, artificial intelligence has become an integral part of our lives. With the help of machine learning and natural language processing, machines are not only able to perform routine tasks but are also able to understand, reason and learn. In the translation industry, machine translation has become increasingly popular in recent years.This paper will explore the use of machine translation in translation tasks by reviewing scholarly articles on the topic. Furthermore, we will explore the role of machine translation in automating translation tasks and the impact it has on the translation industry.Advantages of Machine TranslationMachine translation has several advantages in translation tasks. One of the greatest advantages is speed. Machines are able to perform translations in a fraction of the time it would take a human translator. Furthermore, machines can translate large volumes of text quickly and accurately.Another advantage of machine translation is cost. The cost of machine translation is significantly lower than human translation. This is because machines can complete translations without the need for payment, benefits, or time off.Machine translation is also consistent. Machines are not prone tofatigue or errors in the same way humans are. This means that the quality of translations is more consistent and reliable. Disadvantages of Machine TranslationHowever, there are also several disadvantages to using machine translation. One of the biggest disadvantages is accuracy. Machine translation is not always accurate, and can produce errors or awkward translations.Another disadvantage is that machines lack the cultural and linguistic knowledge of a human translator. This means that machines may not be able to properly translate idiomatic expressions or slang.Additionally, machines are not suitable for translations that require a higher level of precision, such as legal or medical translations. This is because these types of translations require a strong understanding of specific terminology and jargon.Research FindingsIn a study conducted by Hasegawa and Kojima (2011), machine translation was compared to human translation for translations of user manuals. The study found that machine translation produced more errors than human translation, and that the quality of machine translation varied widely depending on the source language.On the other hand, a study by Koehn et al. (2003) found that machine translation can produce high-quality translations when thesource text is straightforward and lacks nuanced meaning.Another study by Nitzke and Burchardt (2016) investigated the impact of machine translation on the translation process. They found that machine translation can be a useful tool for translators, but that it is important to take into account factors such as domain, text type, and translation direction.ConclusionMachine translation has several advantages and disadvantages in translation tasks. While it can be useful for translations of certain texts, it is not always accurate and lacks the cultural and linguistic knowledge of a human translator. In conclusion, machine translation has the potential to automate translation tasks and increase efficiency in the translation industry, but cannot replace the role of a human translator entirely.The use of machine translation in the translation industry has been increasing over the years. This is due to the advances in artificial intelligence and natural language processing that have made it possible for machines to understand and translate languages.One of the benefits of machine translation is that it can increase the efficiency of the translation process. This is particularly important for industries that require the translation of large volumes of text. For example, the news media industry relies heavily on machine translation to quickly translate news articles from one language to another. This allows them to deliver news to their audience faster and more efficiently.Moreover, machine translation can also be used in industries such as ecommerce, where the translation of product descriptions can be a time-consuming and costly process. By using machine translation, businesses can translate product descriptions quickly and with greater accuracy, which can lead to increased sales and reduced costs.However, it is important to note that machine translation has limitations. It may not always produce accurate translations, especially when dealing with complex or nuanced texts. In some cases, human translators may be necessary to ensure that the translation accurately captures the meaning and tone of the original text.Furthermore, machine translation can be particularly challenging when translating idiomatic expressions or slang. These types of expressions are often unique to a particular culture or community, and may not have direct translations in other languages. A machine translator may not be able to accurately capture the nuanced meaning of these expressions, resulting in a translated text that may be difficult for the reader to understand.Despite its limitations, there are several ways in which machine translation can be optimized to improve its accuracy and efficiency. One of these methods is by using post-editing, which involves a human translator checking and editing the machine-translated text for accuracy and fluency.Another way is by training the machine translator with domain-specific data. For example, if the machine is being used formedical translations, it can be trained with medical terminology to improve the accuracy of translations in this domain.Additionally, machine translation can also be improved by using a hybrid approach, which combines machine translation with human translation. This approach involves using the machine translator to translate the bulk of the text, then having a human translator edit and refine the translation to ensure accuracy and fluency.Overall, machine translation has become an integral part of the translation industry, and its use is expected to increase in the future. While it has its limitations, it also offers several benefits, such as increased efficiency and reduced costs. With ongoing improvements in artificial intelligence and natural language processing, it is likely that machine translation will become even more advanced, leading to greater accuracy and efficiency in translation tasks.。
科技翻译见解点滴论文
科技翻译见解点滴摘要:本文简要介绍了科技翻译的特征,科技翻译的原则和译者应有的素质,希望帮助读者对科技翻译有个更好的了解。
关键词:科技翻译;特征;原则;译者;素质introductiontranslation is in some degree a recreation. sci-tech translation is one part of translation. it is a process that reconstructs the original text expressed by the rigorous and standard written language. the diversity, extensity and complexity of sci-tech articles decide the difficulty and technicality of sci-tech translation work.1.0 characters of sci-tech translationsci-tech translation requires language that is actual, intuitive and clear in expression. the word use should be unified as possible as it can, especially some conceptual words.sci-tech translation is various in kind and specialty characteristics are distinctive. when do the written translation, although the translators look up in dictionary frequently, the articles they have translated are very awful. the basic reason is that they are not familiar with the specialty and even do not understand it at all. when you masterenough amounts of technical terms, you will feel bright at once.in addition, the language of sci-tech translation is accurate. it requires that the information of the original manuscripts should be conveyed objectively. it has only one surface meaning. sci-tech translation tries to avoid emotional coloring2.0 principles of sci-tech translationgenerally speaking, sci-tech articles are written in plain description, aiming at plainness and accuracy and using rhetoric as little as possible. in requirement of the characteristics of sci-tech articles, translators should follow the principles of accuracy, clarity, plainness and conciseness and objectivity, making sure that the translations are in accordance with the style characteristics of sci-tech articles on the premise of conveying the meaning.2.1 principle of accuracyaccuracy refers to expressing the meaning of the source language in target language when do the translation. articles require that the word use is accurate, avoiding obscurity polysemy. in translation process, translators should discriminate the words meanings before they decide which theyuse. or the translations will be obscure or a thousand miles away form the source texts in the meaning.2.2 principle of clarityclarity means to express the meaning of the source text clearly. for example, relations between chinese sentences are connected by their meanings, rarely using conjunctions. while in english, the structure is rigorous and there are many conjunctions. this makes the relations between composing components in one sentence or sentence and sentence clear. in addition, there is only one predicate verb in english simple sentence. as a result, when there are several verbs in a chinese sentence, only one main verb appears as predicate verb and other verbs appear as non-predicate verbs.2.3 principle of concisenessin sci-tech english, in order to argue accurately, translators will add some modified and restricted words and sentences although the definitions, laws and theorems are accurate, the concepts described and production process narrated are clear. meanings would not be affected if these kinds of words are omitted. instead, it will be concise. in addition, frequent use of non-personal nouns or nominalization structure is a common way to make thetranslations be concise. this could express different relations in sci-tech english in the most concise form and also could omit the obvious words the represent the logic relations.2.4 principle of objectivitythe tasks of sci-tech articles are that describe objective phenomenon, reveal their laws; introduce scientific research achievements, narrate process and conclusion of experiments; explain characteristics of products and points that should be paid attention to in producing process.generally speaking, sci-tech articles use simple present tense to narrate the social phenomena, process, conventions and so on. simple present tense is often used to express explanations of scientific definitions, laws, equations or formulas and diagrams. as for passive voice, it can not only make readers pay attention to the things, phenomena or process that are narrated but also seems very objective.3.0 qualities of sci-tech translatorsbesides the basic qualities that the general translators possess, sci-tech translators should also possess the special qualities of the professional technology. followings are twoqualities that the sci-tech translators should have.3.1 political qualitysci-tech translators should have high consciousness of political thoughts, strong sense of responsibility and noble professional ethic. they should love their countries, their people and socialism and abide by professional codes, stand firmly on the side of their own company and serve for the interest of their own countries.3.2 solid language basic skills and certain professional knowledgetranslators should possess large vocabularies, systematic foreign language morphology and syntax knowledge of a foreign language. besides possessing certain amount of foreign language knowledge, translators should possess comprehensive basic sci-tech knowledge, technical terms and specialized vocabularies as much as possible.conclusionas an important part of national scientific and technological knowledge course, sci-tech translation is a key means to spread whole-world sci-tech information, sci-tech knowledge and scientific research achievements. so sci-tech translations should be put in an improtant place.参考文献:[1]成妙仙,科技翻译体会点滴,《山西科技》第6期,2003.[2]刘国仕,试论科技翻译工作者的素养,《河南工业大学学报》(社会科学版)第2期,2007.[3]苗传臣,浅谈科技译员的素质,《中国科技翻译》第3期,1998.[4]杨保良,试谈科技翻译的特点及规律,《能源基地建设》第3期,1998.[5]杨超,刍议21世纪的科技翻译,《现代情报》第11期,2004.[6]杨先琇,科技翻译的特点及词汇翻译,《中国科技翻译》第2期,1990.[7]杨早春,谈汉英科技翻译的原则及方法,《和田师范专科学校学报》第2期,2007.作者简介:耿瑞超(1984-),女,汉族,山东淄博人,山东大学外国语学院2007级硕士研究生,主要从事翻译理论和实践研究。
《基于自然语言处理的机器翻译》论文
写一篇《基于自然语言处理的机器翻译》论文
基于自然语言处理的机器翻译（NLP-MLT）已经成为最近几
年来最受瞩目的人工智能应用之一。
它是利用机器学习、自然语言处理和人工智能技术实现机器翻译的一种机器翻译方法。
研究发现，NLP-MLT 技术在翻译效果方面较传统机器翻译具
有显著优势，它可以实现不同语言的句子翻译，尤其是语义理解和对原文的比对上表现出色。
基于 NLP-MLT 的机器翻译系
统可以准确看清母语者的意图，从而提供准确的翻译结果。
NLP-MLT 的主要组成部分包括语言模型、自然语言处理技术、机器学习技术和神经网络技术。
语言模型是翻译系统重要的
部分，它可以根据母语者的语义和语法特征，来构建两种语言之间的语言关系模型。
自然语言处理技术可以帮助翻译系统
识别句子中的意思，根据它们之间的关系，将原文中词语的意思转化为目标语言。
机器学习技术可以帮助机器翻译系统自动学习来源句子的语义，从而有效地实现对原文的翻译。
神经网络技术可以分析源句子和目标句子中语义的关联，进而帮助神经网络生成更准确的翻译结果。
通过这些技术，NLP-MLT 可
以快速、准确地实现各种语言之间的句子翻译。
总而言之，基于自然语言处理的机器翻译（NLP-MLT）是一
种有效的机器翻译技术，它能够实现不同语言之间的句子翻译，同时性能也比传统机器翻译技术更胜一筹。
通过语言模型、自然语言处理技术、机器学习技术和神经网络技术的协同作用，NLP-MLT 也可以使机器翻译系统提供更准确、更可信的翻译
结果。
英语科技论文(5篇)
英语科技论文(5篇)英语科技论文(5篇)英语科技论文范文第1篇1.较多的新词词汇量。
据统计显示，英语也许有两百万左右的词汇量，其中新词大约占到了50%左右的比例，而且每年都会有大约15001600个的新词和新义会进入到计算机数据库中。
现代的农业科技渐渐的取代了传统的农业，因此传统农业渐渐朝着精准农业的方向进展。
在现代农业中信息技术得到了广泛的运用，许多崭新的词汇也不断的涌现出来，比如防滴过滤系统、促进生态修复、建设资源节省型、环境友好型社会等。
2.较强的专业性。
在长期的工作实践中，每个行业都具备各自的惯用语和术语，作为一门具有较强综合性的学科，农业包括的渔业、牧业、副业、林业以及农业等。
其中的专业词汇具有很强的专业性，假如缺乏肯定的专业背景，在翻译一些专出名词的时候就很简单会消失误会的状况，甚至会消失严峻的翻译错误。
比如美国所谓的"亚洲鲤鱼'实际上是我国的鲢鱼。
二、农业科技翻译中的问题和缘由由于无法变通翻译程序或者专业学问储备不够，一些翻译者在翻译农业科技文章的时候，忽视了两种语言之间存在的差异，因此使得翻译出来的句子变成了英式汉语或汉式英语，并且常常闹出许多笑话。
导致这些问题存在的缘由主要包括以下几点。
1.没有储备足够的农业专业学问。
我们都知道，现在许多翻译人员都是在英语相关专业毕业的，很少了解相关的农业学问，所以许多的望词生义的现象消失在了实际的翻译过程中。
比如在对landreform进行翻译的时候应当将其翻译成"农业改革'或者"草地改革'，而不应当翻译成"'。
"肥'这个常常消失在高校《土壤学》课程中的词假如处于不同的语境就会有不同的翻译方法，例如肥料应当翻译成为fertilizer，追肥应当翻译成为topdressing，底肥应当翻译成为basemanure。
假如在进行农业专业翻译的过程中，翻译人员只具备了肯定的语言基础，却缺乏过硬的专业学问，就很简单消失各种错误。
科技论文英文摘要的编写及翻译
科技论文英文摘要的编写及翻译随着科学技术的日新月异，我国在科技领域取得了越来越多的成就，受到更多国际同行的关注。
广大科技工作者也需要向世界展示、介绍所取得的成就和成果。
介绍这些成果的科技类刊物则日益受到世界科技界人士和相关学术机构的重视，如美国的《科学引文索引)(Science Citation Index，简称SCI)、《工程索引》(Engineering Index，简称EI)和英国的《物理文摘》(Physics Abstract，简称PA)等重要的信息情报检索刊物每年都要收录大量的科技刊物的英文摘要。
为了增进国际间的学术交流，对英文摘要编写的标准、格式及质量也有了愈来愈高的要求，这也成为评价科技期刊质量的一项重要指标。
摘要是对“论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述”，其作用主要是为读者阅读、信息人员及计算机检索提供方便。
原则上说，科技论文的英文摘要应该是用英文直接编写，这样可以用英文的思维方式、行文习惯直接、准确地表达作者的思想。
但是这对许多科技人员来说尚有一定的难度。
因此，有些科技人员通常是采用其应用自如的中文，集中精力解决摘要的结构和实质性内容的概括等方面的问题，写出摘要的中文稿，然后把它译成英文。
但是目前论文作者撰写的中文摘要问题比较多，常见的有摘要形式选取不当、内容不完整、缺少研究目的或试验结论、表达不清楚、语言不顺、格式不规范等，主要原因就是作者对摘要的概念、分类及撰写要求等没有掌握。
a. 摘要的要素摘要的要素主要包括以下4个方面的内容：(1)研究目的。
准确描述该研究的目的，说明提出问题的缘由，表明研究的范围和重要性。
(2)研究方法。
简要说明研究课题的基本设计，使用了什么材料和方法，所用的仪器及设备，如何分组对照，研究范围和精确程度，数据是如何取得的，经何种统计学方法处理。
(3)结果。
简要列出该研究的主要结果，有什么新发现，说明其价值和局限。
叙述要具体、准确并给出结果的置信值及统计学显著性检验的确切值。
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科技英语中长句的译法一、引言：职场笔译（2012，page3）认为翻译是一个历史及其悠久的概念。
根据现存可见的文献，我们大致可以推断出翻译活动最早起始时间，但“翻译是什么”这个无法回避的问题从古至今一直困扰着每一位翻译研究者，至今仍是当代翻译学界的“斯芬克斯之谜”。
根据Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online（《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》在线版，2012,），翻译是“the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language”（将书面或者口头的某事物转换到另一种语言的过程）。
根据这一个词义，翻译就被分成了两大类，笔译translation和口译interpretation。
我一直以来的主张都是口译比笔译难很多。
以为口译要求的是反应能力，词汇量，语言的组织，这是笔译所不具备的。
可是在我学习了科技翻译这门课程的一段时间后，我深刻发现两者同等。
笔译相对于口译而言，要求的是精准，把原作者在作品中投入的感情，原汁原味的反馈出来；在科技翻译中，要求的则是用最精简的词汇去描述这样一件科学自然现象原理。
所以在翻译中，技巧显得尤为重要。
在科技英语翻译技巧与实践（2012）中提出了时态语态的不同特点，词汇的专业转换法，增（减）词法，被动语态的译法，从句的译法，长句的译法，段落的译法等。
在我的这份论文报告里，我将会对长句难句复杂句的译法，做出我的一些整理和方法。
二、长句解析英语中的句子分有，简单句和从句。
1、简单句组成结构大多都是主谓宾，定状补。
科技英语翻译之要义与技法（2012，page178）认为英语复杂长句的难点是句子长，句子核心不显眼，不易辨别。
此外，长句的结构容易使译者产生思维阻断，难以一下子把我其真正意义。
然而，复杂长句一旦化简，翻译难的问题就迎刃而解了。
1.1首先对于主动语态的简单长句。
例：Nowadays, a most wonderful way of carrying message to link the world together is to send an electronic signal or message from a station on the earth to a satellite traveling in space and then to make it come back to another earth station, which may be very far away from the sending station.译文：今天，传递信息以便把世界联系起来的一种十分巧妙的办法是：从地面站向太空运转的卫星发射电子信号或者信息，然后再让信号或信息返回到另一个地面站，这两个地面站之间距离可能十分遥远。
分析：这句子很长，但只是一句简单句中包含一句定语从句。
首先要找到句子的主语a most wonderful way，表语is to send...，to make ...，宾语signal or message，修饰的定语from a station以及which 后面引导的定语从句。
找到了句子的整个框架，再把详细的意思嵌套进去。
最后再对整句句子做一些调整，保证语序通畅，内容完整。
1.2所以我认为，在我们拿到一个长句，读不懂的时候，我们要做的是分析句子结构，看清楚句子当中的主谓宾，定状补。
了解整个长句的中心意思，对于我们接下来的翻译有着不可或缺的作用。
1.3实用科技英语翻译讲评（2001，page59）认为英汉两种语言句法结构的差异，也可体现在语句中心的位置上。
句长的改变，往往伴随着语句中心的变化。
英语句群中的信息中心句，常常放到句末，叫末端重心（end force）金字塔形，这与汉语注意语序，其细心重心往往在句群的最后面基本一致的，但由于英语中有许多表示次要句的种种语词标记（如关系代词、关系副词、分词等），因此句群的末句，并不一定就是信息中心句。
为了使译文符合汉语习惯，就需要对语句重心进行调整，一般还是采取末端重心的方法。
这也就表明了，在英语的长句中，往往句子的核心出现在末端！译者应该多关注，句末的词义。
但其实英汉这两种语言句法特征的差异对科技翻译的影响是多方面的，很难用简单的击中模式来加以归纳和规范。
2.1长句中另一大类就是从句了。
这是让很多学生十分头疼的句子部分。
如果说简单句就是句子长的话，那么从句会令你看不懂，你在看些什么让你抓狂。
尤其是从句中还包含复杂的长句，从句嵌套着从句。
这对于我们而言简直就像是不可能完成的任务。
下面我就来揭开这些从句的面纱。
首先在我们拿到一句复杂的从句时，有些学生觉得太难了，直接往翻译机器里一丢，机器会返还给你一段语义不通顺的答案，甚至有的时候一词多义的情况下，什么都不是。
我们不是机器，我们除了需要具备了解这整句句子中每个词的意思这种能力之外，我们更需要的是一种对语言的驾驭能力。
我们要做的是整合每个词的意思，把原作中的意思清晰完整地表达出来。
从某种意义上而言，这是一种逻辑关系。
2.2科技翻译教程（2008，page109）认为翻译既是语言形式的转换，又是思维方式的转换。
思维离不开逻辑，作为特殊思维活动的翻译更离不开逻辑。
因此，首先对于从句而言，我们要做的是，分析这句从句的句子结构！说起从句又是英语语法现象中一个极为复杂多变的结构。
但无论如何，从句的意义都是在简单句中某个成分的位置插入一句从句。
实用科技英语翻译要义（2008，page233），含主语从句的复合句、含表语从句的复合句、含宾语从句的复合句、含同位语从句的复合句、含定语从句的复合句、含状语从句的复合句、含连续性从句的复合句。
2.3科技阅读与翻译——重点与难点解读（2006，page10）句子的基本结构有五种：1、主语+系动词+主语补（足）语（表语）；（“主—系—表”句型，there be）2、主语+不及物动词；3、主语+及物动词+宾语；4、主语+及物动词+间接宾语+直接宾语；5、主语+及物动词+宾语+宾语补足语；1、含主语从句的复合句：在英语中尤其是科技英语中，直接将主语从句置于句首的情况并不多见，除非该从句较为短小。
多数场合是采用形式主语，而将真实主语从句置于主语之后。
翻译时多有较为成型的、固定的译法。
一般多采用顺译，但有时也可倒译。
I thought it might be possible that there would be some maintenance of telomeres （端粒酶）, but t hat we see extension is unexpected. 我想可能存在某些维持染色体端粒的物质，但寿命的延长确实出乎我们的意料。
（本句含有两个主语从句，前者带有自己的形式主语，翻译时要对后者做结构上的转换）2、含表语从句的复合句：表语从句在翻译时一般总是顺译。
在翻译的过程中，可以视翻译表达的需要而采取翻译。
The nutritional dilemma of persons with AIDS, or PWAs, is that they must eat abundantly yet they must also avoid foodborne illness, juggle foods and medications, and surmount the poor appetite and indigestion caused by they medications and by ADIS itself.艾滋病患者（又称PWAs）在饮食方面所遭受的两难困境表现为：患者一方面必须大量进食，另一方面又不得不防范饮食可能导致的疾病，改变食谱和用药，还要克服因药物治疗以及艾滋病本身而引发的食欲不振和消化不良。
（用“that”引出的典型的表语从句）3、含宾语从句的复合句：由于汉语和英语一样，在自然语序中都是吧宾语永远置于动词之后，所以，在翻译宾语从句时总是几无例外地采取顺译，把宾语从句找照译在主句之后。
The figure shows t hat the maximum precipitation occurred to the east of Indonesia.此图表明最大降水出现在印尼以东4、含同位语从句的复合句：照译，同位语从句的翻译大多将其照译在先行词之后，用“就是”或者采用标点符号（冒号）等引出；拆译，同位语从句的翻译还经常采取拆译法，就是讲该从句拆出来作为外位成分单译成一句，然后通过采用其先行词或相应的代词替代外位成分来加以过渡，引出主句及其他成分；转换，有时也可采用转换法翻译同位语从句，此时大多略去其先行词不译。
合译，间或会碰到两个并列的同位语从句讲述的是密切相关的内容，此时也可将两者合二为一，合译成一个单句或复句；5、含定语从句的复合句：定语从句的翻译通畅主要采取顺译和倒译的方法，其中在进行顺译的时候，常常需要对句子成分进行转换和拆译。
（一）倒译①限定性定语从句1）一般形态的定语从句2）特殊或复杂形态的定语从句（1）分隔式定语从句（2）“as”和“than”引出的定语从句（3）“but”引出的定语从句（4）并列式定语从句（5）包孕式定语从句（6）复合式定语从句（7）重叠式定语从句②非限定性定语从句（二）顺译（三）6、含状语从句的复合句（一）顺译（二）倒译7、含连续性从句的复合句（一）定语从句型连续性从句（二）状语从句型连续性从句2.4这里不涉及到被动语态，这是因为，科技阅读与翻译——重点与难点解读（2006，page75）在科技翻译中，很多情况下，都不必涉及到具体的个人。
因此，大多此阿勇陈述句。
这类句子通畅都是正规的非人称句——用无生命的名词，而不是用人称代词作句子主语的句子。
这类句子在英语中适宜采用被动语态。
三、结束语：英语复合句是英语表达力最强的句型结构之一，它由至少一个主句和一个从句组成。
其理解和翻译往往因其从句的不同而迥异，故而必须首先处理好从句。
英语的变化形式多种多样，仅仅靠上述那些分类是不够的，在面对任何的句子翻译的时候，我们要做到沉着冷静，认真地仔细地分析清楚作者想要表达的含义才是作为一名合格的议员该有的精神。
参考文献：1、岳峰·职场笔译·福建：唐门大学出版社，20122、谢小苑·科技英语翻译技巧与实践·国防工业出版社，20123、王卫平、潘丽蓉·科技英语与翻译之要义与技法·上海科学技术出版社，20124、范武邱·实用科技英语翻译讲评·外文出版社，20015、方梦之、范武邱·科技翻译教程·上海外语教育出版社，20086、严俊仁·科技阅读与翻译——重点与难点解读·国防工业出版社，20067、闫文培·实用科技英语翻译要义·科学出版社，2008。