商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字Credit risk management is a XXX business。
financing ns。
payment and settlement。
and other XXX。
credit XXX risk factor for commercial banks。
XXX such as life risk and uncertainty.Effective credit risk management is essential for commercial banks to minimize the impact of credit losses。
This involves identifying and assessing potential risks。
XXX strategies。
XXX。
By doing so。
commercial banks XXX the potential for credit losses.One of the key components of credit risk management iscredit analysis。
This involves evaluating the orthiness of borrowers to determine the likelihood of default。
Credit analysis XXX's financial history。
credit score。
collateral。
XXX credit analysis。
commercial banks can make informed lending ns and minimize the risk of default.Another important aspect of credit risk management is credit XXX can also help commercial banks XXX.In n。
金融风险管理外文翻译文献
金融风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Enterprise Risk Management in InsuranceEnterprise Risk Management (hereinafter referred as “ERM”) interests a wide range of professions (e.g., actuaries, corporate financial managers, underwriters, accountants,and internal auditors), however, current ERM solutions often do not cover all risks because they are motivated by the core professional ethics and principles of these professions who design and administer them. In a typical insurance company all such professions work as a group to achieve the overriding corporate objectives.Risk can be defined as factors which prevent an organization in achieving its objectives and risks affect organizations holistically. The management of risk in isolation often misses its big picture. It is argued here that a holistic management of risk is logical and is the ultimate destination of all general management activities.Moreover, risk management should not be a separate function of the business process;rather, managing downside risk and taking the opportunities from upside risk should be thekey management goals. Consequently, ERM is believed as an approach to risk management, which provides a common understanding across the multidisciplinary groups of people of the organization. ERM should be proactive and its focus should be on the organizations future. Organizations often struggle to see and understand the full risk spectrum to which they are exposed and as a result they may fail to identify the most vulnerable areas of the business. The effective management of risk is truly an interdisciplinary exercise grounded on a holistic framework.Whatever name this new type of risk management is given (the literature refers to it by diverse names, such as Enterprise Risk Management, Strategic Risk Management, and Holistic Risk Management) the ultimate focus is management of all significant risks faced by the organization. Risk is an integral part of each and every action of the organization in the sense that an organization is a basket of contracts associated with risk (in terms of losses and opportunities). The idea of ERM is simple and logical, but implementation is difficult. This is because its involvement with a wide stakeholder community, which in turn involves groups from different disciplines with different beliefs and understandings. Indeed, ERM needs theories (which are the interest of academics) but a grand theory of ERM (which invariably involves an interdisciplinary concept) is far from having been achieved.Consequently, for practical proposes, what is needed is the development of a framework(a set of competent theories) and one of the key challenges of this thesis is to establish the key features of such a framework to promote the practice of ERM. Multidisciplinary Views of RiskThe objective of the research is to study the ERM of insurance companies. In line with this it is designed to investigate what is happening practically in the insurance industry at the current time in the name of ERM. The intention is to minimize the gap between the two communities (i.e., academics and practitioners) in order to contribute to the literature of risk management.In recent years ERM has emerged as a topic for discussion in the financial community,in particular, the banks and insurance sectors. Professional organizations have published research reports on ERM. Consulting firms conducted extensive studies and surveys on the topic to support their clients. Rating agencies included theERM concept in their rating criteria. Regulators focused more on the risk management capability of the financial organizations. Academics are slowly responding on the management of risk in a holistic framework following the initiatives of practitioners.The central idea is to bring the organization close to the market economy. Nevertheless,everybody is pushing ERM within the scope of their core professional understanding.The focus of ERM is to manage all risks in a holistic framework whatever the source and nature. There remains a strong ground of knowledge in managing risk on an isolated basis in several academic disciplines (e.g., economics, finance, psychology,sociology, etc.). But little has been done to take a holistic approach of risk beyond disciplinary silos. Moreover, the theoretical understanding of the holistic (i.e., multidisciplinary)properties of risk is still unknown. Consequently, there remains a lack of understanding in terms of a common and interdisciplinary language for ERM.Risk in FinanceIn finance, risky options involve monetary outcomes with explicit probabilities and they are evaluated in terms of their expected value and their riskiness. The traditional approach to risk in finance literature is based on a mean-variance framework of portfolio theory, i.e., selection and diversification. The idea of risk in finance is understood within the scope of systematic (non-diversifiable) risk and unsystematic (diversifiable)risk. It is recognized in finance that systematic risk is positively correlated with the rate of return. In addition, systematic risk is a non-increasing function of a firm’s growth in terms of earnings. Another established concern in finance is default risk and it is argued that the performance of the firm is linked to the firm’s default risk. A large part of finance literature deals with severa l techniques of measuring risks of firms’ investment portfolios (e.g., standard deviation, beta, VaR, etc.). In addition to the portfolio theory, Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) was discovered in finance to price risky assets on the perfect capital markets. Finally, derivative markets grew tremendously with the recognition of option pricing theory.Risk in EconomicsRisk in economics is understood within two separate (independent) categories,i.e.,endogenous (controllable) risk and background (uncontrollable) risk. It is recognized that economic decisions are made under uncertainty in the presence of multiple risks.Expected Utility Theory argues that peoples’ risk attitude on the size of risk (small,medium, large) is derived from the utility-of-wealth function, where the utilities of outcomes are weighted by their probabilities. Economists argue that people are risk averse (neutral) when the size of the risks is large (small).Prospect theory provides a descriptive analysis of choice under risk. In economics, the concept of risk-bearing preferences of agents for independent risks was described under the notion of “ standard risk aversion.” Most of the economic research on risk is originated on the study of decision making behavior on lotteries and other gambles. Risk in PsychologyWhile economics assumes an individual’s risk preference is a function of probabilistic beliefs, psychology explores how human judgment and behavior systematically forms such beliefs. Psychology talks about the risk taking behavior (risk preferences).It looks for the patterns of human reactions to the context, reference point,mental categories and associations that influence how people make decisions.The psychological approach to risk draws upon the notion of loss aversion that manife sts itself in the related notion of “regret.” According to Willett; “risk affects economic activity through the psychological influence of uncertainty.” Managers’ attitude of risk taking is often described from the psychological point of view in terms of feelings.Psychologists argue that risk, as a multidisciplinary concept, can not be reduced meaningfully by a single quantitative treatment. Consequently, managers tend to utilize an array of risk measurers to assist them in the decision making process under uncertainty. Risk perception plays a central role in the psychological research on risk, where the key concern is how people perceive risk and how it differs to the actual outcome. Nevertheless, the psychological research on risk provides fundamental knowledge of how emotions are linked to decision making.Risk in SociologyIn sociology risk is a socially constructed phenomenon (i.e., a social problem) and defined as a strategy referring to instrumental rationality. The sociologicalliterature on risk was originated from anthropology and psychology is dominated by two central concepts. First, risk and culture and second, risk society. The negative consequences of unwanted events (i.e., natural/chemical disasters, food safety) are the key focus of sociological researches on risk. From a sociological perspective entrepreneurs remain liable for the risk of the society and responsible to share it in proportion to their respective contributions. Practically, the responsibilities are imposed and actions are monitored by state regulators and supervisors.Nevertheless, identification of a socially acceptable threshold of risk is a key challenge of many sociological researches on risk.Convergence of Multidisciplinary Views of RiskDifferent disciplinary views of risk are obvious. Whereas, economics and finance study risk by examining the distribution of corporate returns, psychology and sociology interpret risk in terms of its behavioral components. Moreover, economists focus on the economic (i.e., commercial) value of investments in a risky situation.In contrast, sociologists argue on the moral value (i.e., sacrifice) on the risk related activities of the firm. In addition, sociologists’ criticism of economists’concern of risk is that although they rely on risk, time, and preferences while describing the issues related to risk taking, they often miss out their interrelationships(i.e., narrow perspective). Interestingly, there appears some convergence of economics and psychology in the literature of economic psychology. The intention is to include the traditional economic model of individuals’ formal rational action in the understanding of the way they actually think and behave (i.e., irrationality).In addition, behavioral finance is seen as a growing discipline with the origin of economics and psychology. In contrast to efficient market hypothesis behaviour finance provides descriptive models in making judgment under uncertainty.The origin of this convergence was due to the discovery of the prospect theory in the fulfillment of the shortcomings of von Neumann-Morgenstern’s utility theory for providing reasons of human (irrational) behavior under uncertainty (e.g., arbitrage).Although, the overriding enquiry of disciplines is the estimation of risk, they comparing and reducing into a common metric of many types of risks are there ultimate difficulty. The key conclusion of the above analysis suggests that there existoverlaps on the disciplinary views of risk and their interrelations are emerging with the progress of risk research. In particular, the central idea of ERM is to obscure the hidden dependencies of risk beyond disciplinary silos.Insurance Industry PracticeThe practice of ERM in the insurance industry has been drawn from the author’s PhD research completed in 2006. The initiatives of four major global European insurers(hereinafter referred as “CASES”) were studied for this purpose. Out of these four insurers one is a reinsurer and the remaining three are primary insurers. They were at various stages of designing and implementing ERM. A total of fifty-one face-to-face and telephone interviews were conducted with key personnel of the CASES in between the end of 2004 and the beginning of 2006. The comparative analysis (compare-and-contrast) technique was used to analyze the data and they were discussed with several industry and academic experts for the purpose of validation. Thereafter,a conceptual model of ERM was developed from the findings of the data.Findings based on the data are arranged under five dimensions. They are understanding;evaluation; structure; challenges, and performance of ERM. Understanding of ERMIt was found that the key distinction in various perceptions of ERM remains between risk measurement and risk management. Interestingly, tools and processes are found complimentary. In essence, meaning that a tool can not run without a process and vice versa. It is found that the people who work with numbers (e.g.,actuaries, finance people, etc.) are involved in the risk modeling and management(mostly concerned with the financial and core insurance risks) and tend to believe ERM is a tool. On the other hand internal auditors, company secretaries, and operational managers; whose job is related to the human, system and compliance related issues of risk are more likely to see ERM as a process.ERM: A ProcessWithin the understanding of ERM as a process, four key concepts were found. They are harmonization, standardization, integration and centralization. In fact, they are linked to the concept of top-down and bottom-up approaches of ERM.The analysis found four key concepts of ERM. They are harmonization,standardization,integration and centralization (in decreasing order of importance). It was also found that a unique understanding of ERM does not exist within the CASES, rather ERM is seen as a combination of the four concepts and they often overlap. It is revealed that an understanding of these four concepts including their linkages is essential for designing an optimal ERM system.Linkages Amongst the Four ConceptsAlthough harmonization and standardization are seen apparently similar respondents view them differently. Whereas, harmonization allows choices between alternatives,standardization provides no flexibility. Effectively, harmonization offers a range of identical alternatives, out of which one or more can be adopted depending on the given circumstances. Although standardization does not offer such flexibility,it was found as an essential technique of ERM. Whilst harmonization accepts existing divergence to bring a state of comparability, standardization does not necessarily consider existing conventions and definitions. It focuses on a common standard, (a “top-down” approach). Indeed, integration of competent policies and processes,models, and data (either for management use, compliance and reporting) are not possible for global insurers without harmonizing and standardizing them. Hence, the research establishes that a sequence (i.e., harmonization, standardization, integration,and then centralization) is to be maintained when ERM is being developed in practice (from an operational perspective). Above all, the process is found important to achieve a diversified risk culture across the organization to allocate risk management responsibilities to risk owners and risk takers.ERM: A ToolViewed as a tool, ERM encompasses procedures and techniques to model and measure the portfolio of (quantifiable) enterprise risk from insurers’ core disciplinary perspective. The objective is to measure a level of (risk adjusted) capital(i.e., economic capital) and thereafter allocation of capital. In this perspective ERM is thought as a sophisticated version of insurers’ asset-liability management.Most often, extreme and emerging risks, which may bring the organization down,are taken into consideration. Ideally, the procedure of calculating economic capital is closely linked to the market volatility. Moreover, the objective is clear, i.e., meetingthe expectation of shareholders. Consequently, there remains less scope to capture the subjectivity associated with enterprise risks.ERM: An ApproachIn contrast to process and tool, ERM is also found as an approach of managing the entire business from a strategic point of view. Since, risk is so deeply rooted in the insurance business, it is difficult to separate risk from the functions of insurance companies. It is argued that a properly designed ERM infrastructure should align risk to achieve strategic goals. Alternatively, application of an ERM approach of managing business is found central to the value creation of insurance companies.In the study, ERM is believed as an approach of changing the culture of the organization in both marketing and strategic management issues in terms of innovating and pricing products, selecting profitable markets, distributing products, targeting customers and ratings, and thus formulating appropriate corporate strategies. In this holistic approach various strategic, financial and operational concerns are seen integrated to consider all risks across the organization.It is seen that as a process, ERM takes an inductive approach to explore the pitfalls (challenges) of achieving corporate objectives for broader audience (i.e.,stakeholders) emphasizing more on moral and ethical issues. In contrast, as a tool,it takes a deductive approach to meet specific corporate objectives for selected audience(i.e., shareholders) by concentrating more on monitory (financial) outcomes.Clearly, the approaches are complimentary and have overlapping elements. 作者：M Acharyya译文：保险业对企业风险管理的实证研究企业风险管理涉及各种行业(如保险精算师、公司财政经理、保险商、会计和内部审计员)，当前企业风险管理解决方案往往不能涵盖所有的风险，因为这些方案取决于决策者和执行则的专业道德和原则。
商业银行信贷风险管理外文翻译
文献信息：文献标题：Credit Risk Management Strategies and Their Impact on Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya（信贷风险管理策略及其对肯尼亚商业银行绩效的影响）国外作者：Samuel Warui Mutua，Muoni Gekara文献出处：《Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research》,2017, 3(4):1896-1904字数统计：英文2891单词，15678字符；中文4915汉字外文文献：Credit Risk Management Strategies and Their Impact on Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya Abstract Credit risk management strategies are amongst the most critical factors to consider for any financial institution involved in any lending activity. Financial institutions have often find themselves making decisions between lending to potential borrowers thus effectively growing their balance sheets and effectively increasing their returns and being cautious in lending to caution themselves against any potential losses. Specifically, the research sought to examine credit risk management strategies and their impact on performance of commercial banks in Kenya. The research was guided by the liquidity theory of credit, portfolio theory, credit risk theory and the tax theory of credit.The research was based on a descriptive design which involves describing the current state of affairs by use of data collected through questionnaires and interviews. The research was focused on selected Tier III commercial banks in Kenya namely Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and Credit Bank with reference to the loans department. The sampled population consists of 62 staff members from loans department of Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and CreditBank. Primary data was collectedthrough the use of closed ended questionnaires, pick and drop procedure was used to collect data through use of the registered offices of the targeted loans departments of the target banks. Data analysis was done both quantitatively using tables and charts; this was then summarized, coded, tabulated and analyzed using both descriptive statistics and measures of variability with aid of SPSS package. Tables and graphs were used to present the data collected for ease of understanding and analysis. From the findings, the study concludes that credit risk management strategies including credit risk rating risks, credit approval risks, portfolio management risks and security perfection risks positively affect performance of commercial banks in Kenya.Key words: Credit risk management practices, commercial banks1.IntroductionCredit risk refers to the potential for loss as a resultof failure of counter party to meet their obligations of paying the financial institution according to the agreed terms. Credit exposures may arise from both banking and trading books. Management of credit risks requires a framework of well set out policies and procedures covering measurement and management of the credit risk (Barth et al, 2004).While financial institutions have faced difficulties over the years for a multitude of reasons, the major cause of serious banking problems continues to be directly related to lax credit standards for borrowers and counterparties, poor portfolio risk management, or a lack of attention to changes in economic or other circumstances that can lead to a deterioration in the credit standing of a bank’s counterparties. This experience is common in both the developed and developing countries.For most banks, loans are the largest and most obvious source of credit risk; however, other sources of credit risk exist throughout the activities of a bank,including in the banking book and in the trading book, and both on and off the balance sheet. Banks are increasingly facing credit risk (or counterparty risk) in various financial instruments other thanloans, including acceptances, interbank transactions, trade financing, foreign exchange transactions, financial futures, swaps,bonds, equities, options, and in the extension of commitments and guarantees, and the settlement of transactions.Each bank should develop a credit risk strategy or plan that establishes the objectives guiding thebank’s credit-granting activities and adopt the necessary policies and procedures for conducting such activities. The credit risk strategy, as well as significant credit risk policies, should be approved and periodically (at least annually) reviewed by the board of directors. The board needs to recognize thatthe strategy and policies must cover the many activities of the bank in which credit exposure is a significant risk (Haron et al, 2007).Credit Management is a financial management aspect that includes credit underwriting that encompasses analysis, approval, security perfection, portfolio management and debt recovery. Nzotta (2004) indicated that credit management directly influences the success or failures of financial institution involved in lending activities. He indicated that on the hindsight of lending being directly proportionalto the quantum of deposits received from the public, any unwise credit underwriting would translateto loss of depositors’ funds and losses to the financial institutions thereof.According to a report by Earnest and Young of 2013 on the banking environment in East Africa, it is reported that banks in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda recorded growth rates in asset book of 16%, 14%, 13% and 12% respectively. This was on the advent of introduction of credit bureaus that was expected to improve on credit underwriting by improving decision making by 89% and effectively help reduce Non Performing portfolios across the board by 94%. Between the year 2009 and 2013, banks in Tanzania grew their CAGR by 17.5% with loans and advances outpacing overall asset growth which grew by 22.5% over the same period. In Uganda, the CAGR of banks grew by 13% whilst the growth in Rwanda was 12% in an economy that grew by 4.6%. In the period under review high loan provisioning occasioned by aggressive pursuit by various players to grow their balance sheets withouta simultaneous enhanced credit underwriting amongst other factors was highlighted as a reason high provisions were witnessed.Josiah Aduda and James Gitonga (2011) carried out a research on the relationship between credit risk management and profitability among the commercial banks in Kenya. They found out that a strong relationship does exist between credit management and profitability and that most banks held to this belief. Gatuhu (2011) conducted a research on the effect of financial performance of credit management on the financial performance of microfinance institutions in Kenya. Gatuhu found that there existed a strong relationship between credit appraisal of microfinance institutions, credit risk control and collection policy and the overall performance of microfinance institutions in Kenya. The period commencing second half of the year 2015 to the first half of 2016 witnessed particularly difficult times for the banking industry in Kenya with 3 out the then existing 43 commercial banks going under or being placed under statutory management. These were influenced by in one way directly or indirectly to issues revolving around weak credit management strategies.2.Statement of the ProblemThe main objective of any institution involved in money lending is to ensure that a healthy return is realized adequate to cover for all the risks assumedin addition to covering the foregone time value for money. In trying to attain this objective, prudence must be exercised to en sure that unnecessaryrisk isn’t taken that would most probably lead to unprecedented losses. It is for this reason that various institutions involved in money lending are guided by various frameworks to ensure care is exercised in making such decisions.There is an extensive literature on the managementof credit risk in commercial banks. Kealhofer (2003) did a research study on risk-adjusted performance measures in commercial banks. The measures, however, focus on risk-return trade-off, i.e. measuring the risk inherent in each activity and charge it accordingly for the capital required to support it. Greuning and Bratanovic (2003), studied sound credit granting process; maintaining an appropriate credit administration that involves monitoring process as well as adequate controls over credit risk.Clear established process for approving new credits and extending the existingcredits has been observed to be very important while managing credit risk (Heffernan, 2003). Mwirigi, (2006) didan assessment of the credit risk management techniques adopted by various MFIs in Kenya and ascertained that a considerable number of them had credit policies to enable them make informed credit decisions that stroke a balance between businessandrisk perspectives. Ndwiga, (2010) and Chege, (2010) both did a research to ascertain the relationship between credit risk management and the financial performance of MFIs in Kenya.There is no known study that has been done on strategic credit policies for risk management, thus knowledge gap. This study aims at establishing the credit risk management used by commercial banks and how they affect performance of the commercial banks. This research study is motivated to bridge the gap by investigating credit risk management strategies employed by commercial banks, especially Tier III banks in Kenya and how this impacts on their financial performance. In the commercial banks, management of credit risk has caused bank losses in developing countries, including Kenya. Effective credit risk management system minimizes the credit risk, hence the level of loan losses.3.Theoretical Review3.1.Liquidity Theory of CreditThis theory, first proposed by (Emery, 2009), proposes that credit rationed firms use more trade credit than those with normal access to financial institutions. The central point of this notion is that when a firm is financially inhibited the offer of trade credit can make up for the decline of credit offer from lending institutions.Inaccordwith thisview,those firms presenting good liquidity or better access to capital markets can finance those that are credit rationed. Several methodologies have tried to obtain empirical confirmation in order to support this assumption. Nielsen (2012), using small firms as proxy for credit rationed firms, firms find that when there is liquidity tightening in the economy, to ensure their sustainability, they are obligated to advance credit terms to their customers. As financially liberal firms are less likely to seek trade credit terms and more likely toextend the same, a negative relation between a buyers’ access to other sources of financing and trade credit is expected. (Petersen & Rajan, 2007) obtained evidence supporting this negative relation.3.2.Portfolio TheoryPortfolio theory of investment tries to optimize the expected portfolio return for a given proportion of portfolio risk or equivalently decrease the risk for a given level of anticipated return, by carefully choosing the mixed proportions of several assets. Portfolio theory is extensively used in practice in the financial sector and several of its inventors won a Nobel Prize for the same. In modern years the basic portfolio theory has been widely criticized by fields such as behavioral economics (Markowitz, 1952). Portfolio theory was devel oped in 1950’s all through to the early 1970’s and was considered a vital progression in the mathematical modeling of finance. Many theoretical and practical criticisms have since been developed against the same. This include the fact that financial returns do not follow a Gaussian distribution or indeed any symmetric distribution and those correlations between asset classes (Sproul, 1998)3.3.Tax Theory of CreditThe rationale of whether or not to accept a trade credit is based on the ability to access other sources of finances. A buyer is obliged to compare different financing options to find out which will be the most economically viable for them in making cost savings. In any business deal, payment may be on the spot or deferred to a date in the future, in which case a deferred cost element is attached to it in the form of interest. Thus, to find the best sources of funding, the buyer ought to investigate the real cost of borrowing. (Brick and Fung, 1984) suggest that, the tax effect should be considered in order to compare the trade credit cost with the cost of other financing options. The main reason for this is that if sellers and buyers are in different tax brackets, they have different costs of borrowing as their interests are tax allowable. The autho rs’ hypothesis is that; businesses in a high tax bracket tend to advance more trade credit thanthosein low brackets. Subsequently, only buyers in a low tax bracket than the seller will accept credit terms, since those in a higher tax brackets couldborrow more cheaply and directly from a financial organization. Another assumption is that businesses associated with a given sector and placed in a tax bracket below the specific sector average; cannot benefit from offering trade credit. Thus, (Brick and Fung 1984) propose that firms can’t use and offer trade credit.3.4.Credit Risk TheoryUntil barely the 1970s’, Credit risk had not been widely studied, although people have been facing credit risk ever since the very early times. Before 1974, early literature on credit risk used traditional actuarial methods of assessing the same, whosemajor challenge lies in their extensive dependence on historical data. Up to now there are three quantitative approaches of analyzing credit risk: structural approach, reduced form appraisal and incomplete information approach (Crosbie et al, 2003). Melton 1974, presented the credit risk theory else called the structural theory; which said the default event originates from a firm’s asset development displayed by a diffusion process with constant parameters.Such models are ordinarily defined as ‘Structural model’ and based on variables connected to a particular issuer. An evolution of this grouping is characterized by asset of models where the loss provisional on default is exogenously precise. In these models, the nonpayment can happenthroughout all the life of a corporate bond and not only at maturity (Longstaff and Schwartz, 1995).4.MethodologyThe study used descriptive research designAccording to Oso and Onen (2009) prior to carrying out the study there is need to determine the respondents, the data collection procedures, tools and instruments which would aid in data collection. According to Kothari, 2007. It involves describing the current state of affairs by use of data collected through questionnaires and interviews. Descriptive research design is qualitative whose main purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists.Descriptive research seeks to establish factors associated with certain occurrences, outcomes, conditions or types of behavior. A complete set of people, events or objects from which the study seeks to generalize the results is known aspopulation (Mugenda, 2009). The study will concentrate on the 20 Tier III Commercial Banks Licensed by Central Bank of Kenya.Stratified sampling technique will be used in the collectionofsampleswherethe20TierIIIcommercial banks will be stratified into three categories which are; Government owned, Local Investors owned and Foreign Investor owned, further into male and female, also a mix of Experienced Managers, Senior Officers and Junior Credit officers, out of which 62 Employees will be selected to participate in the study. Purposive sampling will also be used so as to include Heads of Credit Units and also ensure all key credit operational areas are covered in the sample.In this study, a population consists of 62 staff from loans department of Consolidated Bank, African Banking Corporation and Credit Bank.The main tool for data collection in this study was a questionnaire. A closed ended questionnaire was preferred. The questions were designed based on Likert scale which allowed the respondentsto express their view on the study variables. According to Kothari (2007) open - ended questions allow respondents to give answers in their own way, whilst Closed - ended questions or forced choice questions provide an assortment of alternative answers from which the respondent is constrained to choose.The data collected was analyzed and interpretations drawn based on the analysis. Descriptive statistics was used in the analysis of quantitative data. The statistical tool for the analysis was the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) Version 20, which was used to analyze the data whereby the questionnaires would be coded and frequency distributions and percentages run.5.ConclusionsThey have a positive significant relationship on performance of commercial banksin Kenya. Sound credit rating mechanism is perceived as a great contributor towards the performance of credit facilities in commercial banks. This by and large affects the performance of the banks as a whole since the banks’ profitability are hinged on its credit services. There needs to be frequent credit trainings to improve onstaff competencies to ensure they are always kept abreast with developments in the industry to ensure appropriate credit underwriting is always done, this will inturn ensure, proper segmentation and accounts review is also done with an aim to ensure the credit element in a bank is well covered.There is need for inclusion of collateral appraisal. Since the credit approval risks are in turn influenced by therisk appetite of various commercial banks, a matrix acceptable to all banks based on factors such as capital strength and customer bases should be developed to ensure that an institution doesn’t necessarily take up risks that is too high that might impairably damage their overall financial strength and health should any unprecedented shocks materialize due to the risks taken by a bank.There is however need to review the provision requirementsas detailed by the Prudential Guidelines (PGs) to realign the same with the evolving banking environment which has seen a significant shift since the PGs were last reviewed. An all-inclusive forumto realign the provision requirement should be held between all the relevant stakeholders including the regulator (CBK) and the Commercial banks to arrive at ideal reviewed rates in line with the evolved banking environment.There is however need for Tier III banks to be more risk averse to unsecured lending and opt for asset backed lending. This is more so influencedby the fact that their balance sheets are relatively smaller which makes them unable to withstand shocks that may emanate from provisioning that would be occasionedby higherrequirements toprovision forthe unsecured borrowings or weakly secured exposures.中文译文：信贷风险管理策略及其对肯尼亚商业银行绩效的影响摘要信用风险管理策略是所有参与贷款活动的金融机构最重要的考虑因素之一。
美国次贷危机对我国商业银行外文文献翻译 (2)
商业银行风险管理Arunkumar Dr. G. Kotreshwar1.序言1.1个风险管理银行业的未来无疑将十分关注风险管理动态，只有行之有效的风险管理系统银行才能在未来的市场中长期生存。
信用风险管理对于经融机构全面风险管理来说是一项重要的、长期的、行之有效的风险管理，由于银行对其本质业务的继承，所以信用风险是其最老、最大的风险管理。
只不过由于各种原因在不久之前获得了重大发展。
其中最要的是在全球范围内一时兴起的经济自由化。
印度也不由自主的走向了这个经济自由化，从而加剧了从内部到外部的国家经济竞争。
无论在数量上还是体制上都导致了市场的动荡，这就导致了风险的多样性。
前期成功的信贷风险管理是一个所涉及的风险信贷，银行风险中定量的每一项投资组合作为组合信用风险。
信用风险管理的基础是建立一个框架，这个框架规定了企业优先级别、信贷批准流程、信用风险评级系统，经过风险调整定价系统，贷款审查机制和全面的报告系统。
1.2研究的意义：单个银行的基本贷款业务给整个银行系统带来了麻烦。
因此，我们必须让银行系统有足够的个别项目的信用评估，评估风险以及整合行业为一个整体。
一般来说，印度各银行通过传统的提案项目融资工具进行评估，计算最大的允许范围，评估管理功能和顶级的处方的行业风险。
由于银行业进行到一个高性能的世界融资和交易中，新的风险，需要的是更加复杂和多样性的系统为风险评估、监测和控制风险敞口。
因此，它是银行管理层装备完全应对需求的创建工具和系统能够评估、监控和风险敞口采用的科学方法。
信用风险，即违约的借款人偿还贷款，至今为止仍是重要的风险管理。
信用风险的支配地位甚至能反映组成的经济资本，银行必须警惕身边有各种针对性的风险。
就统计，信贷风险需要占到70%，剩下的30%是另外两个之间共享的主要风险，即市场风险（变化的市场价格和运营风险失败、内部控制等）质量借款人能够直接进入资本市场而无需通过债务途径。
因此，现在相对较小的借款人贷款途径更加开放。
商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)“RISK MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL BANKS”(A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS) - ABSTRACT ONLY1. PREAMBLE:1.1 Risk Management:The future of banking will undoubtedly rest on risk management dynamics. Only those banks that have efficient risk management system will survive in the market in the long run. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of comprehensive risk management essential for long-term success of a banking institution. Credit risk is the oldest and biggest risk that bank, by virtue of its very nature of business, inherits. This has however, acquired a greater significance in the recent past for various reasons. Foremost among them is the wind of economic liberalization that is blowing across the globe. India is no exception to this swing towards market driven economy. Competition from within and outside the country has intensified. This has resulted in multiplicity of risks both in number and volume resulting in volatile markets. A precursor to successful management of credit risk is a clear understanding about risks involved in lending, quantifications of risks within each item of the portfolio and reaching a conclusion as to the likely composite credit risk profile of a bank.The corner stone of credit risk management is the establishment of a framework that defines corporate priorities, loan approval process, credit risk rating system, risk-adjusted pricing system, loan-review mechanism and comprehensive reporting system.1.2 Significance of the study:The fundamental business of lending has brought trouble to individual banks and entire banking system. It is, therefore, imperative that the banks are adequate systems for credit assessment of individual projects and evaluating risk associated therewith as well as the industry as a whole. Generally, Banks in India evaluate a proposal through the traditional tools of project financing, computing maximum permissible limits, assessing management capabilities and prescribing a ceiling for an industry exposure. As banks move in to a new high powered world of financial operations and trading, with new risks, the need is felt for more sophisticated and versatile instruments for risk assessment, monitoring and controlling risk exposures. It is, therefore, time that banks managements equip themselves fully to grapple with the demands of creating tools and systems capable of assessing, monitoring and controlling risk exposures in a more scientific manner.Credit Risk, that is, default by the borrower to repay lent money, remains the most important risk to manage till date. The predominance of credit risk is even reflected in the composition of economic capital, which banks are required to keep a side for protection against various risks. According to one estimate, Credit Risk takes about 70% and 30%remaining is shared between the other two primary risks, namely Market risk (change in the market price and operational risk i.e., failure of internal controls, etc.). Quality borrowers (Tier-I borrowers) were able to access the capital market directly without going through the debt route. Hence, the credit route is now more open to lesser mortals (Tier-II borrowers).With margin levels going down, banks are unable to absorb the level of loan losses. There has been very little effort to develop a method where risks could be identified and measured. Most of the banks have developed internal rating systems for their borrowers, but there hasbeen very little study to compare such ratings with the final asset classification and also to fine-tune the rating system. Also risks peculiar to each industry are not identified and evaluated openly. Data collection is regular driven. Data on industry-wise, region-wise lending, industry-wise rehabilitated loan, can provide an insight into the future course to be adopted.Better and effective strategic credit risk management process is a better way to Manage portfolio credit risk. The process provides a framework to ensure consistency between strategy and implementation that reduces potential volatility in earnings and maximize shareholders wealth. Beyond and over riding the specifics of risk modeling issues, the challenge is moving towards improved credit risk management lies in addressing banks’readiness and openness to accept change to a more transparent system, to rapidly metamorphosing markets, to more effective and efficient ways of operating and to meet market requirements and increased answerability to stake holders.There is a need for Strategic approach to Credit Risk Management (CRM) in Indian Commercial Banks, particularly in view of;(1) Higher NPAs level in comparison with global benchmark(2) RBI’ s stipulation about dividend distribution by the banks(3) Revised NPAs level and CAR norms(4) New Basel Capital Accord (Basel –II) revolutionAccording to the study conducted by ICRA Limited, the gross NPAs as a proportion of total advances for Indian Banks was 9.40 percent for financial year 2003 and 10.60 percent for financial year 20021. The value of the gross NPAs as ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was as low as 2.26 percent. Net NPAs as a proportion of net advances of Indian banks was 4.33 percent for financial year 2003 and 5.39 percent for financial year 2002. As against this, the value of net NPAs ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was 0.37 percent. Further, it was found that, the total advances of the banking sector to the commercial and agricultural sectors stood at Rs.8,00,000 crore. Of this, Rs.75,000 crore, or 9.40 percent of the total advances is bad and doubtful debt. The size of the NPAs portfolio in the Indian banking industry is close to Rs.1,00,000 crore which is around 6 percent of India’ s GDP2.The RBI has recently announced that the banks should not pay dividends at more than 33.33 percent of their net profit. It has further provided that the banks having NPA levels less than 3 percent and having Capital Adequacy Reserve Ratio (CARR) of more than 11 percent for the last two years will only be eligible to declare dividends without the permission from RBI3. This step is for strengthening the balance sheet of all the banks in the country. The banks should provide sufficient provisions from their profits so as to bring down the net NPAs level to 3 percent of their advances.NPAs are the primary indicators of credit risk. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is another measure of credit risk. CAR is supposed to act as a buffer against credit loss, which isset at 9 percent under the RBI stipulation4. With a view to moving towards International best practices and to ensure greater transparency, it has been decided to adopt the ’ 90 days’ ‘ over due’ norm for identification of NPAs from the year ending March 31, 2004.The New Basel Capital Accord is scheduled to be implemented by the end of 2006. All the banking supervisors may have to join the Accord. Even the domestic banks in addition to internationally active banks may have to conform to the Accord principles in the coming decades. The RBI as the regulator of the Indian banking industry has shown keen interest in strengthening the system, and the individual banks have responded in good measure in orienting themselves towards global best practices.1.3 Credit Risk Management(CRM) dynamics:The world over, credit risk has proved to be the most critical of all risks faced by a banking institution. A study of bank failures in New England found that, of the 62 banks in existence before 1984, which failed from 1989 to 1992, in 58 cases it was observed that loans and advances were not being repaid in time 5 . This signifies the role of credit risk management and therefore it forms the basis of present research analysis.Researchers and risk management practitioners have constantly tried to improve on current techniques and in recent years, enormous strides have been made in the art and science of credit risk measurement and management6. Much of the progress in this field has resulted form the limitations of traditional approaches to credit risk management and with the current Bank for International Settlement’ (BIS) regulatory model. Even in banks which regularly fine-tune credit policies and streamline credit processes, it is a real challenge for credit risk managers to correctly identify pockets of risk concentration, quantify extent of risk carried, identify opportunities for diversification and balance the risk-return trade-off in their credit portfolio.The two distinct dimensions of credit risk management can readily be identified as preventive measures and curative measures. Preventive measures include risk assessment, risk measurement and risk pricing, early warning system to pick early signals of future defaults and better credit portfolio diversification. The curative measures, on the other hand, aim at minimizing post-sanction loan losses through such steps as securitization, derivative trading, risk sharing, legal enforcement etc. It is widely believed that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Therefore, the focus of the study is on preventive measures in tune with the norms prescribed by New Basel Capital Accord.The study also intends to throw some light on the two most significant developments impacting the fundamentals of credit risk management practices of banking industry – New Basel Capital Accord and Risk Based Supervision. Apart from highlighting the salient features of credit risk management prescriptions under New Basel Accord, attempts are made to codify the response of Indian banking professionals to various proposals under the accord. Similarly, RBI proposed Risk Based Supervision (RBS) is examined to capture its direction and implementation problems。
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。
Credit risk is a major concern for banks as it can lead to XXX methods used by banks to manage credit risk。
including credit scoring。
credit limits。
and loanXXX to credit risk management。
The article XXX of credit risk to ensure the long-term XXXCredit risk management is a XXX to manage credit risk XXX。
it is essential for banks to adopt us methods to manage credit risk。
These methods include credit scoring。
credit limits。
and loanXXX are used to limit the amount of credit XXXXXX credit risk management。
The credit risk management department should work XXX departments。
such as lending and complianceXXX。
XXX that they are aware of the latest developments in credit risk management。
XXX of credit risk are critical for the long-term XXX that they are effective and up-to-date。
中小商业银行信贷风险管理体系研究英文资料
Establishing an Effective Credit Risk Management System for Small andMedium-sized Commercial Banks Small and medium-sized commercial banks play a crucial role in stimulating economic growth by providing credit to small businesses and individuals. However, lending involves inherent risks, and poor management of credit risk can lead to significant financial losses. In order to establish an effective credit risk management system, small and medium-sized commercial banks should focus on the following key areas:1. Risk Identification and Assessment: Banks should conduct a comprehensive analysis of potential credit risks, including borrower-specific risks, industry risks, economic risks, and structural risks. This analysis should be conducted on a regular basis, and the results should be used to develop a risk profile for each borrower.2. Risk Mitigation: After identifying potential credit risks, banks should take steps to mitigate these risks. This may involve setting appropriate lending limits, insisting oncollateral, or requiring personal guarantees. It's importantto strike a balance between risk management and profitability.3. Credit Monitoring and Control: Banks should closely monitor the borrower's credit status throughout the life ofthe loan. They should also have systems in place to immediately identify any changes to the borrower's financial situation that could increase the risk of default.4. Credit Documentation and Administration: Banks should maintain accurate and up-to-date documentation of each loan. They should also establish clear policies and procedures for approving, disbursing, and servicing loans.5. Staff Training and Education: Finally, banks should provide ongoing training and education to their staff to ensure that they have the knowledge and skills required to identify, assess, and manage credit risk effectively.By focusing on these key areas, small and medium-sized commercial banks can establish an effective credit risk management system that will help them to mitigate credit risk, while still providing much-needed credit to small businesses and individuals. This, in turn, will support economic growth and development in their communities.。
商业银行信用风险外文翻译文献
商业银行信用风险外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)估计技术和规模的希腊商业银行效率：信用风险、资产负债表的活动和国际业务的影响1.介绍希腊银行业经历了近几年重大的结构调整。
重要的结构性、政策和环境的变化经常强调的学者和从业人员有欧盟单一市场的建立，欧元的介绍，国际化的竞争、利率自由化、放松管制和最近的兼并和收购浪潮。
希腊的银行业也经历了相当大的改善，通信和计算技术，因为银行有扩张和现代化其分销网络，其中除了传统的分支机构和自动取款机，现在包括网上银行等替代分销渠道。
作为希腊银行（2004 年）的年度报告的重点，希腊银行亦在升级其信用风险测量与管理系统，通过引入信用评分和概率默认模型近年来采取的主要步骤。
此外，他们扩展他们的产品/服务组合，包括保险、经纪业务和资产管理等活动，同时也增加了他们的资产负债表操作和非利息收入。
最后，专注于巴尔干地区（如阿尔巴尼亚、保加利亚、前南斯拉夫马其顿共和国、罗马尼亚、塞尔维亚）的更广泛市场的全球化增加的趋势已添加到希腊银行在塞浦路斯和美国以前有限的国际活动。
在国外经营的子公司的业绩预计将有父的银行，从而对未来的决定为进一步国际化的尝试对性能的影响。
本研究的目的是要运用数据包络分析（DEA）和重新效率的希腊银行部门，同时考虑到几个以上讨论的问题进行调查。
我们因此区分我们的论文从以前的希腊银行产业重点并在几个方面，下面讨论添加的见解。
首先，我们第一次对效率的希腊银行的信用风险的影响通过检查其中包括贷款损失准备金作为附加输入Charnes et al.(1990 年)、德雷克（2001 年）、德雷克和大厅(2003 年)，和德雷克等人（2006 年）。
作为美斯特(1996) 点出"除非质量和风险控制的一个人也许会很容易误判一家银行的水平的低效；例如精打细算的银行信用评价或生产过高风险的贷款可能会被贴上标签一样高效，当相比银行花资源，以确保它们的贷款有较高的质量"(p.1026)。
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文
文献出处：Nicely E. The research of commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Research in International Business and Finance, 2015, 8(2): 17-26.原文The research of commercial bank credit risk managementNicely EAbstractCommercial bank credit card business risk management broad sense refers to the commercial bank credit card business, because of various unfavorable factors caused by the issuers, cardholders, specially engaged the possibility of loss. Credit risk refers to the pure credit for credit CARDS are unsecured loans, and credit is not high, the customer more than individual, as well as small amount of single feature, lead to the possibility of loss of card issuers. Through to the commercial Banks to do a good job of credit card risk management put forward the Suggestions and comments, and pay attention to the risks of commercial Banks to establish perfect management system, system, business process research, and put forward the commercial Banks in establishing a system of credit card business management structure, regulations, at the same time, want to notice to each kind of risk identification, measurement, assessment and do a good job in risk loss provisions in personnel management, should pay attention to establish risk rewards and punishment mechanism, pay attention to the positive incentives to the employees.Keywords: Credit CARDS; Risk management; Incentive mechanism1 IntroductionCredit card refers to the bank issued to individuals and units, with the function such as shopping, consumption and access cash bank card. Its striking feature is that the Banks granted to customer a certain line of credit, customers can enjoy the privilege of the reimbursement after be being card first, its form is a positive with the issuing bank name, the period of validity, card number, card, the cardholder's name, article with a magnetic stripe, signature on the back of the information such as bank CARDS. We now call the credit card, generally refers to borrow write down card. Credit risk refers to the bank credit card holders for various reasons failed to fullyrepay bank debt and cause the possibility of default, defaults, bank will because the cardholder does not thereby causing loss to the bank funds paid promptly. Credit card main risk including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, accredit card risk management refers to in the process of credit card business, the possible including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, etc, all kinds of risk management and control is to reduce the possibility of loss The loss rate of operation and management activities.2 Literature reviewThe concept of risk management since the 30 s of 20th century, after nearly 40 years of development to form a system, gradually by people began to attach importance to and cognition, form a new management discipline. The concept of risk mainly comes from the insurance industry, insurance for risk defined as the uncertainty of loss. In 1964, the United States of the risk management and insurance, it has made the definition: risk book points out that through the risk identification, assessment, and control to achieve with minimum cost to make a management method of minimizing the risk loss. In 1976, eight Gerry, in his book, the risk management of international enterprise, points out that protection of enterprise's financial stability, reduce the loss caused by risk events is the main goal of the enterprise risk management. In 1975, risk management and insurance management society, scholars from all over the world including general principles, risk management was determined by the talk of risk identification and measurement, risk control and other criteria. The establishment of these guidelines, marks all over the world, risk management theory with the preliminary development, management framework has been set up. Also marks the risk management has entered a new stage. In July 2004, Basel 2 rules on commercial Banks, puts forward a new risk management requirements, he fully considered for the bank including market risk, liquidity risk, credit risk and operational risk, a variety of provide for risk identification, risk measurement standard, make risk management work more accurate quantitative measurement. In 2004, the COSO committee issued "enterprise risk management integrated framework", put forward by the enterprise internal control into risk control as the main direction of management thinking. Puts forward the concept of comprehensive risk management,including internal environment, goal setting, time identification, risk evaluation, risk countermeasure, control activities, information and communication and so on eight aspects. American engineer bill fair and Earl joint research and development of the FICO credit score model, since the most card issuers have also been used this model. This model gives the credit scoring system out of a possible 900 points, according to the situation of the borrower's credit history and compare the data with other borrowers, given the borrower credit situation trend in the future.3 Credit card risk3.1 Credit card cash outCredit card cash out to merchants with the bad cardholders or other third party in collusion, or merchants themselves by credit card as the carrier, through the fictitious transactions, asking price, cash return, show the credit card credit behavior, including but not limited to: merchants and cardholders conspired to use point-of-sale terminals (POS), with fictitious transactions, falsely making out the price, cash returns to the behavior of the cardholders to pay cash directly; Or merchants to help paid the cardholder account overdraft, after using the POS machine will advances in fictitious trading way back to their accounts, and collect fees to the cardholder a card such as behavior; Or online merchants cardholders conspired to fictional price, false transactions, such as buying from selling the way, show the credit card for trafficking in fraudulent credit card Internet consumption credit, etc.3.2 False card stolen brushFalse card stolen brush refers to criminals use false card on the POS terminal for credit card transactions to steal bank funds, belong to the important type of fraud. Criminals often by merchants, independent bank terminals, as well as a variety of convenient payment terminal channels, using dedicated track record the equipment needed for the bank card information side track information through various channels, such as the Internet or buy others have steal bank card track information, password access usually by peeping in the cardholder spending places the cardholder password or independent in ATM equipment installed video cameras record customer password, even through ATM keyboard paste, such as false record customer password keyboard,or using client code, easy to guess the cardholder password and other means to obtain the cardholder password.3.3 Online payment fraudOnline payment fraud refers to the fraud part swindled through Internet channels and the cardholder's bank. On-line payment fraud mainly by non-financial institutions or commercial Banks provide online payment channel for fraud. Current fraud activists by phishing site, bank card fraud or Trojan virus, characterized by use of phishing site or Trojan virus to steal the cardholder's bank card number, password and verification code information, phishing cardholders to online trading, to defraud money. Or commercial bank online banking channel for bank card fraud, fraud part using bank online banking vulnerabilities, and the weak link in the online banking fraud.3.4 Operating riskPrevention and control of credit card operation risk, first, to find a good risk points, find out in the hairpin and post-loan risk prone link in the entire process, find out the risk points, and then control the risk. Credit card's life cycle is divided into application stage, audit stage, hairpin used to send phase, activation and post-loan management, such as card renewal phase. First by the applicant voluntarily to the commercial bank to apply for or commercial bank marketing personnel to promote credit card products to the applicant, the applicant according to the guidance of sales people to fill out credit card application form after the above requirements to fill out information, to submit proof of identity is required by the application, work proves that the domicile certificate materials, such as bank marketing personnel will be the applicant's application form submitted to the bank's examination and approval department, by a bank according to the customer qualification examination and approval department for credit card mail after examination and approval to the customer. Customers call the bank customer service special line opened activate the card, the card can normal use, generally the validity of the credit card for 3 ~ 5 years according to the process of the life cycle of credit card sorting operation risk points exist in the whole cycle.4 Conclusions and recommendationsFalse card stolen brush loss brings to the commercial Banks, cardholders Carrie's money is missing, tend to give the feeling of cardholders' money in the bank is not safe, affect the reputation of the bank, bring bank reputation risk. In the process of pursuing for unauthorized, if not solve in time, often commercial Banks must bear a lot of damage. Due to false card stolen brush is not tight to bank losses, and seriously affected the reputation of the bank. So focus on guard against the risk of false card stolen brush is the key of the bank fraud risk control. Commercial bank credit card business is strengthening risk prevention. To do the following: to strengthen the education of the cardholder and prevent unauthorized knowledge propaganda, tip card holders do not use the card to the others, pay attention to protect the password in the daily charge without being stolen. Strengthen the bank back transaction monitoring, summarizes the characteristics of the pseudo card stolen brush, such as the combination of false card stolen brush is easy to occur before time, business category, unauthorized ongoing balance inquiry, around zero, fraud part of bank daily trading limit restrictions for unauthorized transaction monitoring rules set by the characteristics. When the transaction behavior, identity card and cardholders are found not to conform or high transaction should contact the cardholder to confirm authenticity, to confirm that the cardholder to authorize the transaction after I deal correct. Effectively raise Banks to prevent false card stolen brush ability of risk prevention and control. Magnetic stripe card renewal work done as soon as possible because the bank magnetic stripe card refers to magnetic materials for storage medium, such as bank account information recorded in the magnetic stripe CARDS, magnetic stripe card is easy to be copied to the bank money loss, therefore at present a lot of Banks have begun to bank card renewal work, with good safety performance of financial IC card instead of bank magnetic stripe card. In addition, improve the incentive mechanism construction of risk management, on the basis of regular and irregular in the risk assessment results, good for the risk assessment results, comprehensive risk management framework construction perfect mechanism, through the authorization for adjustment, performance ratings, priority support to start newbusiness delegation, adjustment factors of business innovation, management, can be appropriately in the human resources and cost allocation give policy tilt, can give points in performance appraisal review. For risk management body have made outstanding contributions or reduce loss of major risk events offer certain material and spiritual reward employees, and on the personal career advancement channels give sufficient consideration; For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration. For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration.译文商业银行信用卡风险管理研究Nicely E摘要商业银行信用卡业务风险管理广义上讲是指在商业银行信用卡业务经营中，因各种不利因素而导致的发卡机构、持卡人、特约商户等损失的可能性。
商业银行合规风险管理指引-英文版
Guidelines for the Compliance Risk Management ofCommercial BanksOctober 25, 2006Chapter I General ProvisionsArticle 1For the purpose of strengthening the compliance risk management of commercial banks and maintaining commercial banks operating safely and stably, these Guidelines are instituted in accordance with the Measures of the People's Republic of China on the Supervision and Administration of the Banking Sector and the Law of the People's Republic of China on Commercial Banks.Article 2A Chinese-funded commercial bank, foreign sole-capital bank, joint venture bank or branch of a foreign bank established within the territory of the People's Republic of China shall be governed by these Guidelines.A policy bank, financial asset management company, urban credit cooperative, rural credit cooperative, trust investment company, enterprise group financial company, financial lease company, automobile financial company, currency brokerage company, postal savings institution or any other financial institution established within the territory of the People's Republic of China and approved by the China Banking Regulatory Commission shall be governed by these Guidelines.Article 3The term "laws, rules and standards" as mentioned in these Guidelines refers to the laws, administrative regulations, departmental rules as well as other regulatory documents, business rules and industrial standards of self-disciplinary organizations, behavioral code and occupation ethnics.The term "compliance" as mentioned in these Guidelines refers to the consistence between the business operations of commercial banks and the related laws, rules and standards.The term "compliance risks" as mentioned in these Guidelines refers to the risks of a commercial bank suffering from legal sanction, supervision punishment, great financial losses or reputation losses when it violates any law, rule or standard.The term "compliance management department" as mentioned in these Guidelines refers to any department, team or position that especially established within a commercial bank to take charge of compliance management.Article 4Compliance management is a core risk management of commercial banks. A commercial bank shall take overall consideration of the relevance between compliance risks and credit risks, market risks, operation risks and other risks so as to ensure the consistence between all the policies and formalities for risk management.Article 5The objective of compliance risk management of a commercial bank is to establish and improve a framework of compliance risk management so as to realize the effective recognition and management of compliance risks, promote the establishment of an overall system of risk management and ensure an operation based on compliance of laws and regulations.Article 6A commercial bank shall enhance the establishment of compliance culture and incorporate the establishment of compliance culture into the whole process of establishing its enterprise culture.The compliance is the joint responsibility of all staff members of a commercial bank and its senior management shall take a lead in the execution thereof.The board of directors and senior management of a commercial bank shall determine the keynote of compliance, set up such compliance philosophies as voluntary compliance by all its staff members and value creation subject to compliance, promote the occupational ethnics and value concept of being creditworthy and upright within the bank, elevate the compliance consciousness of all its staff members and promote an effective interaction between self-compliance of the commercial bank and external supervision.Article 7China Banking Regulatory Commission shall implement supervision over the compliance risk management of commercial banks, examine and evaluate the effectiveness of compliance risk management of commercial banks.Chapter II Compliance Management Functions and Duties of theBoard of Directors,Board of Supervisors and Senior ManagementArticle 8A commercial bank shall establish a system of compliance management in line with its business scope, organizational structure and business scale thereof.The following basic elements shall be included in the compliance management system:(1)Compliance policies;(2)Organizational structure and resources of the compliance management department;(3)Plans of compliance risk management;(4)Recognition of and management formalities for compliance risks; and(5)Training and education system of compliance.Article 9The compliance policies of a commercial bank shall specify the basic principles that all its staff members and operational lines shall comply with and the significant formalities for recognizing and managing compliance risks as well as stipulate the related matters in respect of the functions of compliance management, which shall at least include:(1)Functions and duties of the compliance management department;(2)Power limit of the compliance management department, including the right to communicate with any bank staff member and obtain any record or archival file as required in its duty performance;(3)Functions and duties of compliance management of related persons-in-charge;(4)All the measures that guarantee the independency of the persons-in-charge of compliance as well as the compliance management department, including a guaranty that there is no interest conflict between the functions and duties of compliance management of the persons-in-charge and related persons that engage in the compliance management and the other functions and duties thereof;(5)The coordination relationship between the compliance management department and the risk management department, the internal auditing department as well as other departments; and(6)The establishing of principles of the compliance management departments for the business lines as well as the branches and sub-branches.Article 10The board of directors shall undertake final responsibilities of compliance in the business operation of a commercial bank and perform the following functions and duties of compliance management:(1)Examining and approving of the compliance policies of the commercial bank and supervising its implementation of the compliance policies;(2)Examining and approving the reports on compliance risk management submitted by the senior management of the commercial bank and appraising the effectiveness of compliance risk management of itscommercial bank so as to timely and effectively resolve the compliance defects;(3)Authorizing the risk management commission, auditing commission or specially established compliance management commission under the board of directors to conduct daily supervision over the compliance risk management of commercial bank thereof; and(4)Supervising any other functions and duties of compliance management as stipulated in the constitution of its commercial bank.Article 11The commission under the board of directors of a commercial bank which is responsible for the daily supervision of compliance risk management shall, by means of holding individual talks with the related persons-in-charge of compliance or by any other effective means, know about the implementation of the compliance policies and existing problems, timely put forward corresponding opinions and suggestions to the board of directors or the senior management , supervise and guarantee to implement the compliance policies effectively.Article 12The board of supervisors shall supervise the performance of functions and duties of compliance management by the board of directors and senior management.Article 13The senior management shall manage the compliance risks of its commercial bank effectively and perform the functions and duties of compliance management as follows:(1)Instituting the compliance policies in written form and revising the compliance policies in accordance with the status of compliance risk management as well as the related laws, rules and standards at an appropriate time, reporting them to the board of directors for deliberation and then distributing them to all its staff members after having been approved;(2)Carrying out the compliance policies, guaranteeing that proper measures for correction be timely adopted when any rule-breaking event occurs and investigating the corresponding responsibilities of violators;(3)Designating the persons-in-charge of compliance and guaranteeing their independency;(4)Specifying the compliance management department and their organizational structure, arranging enough and proper personnel of compliance management for its performance of functions and duties, and ensuring the independency of the compliance management department;(5)Recognizing the significant compliance risks that the commercial bank is faced with, examining and approving the plans of compliance risk management and ensuring the work coordination between the compliance management department and the risk management department, the internal auditing department and other relevant departments;(6)Submitting to the board of directors a report of compliance risk management on an annual basis, which shall present sufficient proof and assist the members of the board of directors to judge the effectiveness of compliance risk management by senior managers;(7)Reporting to the board of directors or the commissions thereunder and the board of supervisors any significant rule-breaking event timely; and(8)Performing any other functions and duties as prescribed by the compliance policies.Article 14A person-in-charge of compliance shall coordinate the recognition and management of compliance risks of the commercial bank, supervise the compliance management department to perform its functions and duties in accordance with the related plans of compliance risk management and submit to the senior management an appraisal report about compliance risks periodically. A person-in-charge of compliance must not take charge of the management of any business lines.An appraisal report on compliance risks shall include but be not limited to the following contents: any changeof compliance risk within the reporting period, the recognition of any rule-breaking event or compliance defect and the measures for correction that have been adopted or are advised to be adopted.Article 15A commercial bank shall set up an examination system of compliance performance of managers. The performance examination of a commercial bank shall embody the value concept of promoting compliance and punishing any rule-breaking behavior.Article 16A commercial bank shall establish an effective compliance accountability system, strictly carry out the confirmation and investigation of responsibilities incurred from any rule-breaking behavior, adopt effective measures for correction, improve the formalities for management in time, revise the related policies, formalities and operational guidelines at a proper time.Article 17A commercial bank shall establish a credit accusation system, encourage its staff members to tip off the illegal acts, the act in violation of professional integrity or the suspicious acts, and fully protect any tip-off reporter.Chapter III Functions and Duties of the Compliance ManagementDepartmentArticle 18The compliance management department shall, under the guidance of its person-in-charge, assist the senior management to effectively recognize and manage the compliance risks, if its commercial bank is faced with, and perform the following fundamental functions and duties:(1)Paying continuous attention to the latest development of the related laws, rules and standards, correctly understanding the provisions and spirit of the related laws, rules and standards, accurately understanding the impact of the related laws, rules and standards on the business operation of the commercial bank, and putting forward corresponding suggestions on compliance to its senior management;(2)Instituting and carrying out the plans of compliance management which focus on risks, including the implementation and appraisal of special policies and formalities, appraisal on compliance risks, compliance testing, compliance training and education, etc..(3)Examining and appraising the compliance of all policies, formalities and operational guidelines of the commercial bank, organizing, coordinating and supervising and urging all business lines and the internal control department to sort of and revise the related policies, formalities and operational guidelines, and guaranteeing that all policies, formalities and operational guidelines comply with the requirements of the related laws, rules and standards;(4)Helping the related training and education departments to implement compliance trainings, including the compliance trainings of new staff members as well as the periodic compliance trainings of all its staff members, and functioning as the internal communication department for staff members to consult the related matters of compliance;(5)Organizing the institution of the formalities for compliance management as well as such compliance guidelines as compliance booklets and behavioral code of its staff members, appraising the formalities for compliance management and the appropriateness of compliance guidelines, offering guidance to its staff members on proper implementation of related laws, rules and standards;(6)Recognizing and appraising the compliance risks in relation to the business operation of the commercial bank actively, including conducting the necessary examination and testing for the development of new products and services, recognizing and appraising any compliance risk arising from the development of any new business mode, establishment of new customers' networks or change of nature of the bank's relationshipwith its customers.(7)Collecting and choosing the data that may indicate potential compliance problems, such as increasing index of customers' complaints and abnormal transactions etc., establishing a supervisory index of compliance risks, and determining the preferential sequence of compliance risks to be considered in accordance with the possibility and impact of compliance risk occurrence measured by the risk matrix;(8)Carrying out enough and representative appraisal and testing of compliance risks, including testing through on-the-spot examination on the compliance of all policies and formalities, inquiring the existing defects in the policies and formalities, and making corresponding investigation. The result of a compliance testing shall be reported in accordance with the formalities for internal risk management of commercial banks through the reporting line of compliance risks so as to ensure that all policies and formalities comply with the requirements of related laws, rules and standards; and(9)Keeping daily contact with its supervisory organ, and tracing and appraising the implementation of supervisory opinions and supervisory requirements.Article 19A commercial bank shall allocate the resources for effectively performing the compliance management for its compliance management department. A person who engages in compliance management shall have the qualification, experience, expertise and individual quality corresponding to his/her functions and duties.A commercial bank shall offer systematic and professional technical trainings to its personnel who engage in compliance management, especially technical trainings in such aspects as correct master the latest development of the related laws, rules and standards as well as their impacts on the business operation of the commercial bank.Article 20The persons-in-charge of all business lines or branches or sub-branches of a commercial bank shall take primary responsibility for the business operation of their lines or departments.A commercial bank shall, in accordance with the business scope of its lines of business and the branches and sub-branches as well as the operational scale, set up the corresponding compliance management departments. The compliance management departments of all business lines and the branches and sub-branches of a commercial bank shall, in accordance with the formalities for compliance management, actively recognize and manage the compliance risks and report the related information in time through the reporting lines in accordance with the reporting requirements of compliance risks.Article 21A commercial bank shall establish a coordination mechanism between the compliance management department and the risk management department in respect of compliance management.Article 22A commercial bank shall separate the functions and duties of compliance management from the function of internal auditing, and the performance of compliance management shall be subject to independent appraisal by the internal auditing department periodically.The internal auditing department shall be responsible for the auditing on compliance among all business operations of the commercial bank. An internal auditing plan shall include an auditing appraisal on the appropriateness and effectiveness of the functions and duties of compliance management. An appraisal on compliance risks shall be included in the measures for risk appraisal in the internal auditing.A commercial bank shall specify the functions and duties of compliance risk appraisal and compliance testing between the compliance management department and the internal auditing department. The internal auditing department shall notify the result of compliance auditing to the related persons-in-charge of compliance. Article 23A commercial bank shall specify its reporting lines of compliance risks as well as the elements,format and frequency of a report on compliance risks.Article 24The overseas branches or sub-branches or affiliated institutions of a commercial bank shall strengthen the functions of compliance management. The organizational structure of the compliance management functions shall accord with the local laws and requirements of supervision.Article 25The board of directors and senior management of a commercial bank shall guarantee that the outsourcing of the work of the compliance management department shall comply with local laws, rules and standards.A commercial bank shall guarantee that any outsourcing work of the compliance management department be under a proper supervision of its person-in-charge of compliance and will not hamper an effective supervision by China Banking Regulatory Commission.Chapter IV Supervision over Compliance RisksArticle 26A commercial bank shall report its internal regulations such as compliance policies, formalities for compliance management as well as compliance guidelines to China Banking Regulatory Commission for archival filing.A commercial bank shall timely report its plans of compliance risk management and appraisal reports on compliance risks to China Banking Regulatory Commission.Where a commercial bank finds any significant rule-breaking event, it shall report it to China Banking Regulatory Commission in accordance with the reporting system of significant events.Article 27Where a commercial bank designates a person-in-charge of compliance, it shall report it to China Banking Regulatory Commission in accordance with the related provisions. Where any person-in-charge of compliance of a commercial bank leaves his/her post, the bank shall report related information such as leaving reasons for resignation to China Banking Regulatory Commission within 10 workdays after leaving the post. Article 28China Banking Regulatory Commission shall conduct appraisal on the effectiveness of compliance risk management of commercial banks periodically and the appraisal reports shall be regarded as an important basis for classified supervision.Article 29China Banking Regulatory Commission shall, in accordance with the compliance records of commercial banks and the appraisal reports on compliance risk management, determine the frequency, scope and depth of on-the-spot compliance risk examination, and the contents shall be examined mainly include:(1)The appropriateness and effectiveness of the compliance risk management system of a commercial bank;(2)The functions of the board of directors and senior management of a commercial bank in the compliance risk management;(3)The appropriateness and effectiveness of the performance examination system, the accountability system and the credit accusation system of a commercial bank; and(4)The appropriateness and effectiveness of the functions of compliance management of a commercial bank.Chapter V Supplementary ProvisionsArticle 30The power to interpret these Guidelines shall remain with China Regulatory Banking Commission. Article 31These Guidelines shall enter into force as of the day of promulgation.。
商业银行风险管理外文及翻译
外文文献翻译Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process外文文献：Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process AbstractThroughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management.1. IntroductionThe past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems.Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of the industry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America'ssuper-regionals and quasi±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firms for reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite a litany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and every approach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not good enough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The article concludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in the current practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management and risk control.2. What type of risk is being considered?Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, they assume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place of commercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much has been written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literature and in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here. Suffice it to say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of their ability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performing these roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balance sheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisoryactivities such as(1) trust and investment management;(2) private and public placements through ``bestefforts'' or facilitating contracts;(3) standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;(4) the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless,the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.3. What kinds of risks are being absorbed?The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that can be efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Oldfield and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:1. risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;2. risks that can be transferred to other participants;3. risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chances of idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by eliminating risks that are superˉuous to the institution's business purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least three types of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentivecompatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is no reason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasons exist for using firm resources to manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assets that have thin, if not nonexistent, secondary markets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive thanhedging the underlying risk. Moreover, revealing information about the customer may give competitors an undue advantage. The second case includes proprietary positions that are accepted because of their risks, and their expected return. Here, risk positions that are central to the bank's business purpose are absorbed because they are the raison of the firm. Credit risk inherent in the lending activity is a clear case in point, as is market risk for the trading desk of banks active in certain markets. In all such circumstances, risk is absorbed and needs to be monitored and managed efficiently by the institution. Only then will the firm systematically achieve its financial performance goal.4. How are these risks managed?In light of the above, what are the necessary procedures that must be in place in order to carry out adequate risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? It is to these questions that we now turn. After reviewing the procedures employed by leading firms, an approach emerges from an examination of large-scale risk management systems. The management of the banking firm relies on a sequence of steps to implement a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts:1. standards and reports,2. position limits or rules,3. investment guidelines or strategies, and4. incentive contracts and compensation.In general, these tools are established to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firm's goals and objectives. To see how each of these four parts of basic risk-management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. In section 4 we illustrate how these techniques are applied to manage each of the specific risks facing the banking community.1.Standards and reports.The first of these risk-management techniques involves two different conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting. They are listed together because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to an understanding of the risks in the portfolio, and the extent to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed.The standardization of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously, outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are essential for investors to gauge asset quality and firm-level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity.2.Position limits and rules.A second technique for internal control of active management is the use of position limits, and/or minimum standards for participation. In terms of the latter, the domain of risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are imposed to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall position concentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to establish and administer, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by anyone individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders,and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In large organizations with thousands of positions maintained, accurate and timely reporting is difficult, but even more essential.3.Investment guidelines and strategies.Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the immediate future are the third technique commonly in use. Here, strategies are outlined in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular aras of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type.4.Incentives schemes.To the extent that management can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation related to the risks borne by these individuals, then the need for elaborate and costly controls is lessened. However, such incentive contracts require accurate position valuation and proper internal control systems.中文译文：商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程摘要在过去一年里,我们通过现场参观金融服务公司来进行审查和评估其金融风险管理系统。
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。
It highlights the us methods used by banks to manage credit risk。
including credit scoring。
credit limits。
loan loss ns。
and collateral requirements。
The article also examines the impact of regulatory requirements on credit risk management practices and the role of corporate governance in ensuring effective risk management。
Overall。
the article emphasizes the need for banks to adopt a comprehensive and proactive approach to credit risk management in order to maintain financial stability and avoid costly losses.In today's increasingly complex financial environment。
effective credit risk management is essential for the long-term success of commercial banks。
Banks face numerous challenges in managing credit risk。
外文翻译--在金融机构的有效风险管理
原文：Effective risk management in financial institutions Abstract：Risk management is more important in the financial sector than in other parts of the economy. But it is difficult. The basis of banking and similar financial institutions is taking risk in conditions of uncertainty. Describes how the Turnbull report, for which the author was project director, created a new underlying approach to risk. Provides a guide to the way in which the various Turnbull ideas have become the bedrock of risk management and suggests how they can be developed.There can be few, if any, parts of the economy in which risk management is more important than the financial sector. Financial institutions account for a sizeable number of the world’s leading companies and have a criti cal role to play in the economics of every country and thus in world economic order as a whole. Their whole business is centred on taking risks in conditions of uncertainty. The Turnbull Report on risk management and internal control, which is applicable to all listed companies in the UK and which has been widely disseminated internationally, fully recognises this fundamental point. Its focus is on effective risk management and not the elimination of risk. In a modern competitive market economy, business organisations that are risk averse are unlikely to earn satisfactory returns. On the other hand, highly volatile returns are unlikely to find favour with capital markets anxious not to be surprised, particularly by bad news. Moreover, Turnbull is as much about doing the right things and not missing strategic opportunities, as it is about doing things right, essential if a company is to achieve its full potential. Applying Turnbull’s approach may lead to some financial institutions realising that they are not taking enough risk; perhaps a new market can be identified and while there may be clear risks in being the first to enter there may equally be significant first-mover advantages to be gained.A framework, not a rule bookThe Turnbull Report also recognises the dynamic nature of markets in which an organisation operates and seeks to encourage companies to create risk managementsystems that can continually adapt to changing circumstances. To avoid particular controls being seen as an end in themselves even once their usefulness has ceased, the guidance places internal controls firmly in their broader business context: they are only of value to the extent that they help businesses to control the risks that threaten the achievement of their business objectives. In summary, Turnbull offers a framework, rather than a rulebook, which each organisation can apply to its own circumstances to develop an appropriate internal control system.The importance of sound judgementThe fact that Turnbull eschews a tick-box approach has been well received by the business community; however, it does mean that judgement plays a vital role in establishing an effective internal control system, starting at board level. Making sure that judgement is sound is perhaps the greatest single challenge involved in risk management. No system and no amount of internal controls will prevent losses if the judgement on which business decisions are based is poor.Judgement comes into play in initially establishing clearly defined business objectives, identifying the risks to achieving those objectives, prioritising how great a threat those risks pose and then determining appropriate responses in the form of developing internal control systems.Judgement is also called for in terms of applying cost-benefit analysis to the merits of adopting specific controls. It is clearly worthwhile for a bank to undertake credit checks before granting loans but a cost-benefit approach will promote systems that focus staff time on the potentially high risk loans and on developing early warning systems when loans are not performing rather than selecting a one size fits all approach.Identification issuesRisks that threaten a financial institution’s objectives will often range from highly function-specific risks through to strategic, big picture issues. Consider the foreign exchange trading activity in a major bank. There is clearly a risk that an individual trader, left to operate free of internal controls, can run up significant losses. This risk is located in a define d area of the bank’s activities but its potentialwide-ranging impact should not be underestimated. As Barings so visibly demonstrated, operational problems in a financial institution can be life-threatening probably to a greater extent than operational problems in many other businesses.At the other end of the spectrum lie a whole range of market-related strategic risks, for example, the threat that supermarkets will increasingly capitalise on their existing customer relationships to gain a larger share of the retail financial services market, or that closing down bank branches in rural locations will trigger accusations of a lack of social concern and damage the bank’s public image and possibly its brand value even though the decision may be financially supportable. With market concentration growing at national, regional and global levels, it is also essential in many cases not only to select the right strategic partner for growth but also to ensure relevant deals can be successfully concluded. Identifying the take-over candidate or strategic alliance partner is but the start of the process. Care needs to be taken to manage the risk associated with regulatory intervention and to avoid the emergence of a hostile bidder to an agreed deal. As a number of British financial institutions have discovered in recent years, the price in terms of continued independence of a high profile abortive deal can be high.Keep control of your reputationReputational risk is a major issue for the entire financial services sector, given the fundamental need for customers to believe in the stability and security of an organisation’s operations if they are to continue trusting it to handle their affairs. Furthermore, as the pensions mis-selling affair demonstrated there is a need for trust both in the individual institution and in the sector as a whole of which it forms part. This therefore calls on some occasions for collaborative as opposed to solely competitive risk management strategies as may also be the case in, for example, combating credit card fraud or on some IT security issues. In retail banking the reputation of individual banks could become much more of an issue in the years ahead with customers being increasingly tempted to consider the advantages of switching between high street banks, both as a result of the costs of switching being reduced and due to the influx of new market entrants. The recent questioning of the independenceof analysts’ forecasts will also need to be addressed robustly if long-term reputational repercussions are to be avoided.Assessing the importance of risksIdentifying the existence of potential risks does not necessarily mean that action is required to mitigate all of them. Risks must be prioritised, by means of assessing the likelihood of their occurring and the extent of their impact – high likelihood and high impact suggesting high priority for action.Verifying your judgementsWhen identifying and prioritising risks, financial institutions need to have regard to the concept of “verifiability”; in other words, if a different group of people were making the same decisions about the importance of those risks, would they be likely to come to the same conclusion? This is obviously more likely to be the case if a wide range of people from a broad cross-section of the business, both laterally and vertically, is involved in the risk identification and assessment process and if there are no “taboo” subjects which prevent conventional wisdom within the organisation being challenged when necessary.External views of risk must also be fed into the identification and assessment process. What is the market’s view of interest rate developments? How are personal investments expected to change in the coming years? In the case of regulated areas such as financial s ervices, the organisation’s perceived view of how its principal regulator views it will be of interest but also an assessment will be needed of how the overall regulatory environment is likely to develop, including in competition terms, and the impact of international developments such as those being brought about by the Lampfalussy report in the EU.Change managementOne of the key challenges running across the entire process of identifying and assessing risks is that the business and financial world is in a constant state of flux. How is the emergence of Internet banking changing the way that retail customers interact with their bank? How important is 24-hour access to account details? What does this mean for the maintenance of IT systems? Do people really want to be able tochange their bank details using their mobile phone? How do you manage call centres effectively to ensure that this new form of bank/customer interface maintains the bank’s brand values?Some new or changing market conditions will develop gradually over time, while others may sweep the market quickly. Given this dynamic background, the internal control framework must be regularly reviewed and adjusted to take account of changing market conditions. It is management’s role to recommend poli cies for managing risk, the board’s role to review and approve them, and management’s role once more to implement them and report back on their operation.Coping with risk in the midst of change is particularly key when an industry is going through a period of consolidation. Merger and acquisition activity brings inevitable disruption as previously distinct cultures and systems are consolidated into a new combined entity. The risk management implications of such proposals need to be carefully considered before, during and after the merger process.Embedding risksThe ability to respond to changing conditions largely relies on the internal control system being embedded in the bank’s operations. This is a complex process involving a range of activities including the effective communication of, and reporting on, the bank’s risk management policies at all levels, the development of risk training courses, the involvement of staff in responding to early warning systems, channels for reporting suspected control breaches and generally the creation of a positive risk management culture.The process of embedding risks should not, however, be allowed to lead to complacency or passivity within the organisation. The fact that systems are in place, a control manual exists and staff have been trained in risk management as part of their daily activities does not mean that systems are infallible as they will always be dependent, at least to some extent, on the people operating them and, for example, when staff morale is low more mistakes, accidentally or deliberately, are likely to occur.Cultural challengesCulture is also key in terms of creating an environment where dealing losses and real or suspected control breaches can and will be reported. If the prevailing culture is one of blame without just cause, then there is a high chance that individuals will see it as in their own self-interest to try to cover up problems. Many organisations are also now developing “whistleblowing” procedures to ensure concerns can be reported confidentially.Remuneration issuesThe bank’s remuneration policies have an important role in reinforcing or undermining the internal control environment. Take the bonuses paid out at the end of each year. The factors determining the size of the payout are likely, indeed intended, to shape employees’ behaviour. Consider the trader who has had a bad patch and whose bonus is under threat. He/she might react by taking increasingly greater risks in the attempt to reach his/her target. Alternatively, he/she might lose interest in his/her performance until the start of the next bonus period. Either way, the bank’s overall performance could be affected by his/her actions. However, if the bonus is based on long-term performance, then he/she is far more likely to maintain an optimal effort level over the longer term.Management, not eliminationThe Turnbull approach emphasises risk management, not risk elimination. Financial institutions must take risk, but they must do so consciously. Establishing the appropriate cultural framework needs the support of all staff in the process of identifying, monitoring and controlling risks. Risk management must be seen as an ongoing and valued activity with the board setting the example. It is without doubt a challenging agenda.Source: Anthony Carey, 2001.“Effective risk management in financial institutions”. Journal of Risk Finance. February.pp.24-27.译文：在金融机构的有效风险管理摘要：风险管理在金融部门中比经济的其他部分更重要。
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字文献出处：Ayeni R K, Oke M O. The commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Australian journal of business and management research, 2022, 12(2): 31-38. 原文The commercial bank credit risk managementAyeni R K, Oke M OAbstractCommercial Banks is an important part of the financial sector, deposit and loan business, not only bear the financing function, and the burden of the payment and settlement and so on many functions. In commercial Banks and credit losses from is influenced by many factors existing in life risk or uncertainty, this is commercial bank's risk.According to the reasons of the risk analysis, it is generally believed risk of commercial bank credit risk, interest rate risk, exchange rate risk, liquidity risk, operational risk or operational risk, legal risk, country risk, etc. Among them, the credit risk is the main risk faced by commercial Banks. General credit risk refers to the risk for each customer default triggered; Narrow sense of credit risk is to point to a bank can not recover the loan principal and interest on schedule uncertainty, namely, Banks in the credit expected return can't realize the possibility of life. American commercial Banks due to historical reasons and institutional reasons, non-performing loan ratio is generally on the high side, asset quality problem is very serious, therefore, the credit risk is Vietnam the biggest risk facing the commercial Banks. Key words: Commercial Banks; Credit risk; Risk management 1 Literature review Commercial bank risk management experiences from the head of the traditional analysis, financial ratio analysis, statistical method is applied to the model of quantitative risk management now has gone througha long history of more than 300 years, the credit risk management, risk identification and analysis, resist the strategy of the risk, risk monitoring and early warning method has formed the one whole set to complete. Now more science, system, perfecting the credit risk of awakes risk rating system is concentrated in the western developed countries, in the bank's riskmanagement practices in these countries on the basis of summarizing and refining of the new Basel capital accord has become a national bank regulatory reference standards.Developed in the 1950 s the modern financial theory is the theoretical basis of commercial bank credit risk management. Mainly includes: notes, black and Schultz’s portfolio management theory of option pricing theory, Steger Ritz information asymmetry theory proposed by and comply with the birth and development of financial derivatives in the 1970 s and put forward the theory of Vary (value at risk), etc.Until the 1970 s, the measurement of credit risk relies mainly on the various financial statements provide the static data and macroeconomic indicators on the credit of the wind relative competent or qualitative analysis. As it is the cult of the \c\Since the 1980 s, because of the impact of the global debt crisis, the international banking is begun to pay attention to the prevention and management of credit risk. The Basel accords in 1988, and put forward the credit risk of the ownership management way, on this basis, the banking industry to form the traditional quantitative analysis of credit risk management method. Mainly includes: credit scoring method and neural network analysis method.Since the 1990 s, due to declining profits and off-balance-sheet business commercial bank loans risk increasing, prompting Banks to adopt a more economic method to measure and control the credit risk, and thedevelopment of modern financial theory of credit tool innovation, to carry out the new credit risk measurement model. Compared with the traditional credit risk management methods, the modern credit risk quantitative model based on modern finance theory on the basis of the analysis of the risk and pricing, the introduction of mathematical statistics, system Ding Cheng, even science research methods, such as physics, the bank faces a variety of risk identification, measurement, method of adjusting and monitoring of a series of procedures. These models and methods has become the current banking institutions in risk and miscellaneous, competitive on the market for survival and development of theimportant means to protect.At present, the world's most popular four kinds of modern Credit Risk measurement model is respectively. Morgan bank development based on the borrowing enterprise registration transfer Credit Metrics model, developed by Moody’s KMV model based on borrowing enterprise equity changes, Credit Suisse fop in actuarial science principle of the development of Credit Risk model, and McKinsey & company development based on macroeconomic variables affect corporate default probability of Credit Portfolio View model.2 Customers of commercial bank credit policy choice in the United States Choice of credit customers is a very rigorous process. American commercial Banks attaches great importance to industry analysis, one is to set up the independent team research industry and industry, they can track comprehensive industry fundamentals, according to the overall economic development trend and the main enterprise in the industry's performance judgment, to decide to enter or exit, and continuous tracking study; The second is in the process of research work in the business management for institutional arrangements. The commercial Banks in the process of asset management has three levels, namely investment policycommittee, the research team and a portfolio manager. Asset management department study the researchers responsible for recommendation has investment value of listed companies of 77 companies, after consultation with traders submit a special committee to choose around 50 kinds of stocks to buy and sell. This arrangement is also suitable for loan management. Banks have a batch of CFA, engaged in the industry market analysis, industry analysis and capital to help raise the level of scientific decision and risk prevention. Investment banking industry research team and credit business industry research team are independent of each other, independent judgment; three is detailed research field and research content. Commercial Banks sort of clients by industry in the United States, each type of customer segmentation again for key customers and developing customers and keep customers. FANNIE MAE is equipped with a special housing price research department, responsible for different zip code area real estate price trend in the future. Banks in general has also established industry, industry andcustomer information system, make sure there are accurate, reliable and continuous research information; Four is a set of mature methods. American commercial Banks asset management division formed in more than 200 years of investment philosophy emphasizes the following aspects: panoramic investment, emphasis on the investment value of the impact of economic, social and political environment widely evaluated, thematic analysis judgment, carefully assess the specific industry, department of industry and the affected factors and possible results, to choose investment industries and enterprises. The thorough study on the proposed investment company, predict stock price change trend; Strict process, evaluate the intrinsic value of the target price to buy and sell products. American commercial Banks by risk management team is responsible for assessing risk and growth industry. In terms of risk analysis, must be from a globalperspective analysis of various factors affecting industrial risk: industry maturity, cycle, profitability, industry impact dependency, substitute products and regulatory environment. By refining industry door the risk analysis and evaluation of the industry, different risk weighting of each industry is equal to the Banks in the industry department internal exposure to various fields, and using the weighted average method to calculate the industry department's risk rating, and 30 sectors according to the risk rank.In trade credit policy, the commercial bank system was studied for the big industry. Science and technology industry, the real estate industry, metals and mining, the media industry, industrial, health care, government and agency services, logging and packaging industry, automotive and transportation industry, the financial services industry, energy industry, electronic industry, national defense and aerospace, banking, consumer and retail industry, building materials, chemical industry, capital and other 18 industries in residential construction. American commercial Banks to industry has formed a characteristic service, special commitment, management and service advantage to accumulate. At the same time, in order to develop small and medium-sized enterprise market, the industry segment also carried on the thorough research, identified the credit policy of the industry, including waste disposal, home care, life help equipment, hotels, motels, building contractors, convenience stores, gasstations, government suppliers, hospitals, real estate investors, professional real estate developers, housing developers, lay pavilion, food sales, bar dry cleaners, auto repair tools, used car dealers, car dealers, entertainment, sports venues, amusement park, bowling alley, cinema), etc.American commercial Banks also stipulates the lending industry is prohibited.3 American commercial Banks credit risk management measuresAmerican legal principle limit creditors by controlling the enterprise to realize its own interests, creditors can only be acquired according to various enterprises credit loan decision-making, management and financial information beforehand and monitoring, and after the event when an enterprise is difficult to timely payments to resort to legal solution. Therefore, the fact relations more based on short-term trading. Because it could not according to the relationship with the enterprise long-term for more information, Banks have more power through the analysis of the borrowing enterprise deals of default information (with all the Banks' trading), the condition of market value data and financial risk. By means of perfect social credit system and the developed capital market, the commercial Banks can use more accurate and timely customer credit information and market data for risk analysis, so as to avoid the traditional rely on qualitative analysis methods of risk analysis. Large American commercial Banks usually establish the credit risk management system, and use modern risk measurement method to calculate the degree of risk. On the basis of calculating various kinds of risk assets, the United States commercial Banks emphasize on portfolio risk assessment and measurement. Credit risk measurement of single focus is to ensure that each loan risk can be effectively controlled, and the focus of the portfolio risk management is to ensure that the portfolio risk and return matches the optimal scheme. Loan portfolio management is the core of through quota management, avoid loan risk concentration, efforts in the region, products, industry, industry and individual credit scale to achieve diversification, prevent excessive inputs of a field. Not only that, the commercial bank assets in recent years also reflects the diversity of obvious characteristics, credit bank credit assetsproportion to drop, rising proportion of money market and capital market other products.。
会计专业毕业论文外文文献翻译.
密级：绝密外文翻译THESIS OF BACHELOR题目：浅析商业银行会计风险控制存在的问题及对策英文题目: Analysis of Commercial Bank Accounting Risk Control Problems and Countermeasures 学院: 系别:专业:班级:学生姓名:学号：指导老师:起讫日期:我国商业银行会计风险成因及防范对策历史资料表明:导致许多国家20世纪以来先后爆发银行危机的主要原因是未能妥善解决银行风险问题。
长期以来,这一问题也困扰着我国，成为威胁我国国民经济持续、健康发展的重大隐患。
几年来国家采取了一系列必要措施：从1994至1995年给银行业立法，1996年后加强金融审慎性监管，1998年为四大银行补充2700亿元资本金,1999年成立资产管理公司并剥离五大行的1。
4万亿元不良资产，2000年以后国务院严令各行降低不良资产率，等等。
但这些措施均没有触及体制不合理这个根本问题，因而无法从根本上控制银行风险增量,提高银行经营绩效。
目前，我国银行潜伏的高风险日益暴露出来.面临2006年银行业全面开放后外资金融机构进入所带来的竞争和挑战,本届政府下决心彻底改革国有银行的体制,去年末央行动用外汇储备向中国银行、中国建设银行注资450亿美元，充实其资本金，使之达到《巴塞尔协议》规定的8%的资本充足率,推动国有银行股份制改革和最终上市，从根本上解决国有银行风险的增量问题。
因此，研究中国银行风险的特点、特殊的制度成因，股份制改革和公司治理结构建立这些被称为治本措施的一系列政策问题，具有重要的理论和现实意义。
本文第一章首先阐述了我国银行风险的表现形式.其中银行信用风险特别是国有商业银行资产信贷质量问题，成为当前最为突出的金融风险；国有商业银行的流动性风险虽未显现（暂时被居民的高储蓄率所掩盖），但潜在的支付困难因素日益增多；财务风险主要表现在国有商业银行资本金严重不足和经营利润虚盈实亏两方面；此外我国银行还存在着较为严重的利率汇率风险、市场风险、犯罪风险。
金融学专业商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中3000字
文献出处：Cornett M, Strahan P. The credit risk management of commercial banks [J]. Journal of Financial Economics, 2015, 101(2): 297-312.原文The credit risk management of commercial banksCornett M, Strahan PAbstractCredit risk is one of the most usual ones which any commercial banks may encounter during their operation. Credit risks of commercial banks not only cause losses which result in bankruptcy but also cause the most serious issues of financial and economic crisis of one nation. Referring to credit risk management of Vietnam commercial bank system，the capability of credit risks management of Vietnam commercial banks is still low; The rate of bad debt in the entire system is still much higher than international standards. Take this situation in consideration together with referring to a great number of documentations, I have studied credit risk managementof the three typical commercial bank in Vietnam and analyzed and evaluated the remaining issues in the process of credit risk control by these banks and offer some relevant solutions to the entire system of domestic banks. In credit risk management, I shall focus mainly on unscientific features in econometrics methods of credit risk management issued by commercial banks in Vietnam，which is inclusive of combination of unclear mathematic method and class analysis one to calculate credit risks. Due to the fact that credit risk management after disbursement by most of commercial banks is still weak, it is quite needed to study management after disbursement, particularize the method of identifying credit asset debt, build five-class classification, carry out actual management of credit asset and base on tendency of bad debt to offer solutions for every time period. In conclusion, what motioned herein comes from credit risk management in consideration of prevention, calculation, change and solution as well as risk management institutions.Key words: Risk, credit risk, commercial bank credit.1 Commercial bank credit risk management theoryAlthough Banks have a long history, but the theoretical analysis of credit risk is a relatively short history. By kea ton (Keeton, 1979), stag Ritz and Weiss (Mr. Weiss, 1981) development and formation of the "incomplete information credit rationing models on the market", it is pointed out that the credit market credit risk not only the two typical forms of...Adverse selection and moral hazard, and demonstrates the root of the credit risk, information asymmetry caused by the principal-agent relationship, lead to the emergence of credit rationing. Credit risk management refers to the commercial Banks through the scientific method of various subjective factors could lead to credit losses effectively forecast, analysis, prevention, control and processing. In order to reduce the credit risk, reduce the credit losses and improve the quality of credit, to enhance the capacity of the commercial bank risk control and loss compensation ability of a credit management activity. Depth understanding of credit risk management from the following four to grasp. One is the basis of credit risk management is according to the characteristics of credit requirements, not against the objective law of credit; The second is the credit risk management is scientific, modernization, standardization, quantitative and comprehensive; Three is the credit risk management method is mainly credit risk analysis, risk identification, risk measurement, risk control and risk management; Four is the credit risk management goal is to reduce risk, reduce loss, enhance the ability of commercial Banks operating risk.In order to guarantee bank loans will not be against its customers, to customers, companies, enterprises, such as different customer types before they are allowed to make loans to consider some problems. Also the question bank standard of 5 cabaña will select credit analysis of 5 c as a measure of the basic elements of corporate credit risk:1.1 QualityThe debtor to meet its debt obligations will, is the first indicator of evaluate the credit quality of the debtor. Regarding the quality of the wholesale banking, measure, or can be based on the reputation of the company management/owner eventually and company strategy.1.2 AbilityThe debtor's solvency, include the trend of the vision of the industry, the sustainable development of the company; the financial data mainly embodied in the current ratio and quick ratio. The stability of the corporate cash income directly determines its solvency and probability of default.1.3 CapitalRefers to the capital structure of the debtor or quotas, which indicates that the background of the customer may repay debt, such as debt ratio) or the net value of fixed assets and other financial indicators, etc.Shadow of the company's capital structure financing strategy: equity financing and debt financing.1.4 EnvironmentCompany locates the environment and the adaptability to the environment. Including solvent could affect the debtor's political, economic and market environment, such as the dong to rise and cancel the export tax rebate. As the "green credit, supported by more and more countries and companies, sustainable risk also be incorporated into the environmental risk considerations.1.5 MortgageRepayment of the debt of other potential resources and the resources provided by the additional security. Refuse or insolvent debtor can be used as mortgage/collateral assets, for no credit record (such as trading for the first time) or credit record disputed the debtor2 The commercial bank credit risk management processIn order to effective credit risk management, commercial Banks should grasp the basic application of credit risk management. In general, the credit risk management process can be divided into credit credit risk identification, risk estimate and credit risk handling three phases:2.1 Credit risk identificationCredit risk identification is before in all kinds of credit risk, the risk types and to determine the cause of occurrence of a risk, analysis, in order to achieve the credit risk measurement and processing. Credit risk identification is a qualitative analysis of the risk, is the first step of credit risk management, which is the basis for the rest of the credit risk management. Customer rating system and credit risk classification of the two dimensional rating system is constitute the important content of risk identification. This chapter will make detailed description of the two parts. Before the credit investigation is the commercial bank credit risk identification is the most basic steps, bank loans to the customer before must know the borrowing needs of the clients and purpose. Credit investigation before the concrete has the following contents: understand the purpose of credit, credit purpose including: type, in line with the needs of the business purpose and credit product mix and match the borrower repayment source of credit and credit term and effective mortgage guarantee/warranty or other intangible support.2.2 Credit risk estimateCredit risk estimation is the possibility of Banks in credit risk and the fact that the risk to evaluate the extent of the losses caused by measurement. Its basic requirements: it is estimated that some expected risk the possibility of credit; 2 it is to measure some credit risk fact may cause the loss of the scale. Objective that is both a difficult problem, but such as is not an appraisal, can't the quantitative corresponding countermeasures to prevent and eliminate. With the development of risk management techniques, in the financial markets open, Vietnam's financial regulators and commercial Banks also pay more and more attention to the risk of quantitative, in credit rating and have a certain progress in capital adequacy.Before Banks to make loans to customers, Banks must also understand the purpose of the customer, more understand the usage of loan customers, whether it is feasible, from now on, find a way to manage future loans to avoid the violation of the customer. As a result, Banks should use the loan examination and approval way to deal with.2.3 The processing of credit riskCredit risk after processing is that the Banks in the recognition and valuation risk, the effective measures taken by different for different size of loan risk take different processing method, make the credit risk is reduced to the lowest degree. Risk treatment methods mainly include: risk transfer refers to the bank assumes the credit risk on to others in some way. Transfer way, it is transferred to the customer, such as Banks to raise interest rates, require the borrower to provide mortgage, pledge or other additional conditions, etc.; 2 it is transferred to the insurance company, the bank will those particularly risky, once happened will loss serious loans directly to the insurance company insured, or by the customer to the insurance company insured to transfer risk;3 Commercial bank credit risk management regulation.In the risk management of commercial Banks to improve themselves at the same time, regulators and external credit rating agencies to the commercial bank credit risk management has a different regulation method.3.1 The China banking regulatory commission five classificationsThe CBRC requires commercial Banks asset quality for five categories, to reflect the face possible credit losses. System is classifying loans into five categories according to the inherent risk level could be divided into normal commercial loans, concern, loss of secondary, suspicious, five categories.The China banking regulatory commission five classifications has the advantage that the bank asset quality can be compared more easily, also can take credit quality ofthe whole global. Disadvantage is that some small and medium-sized Banks because of the lack of independent audit and internal audit, classification standard is difficult to unity, the China banking regulatory commission five classifications often find selective examination questions.3.2 Stress tests, a rating agencyRating agencies will be according to the information disclosure and audit results and adjusting the bank's credit rating. Stress test is a credit rating agency for checking the quality of commercial bank credit and common ways of anti-risk ability. Because of the influence of the stress tests, for what has happened, to predict the result may worsen the credit quality; Or for the possibility of events, predict the results of the impact of credit quality. Similar stress tests include, an industry is a strong shock cases the possibility of default, or large credit customer default could lead to credit quality decline.3.3 The new Basel capital accordNew Basel capital agreement hereinafter referred to as the new Basel agreement (hereinafter referred to as Basel II) in English, is by the bank for international settlements under the Basel committee on banking supervision (BCBS), and content for 1988 years the old Basel capital accord (Basel I) have had to make significant changes, in order to standardize the international risk management system, improve the international financial services of risk management ability.译文商业银行信贷风险管理作者：Cornett M, Strahan P摘要信贷风险是商业银行经营过程中所面临的最主要的风险之一。
金融风险管理外文翻译文献
金融风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Enterprise Risk Management in InsuranceEnterprise Risk Management (hereinafter referred as “ERM”) interests a wide range of professions (e.g., actuaries, corporate financial managers, underwriters, accountants,and internal auditors), however, current ERM solutions often do not cover all risks because they are motivated by the core professional ethics and principles of these professions who design and administer them. In a typical insurance company all such professions work as a group to achieve the overriding corporate objectives.Risk can be defined as factors which prevent an organization in achieving its objectives and risks affect organizations holistically. The management of risk in isolation often misses its big picture. It is argued here that a holistic management of risk is logical and is the ultimate destination of all general management activities.Moreover, risk management should not be a separate function of the business process;rather, managing downside risk and taking the opportunities from upside risk should be thekey management goals. Consequently, ERM is believed as an approach to risk management, which provides a common understanding across the multidisciplinary groups of people of the organization. ERM should be proactive and its focus should be on the organizations future. Organizations often struggle to see and understand the full risk spectrum to which they are exposed and as a result they may fail to identify the most vulnerable areas of the business. The effective management of risk is truly an interdisciplinary exercise grounded on a holistic framework.Whatever name this new type of risk management is given (the literature refers to it by diverse names, such as Enterprise Risk Management, Strategic Risk Management, and Holistic Risk Management) the ultimate focus is management of all significant risks faced by the organization. Risk is an integral part of each and every action of the organization in the sense that an organization is a basket of contracts associated with risk (in terms of losses and opportunities). The idea of ERM is simple and logical, but implementation is difficult. This is because its involvement with a wide stakeholder community, which in turn involves groups from different disciplines with different beliefs and understandings. Indeed, ERM needs theories (which are the interest of academics) but a grand theory of ERM (which invariably involves an interdisciplinary concept) is far from having been achieved.Consequently, for practical proposes, what is needed is the development of a framework(a set of competent theories) and one of the key challenges of this thesis is to establish the key features of such a framework to promote the practice of ERM. Multidisciplinary Views of RiskThe objective of the research is to study the ERM of insurance companies. In line with this it is designed to investigate what is happening practically in the insurance industry at the current time in the name of ERM. The intention is to minimize the gap between the two communities (i.e., academics and practitioners) in order to contribute to the literature of risk management.In recent years ERM has emerged as a topic for discussion in the financial community,in particular, the banks and insurance sectors. Professional organizations have published research reports on ERM. Consulting firms conducted extensive studies and surveys on the topic to support their clients. Rating agencies included theERM concept in their rating criteria. Regulators focused more on the risk management capability of the financial organizations. Academics are slowly responding on the management of risk in a holistic framework following the initiatives of practitioners.The central idea is to bring the organization close to the market economy. Nevertheless,everybody is pushing ERM within the scope of their core professional understanding.The focus of ERM is to manage all risks in a holistic framework whatever the source and nature. There remains a strong ground of knowledge in managing risk on an isolated basis in several academic disciplines (e.g., economics, finance, psychology,sociology, etc.). But little has been done to take a holistic approach of risk beyond disciplinary silos. Moreover, the theoretical understanding of the holistic (i.e., multidisciplinary)properties of risk is still unknown. Consequently, there remains a lack of understanding in terms of a common and interdisciplinary language for ERM.Risk in FinanceIn finance, risky options involve monetary outcomes with explicit probabilities and they are evaluated in terms of their expected value and their riskiness. The traditional approach to risk in finance literature is based on a mean-variance framework of portfolio theory, i.e., selection and diversification. The idea of risk in finance is understood within the scope of systematic (non-diversifiable) risk and unsystematic (diversifiable)risk. It is recognized in finance that systematic risk is positively correlated with the rate of return. In addition, systematic risk is a non-increasing function of a firm’s growth in terms of earnings. Another established concern in finance is default risk and it is argued that the performance of the firm is linked to the firm’s default risk. A large part of finance literature deals with severa l techniques of measuring risks of firms’ investment portfolios (e.g., standard deviation, beta, VaR, etc.). In addition to the portfolio theory, Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) was discovered in finance to price risky assets on the perfect capital markets. Finally, derivative markets grew tremendously with the recognition of option pricing theory.Risk in EconomicsRisk in economics is understood within two separate (independent) categories,i.e.,endogenous (controllable) risk and background (uncontrollable) risk. It is recognized that economic decisions are made under uncertainty in the presence of multiple risks.Expected Utility Theory argues that peoples’ risk attitude on the size of risk (small,medium, large) is derived from the utility-of-wealth function, where the utilities of outcomes are weighted by their probabilities. Economists argue that people are risk averse (neutral) when the size of the risks is large (small).Prospect theory provides a descriptive analysis of choice under risk. In economics, the concept of risk-bearing preferences of agents for independent risks was described under the notion of “ standard risk aversion.” Most of the economic research on risk is originated on the study of decision making behavior on lotteries and other gambles. Risk in PsychologyWhile economics assumes an individual’s risk preference is a function of probabilistic beliefs, psychology explores how human judgment and behavior systematically forms such beliefs. Psychology talks about the risk taking behavior (risk preferences).It looks for the patterns of human reactions to the context, reference point,mental categories and associations that influence how people make decisions.The psychological approach to risk draws upon the notion of loss aversion that manife sts itself in the related notion of “regret.” According to Willett; “risk affects economic activity through the psychological influence of uncertainty.” Managers’ attitude of risk taking is often described from the psychological point of view in terms of feelings.Psychologists argue that risk, as a multidisciplinary concept, can not be reduced meaningfully by a single quantitative treatment. Consequently, managers tend to utilize an array of risk measurers to assist them in the decision making process under uncertainty. Risk perception plays a central role in the psychological research on risk, where the key concern is how people perceive risk and how it differs to the actual outcome. Nevertheless, the psychological research on risk provides fundamental knowledge of how emotions are linked to decision making.Risk in SociologyIn sociology risk is a socially constructed phenomenon (i.e., a social problem) and defined as a strategy referring to instrumental rationality. The sociologicalliterature on risk was originated from anthropology and psychology is dominated by two central concepts. First, risk and culture and second, risk society. The negative consequences of unwanted events (i.e., natural/chemical disasters, food safety) are the key focus of sociological researches on risk. From a sociological perspective entrepreneurs remain liable for the risk of the society and responsible to share it in proportion to their respective contributions. Practically, the responsibilities are imposed and actions are monitored by state regulators and supervisors.Nevertheless, identification of a socially acceptable threshold of risk is a key challenge of many sociological researches on risk.Convergence of Multidisciplinary Views of RiskDifferent disciplinary views of risk are obvious. Whereas, economics and finance study risk by examining the distribution of corporate returns, psychology and sociology interpret risk in terms of its behavioral components. Moreover, economists focus on the economic (i.e., commercial) value of investments in a risky situation.In contrast, sociologists argue on the moral value (i.e., sacrifice) on the risk related activities of the firm. In addition, sociologists’ criticism of economists’concern of risk is that although they rely on risk, time, and preferences while describing the issues related to risk taking, they often miss out their interrelationships(i.e., narrow perspective). Interestingly, there appears some convergence of economics and psychology in the literature of economic psychology. The intention is to include the traditional economic model of individuals’ formal rational action in the understanding of the way they actually think and behave (i.e., irrationality).In addition, behavioral finance is seen as a growing discipline with the origin of economics and psychology. In contrast to efficient market hypothesis behaviour finance provides descriptive models in making judgment under uncertainty.The origin of this convergence was due to the discovery of the prospect theory in the fulfillment of the shortcomings of von Neumann-Morgenstern’s utility theory for providing reasons of human (irrational) behavior under uncertainty (e.g., arbitrage).Although, the overriding enquiry of disciplines is the estimation of risk, they comparing and reducing into a common metric of many types of risks are there ultimate difficulty. The key conclusion of the above analysis suggests that there existoverlaps on the disciplinary views of risk and their interrelations are emerging with the progress of risk research. In particular, the central idea of ERM is to obscure the hidden dependencies of risk beyond disciplinary silos.Insurance Industry PracticeThe practice of ERM in the insurance industry has been drawn from the author’s PhD research completed in 2006. The initiatives of four major global European insurers(hereinafter referred as “CASES”) were studied for this purpose. Out of these four insurers one is a reinsurer and the remaining three are primary insurers. They were at various stages of designing and implementing ERM. A total of fifty-one face-to-face and telephone interviews were conducted with key personnel of the CASES in between the end of 2004 and the beginning of 2006. The comparative analysis (compare-and-contrast) technique was used to analyze the data and they were discussed with several industry and academic experts for the purpose of validation. Thereafter,a conceptual model of ERM was developed from the findings of the data.Findings based on the data are arranged under five dimensions. They are understanding;evaluation; structure; challenges, and performance of ERM. Understanding of ERMIt was found that the key distinction in various perceptions of ERM remains between risk measurement and risk management. Interestingly, tools and processes are found complimentary. In essence, meaning that a tool can not run without a process and vice versa. It is found that the people who work with numbers (e.g.,actuaries, finance people, etc.) are involved in the risk modeling and management(mostly concerned with the financial and core insurance risks) and tend to believe ERM is a tool. On the other hand internal auditors, company secretaries, and operational managers; whose job is related to the human, system and compliance related issues of risk are more likely to see ERM as a process.ERM: A ProcessWithin the understanding of ERM as a process, four key concepts were found. They are harmonization, standardization, integration and centralization. In fact, they are linked to the concept of top-down and bottom-up approaches of ERM.The analysis found four key concepts of ERM. They are harmonization,standardization,integration and centralization (in decreasing order of importance). It was also found that a unique understanding of ERM does not exist within the CASES, rather ERM is seen as a combination of the four concepts and they often overlap. It is revealed that an understanding of these four concepts including their linkages is essential for designing an optimal ERM system.Linkages Amongst the Four ConceptsAlthough harmonization and standardization are seen apparently similar respondents view them differently. Whereas, harmonization allows choices between alternatives,standardization provides no flexibility. Effectively, harmonization offers a range of identical alternatives, out of which one or more can be adopted depending on the given circumstances. Although standardization does not offer such flexibility,it was found as an essential technique of ERM. Whilst harmonization accepts existing divergence to bring a state of comparability, standardization does not necessarily consider existing conventions and definitions. It focuses on a common standard, (a “top-down” approach). Indeed, integration of competent policies and processes,models, and data (either for management use, compliance and reporting) are not possible for global insurers without harmonizing and standardizing them. Hence, the research establishes that a sequence (i.e., harmonization, standardization, integration,and then centralization) is to be maintained when ERM is being developed in practice (from an operational perspective). Above all, the process is found important to achieve a diversified risk culture across the organization to allocate risk management responsibilities to risk owners and risk takers.ERM: A ToolViewed as a tool, ERM encompasses procedures and techniques to model and measure the portfolio of (quantifiable) enterprise risk from insurers’ core disciplinary perspective. The objective is to measure a level of (risk adjusted) capital(i.e., economic capital) and thereafter allocation of capital. In this perspective ERM is thought as a sophisticated version of insurers’ asset-liability management.Most often, extreme and emerging risks, which may bring the organization down,are taken into consideration. Ideally, the procedure of calculating economic capital is closely linked to the market volatility. Moreover, the objective is clear, i.e., meetingthe expectation of shareholders. Consequently, there remains less scope to capture the subjectivity associated with enterprise risks.ERM: An ApproachIn contrast to process and tool, ERM is also found as an approach of managing the entire business from a strategic point of view. Since, risk is so deeply rooted in the insurance business, it is difficult to separate risk from the functions of insurance companies. It is argued that a properly designed ERM infrastructure should align risk to achieve strategic goals. Alternatively, application of an ERM approach of managing business is found central to the value creation of insurance companies.In the study, ERM is believed as an approach of changing the culture of the organization in both marketing and strategic management issues in terms of innovating and pricing products, selecting profitable markets, distributing products, targeting customers and ratings, and thus formulating appropriate corporate strategies. In this holistic approach various strategic, financial and operational concerns are seen integrated to consider all risks across the organization.It is seen that as a process, ERM takes an inductive approach to explore the pitfalls (challenges) of achieving corporate objectives for broader audience (i.e.,stakeholders) emphasizing more on moral and ethical issues. In contrast, as a tool,it takes a deductive approach to meet specific corporate objectives for selected audience(i.e., shareholders) by concentrating more on monitory (financial) outcomes.Clearly, the approaches are complimentary and have overlapping elements. 作者：M Acharyya译文：保险业对企业风险管理的实证研究企业风险管理涉及各种行业(如保险精算师、公司财政经理、保险商、会计和内部审计员)，当前企业风险管理解决方案往往不能涵盖所有的风险，因为这些方案取决于决策者和执行则的专业道德和原则。
外文翻译--银行业务的核心在风险管理_规范内部控制
外文翻译--银行业务的核心在风险管理_规范内部控制原文：Managing Core Risks In Banking: Internal Comtrol&Compliance Internal Control Policy1.1 OverviewBanking has a diversified and complex financial activity which is no longer limited within the geographic boundary of a country. Since its activity involves high risk, the issue of effective internal control system, corporate governance, transparency, accountability has become significant issues to ensure smooth performance of the banking industry throughout the world. In many banks internal control is identified with internal audit; the scope of internal control is not limited to audit work. It is an integral part of the daily activity of a bank, which on its own merit identifies the risks associated with the process and adopts a measure to mitigate the same.Internal Audit on the other hand is a part of Internal Control system which reinforces the control system through regular review.According to an IMF publication Internal Control refers to the mechanism in place on a permanent basis to control the activities in an organization, both at a central and at a departmental/divisional level. A key component of effective internal control is the operation of a solid accounting and information system.In Bangladesh analysis on the performances of the banks has pointed out that an effective internal control system could have contributed significantly in improving the performance of the commercial banks if the control culture is brought in through policy guidelines and structural changes at these banks.1.2 DefinitionInternal control is the process, effected by a company's board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the effectiveness and efficiency of operations, the reliability of financial reporting and compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and internal policies.Internal controls are the policies and procedures established and implementedalone, or in concert with other policies or procedures, to manage and control a particular risk or business activity, or combination of risks or business activities, to which the company is exposed or in which it is engaged.1.3 Internal Control EnvironmentThe internal control environment is the framework under which internal controls are developed, implemented and monitored. It consists of the mechanisms and arrangements that ensure internal and external risks to which the company is exposed are identified; appropriate and effective internal controls are developed and implemented to soundly and prudently manage these risks; reliable and comprehensive systems are to be put in place to appropriately monitor the effectiveness of these controls.Each company needs to have in place an appropriate and effective internal control environment to ensure that the company is managed and controlled in a sound and prudent manner. The factors which together comprise the control environment are:*a board of directors that is actively concerned with sound corporate governance and that understands and diligentlydischarges its responsibilities by ensuring that the company is appropriately and effectively managed and controlled;*a management that actively manages and operates the company in a sound and prudent manner;*organizational and procedural controls supported by an effective management information system to soundly and prudently manage the company's exposure to risk; and *an independent audit mechanism to monitor the effectiveness of the organizational and procedural controls.1.4 Objective of Internal ControlThe primary objective of internal control system in a bank is to help the bank perform better through the use of its resources. Through internal control system bank identifies its weaknesses and takes appropriate measures to overcome the same. The main objectives of internal control are as follows:*Efficiency and effectiveness of activities (performance objectives).*Reliability, completeness and timelines of financial and management information (information objectives)* Compliance with applicable laws and regulations (compliance objectives)1.5 Policy Guidelines For Internal Control1.5.1 Responsibility of the Board of Directors*The overall responsibility of establishing broad business strategy,significant policies and understanding significant risks of the bank rests with the Board of Directors.*Through the establishment of ‘Audit Committee’ the Board of Directors can monitor the effectiveness of internal control system. Bangladesh Bank has already instructed the banks to establish Audit Committee (Appendix 5.4).*The internal as well as external audit reports will be sent to the board without any intervention of the bank management and ensure that the management takes timely and necessary actions as per the recommendations.*Have periodic review meetings with the senior management to discuss the effectiveness of the internal control system of the bank and ensure that the management has taken appropriate actions as per the recommendations of the auditors and internal control.1.5.2 Responsibility of the Senior Management*In setting out a strong internal control framework within the organization the role of Managing Director is very important. He/she will establish a ’Management Committee’ (MANCOM), which will be responsible for the overall management of the Bank.*With governance & guidance from the Board of Directors the MANCOM will put in place policies and procedures to identify, measure, monitor and control these risks.*The MANCOM will put in place an internal control structure in the banking organization, which will assign clear responsibility, authority and reporting relationship.*The MANCOM will monitor the adequacy and effectiveness of th e internal control system based on the bank’s established policy & procedure.*The MANCOM will review on a yearly basis the overall effectiveness of the control system of the organization and provide a certification on a yearly basis to the Board of Directors on the effectiveness of Internal Control policy, practice and procedure.1.5.3 Risk Recognition and Assessment*An effective internal control system continually recognizesand assesses all of the material risks that could adversely affect the achieveme nt of the bank’s goals.*Effective risk assessment must identify and consider both internal and external factors. Internal factors include complexity of the organization structure, the nature of the Bank’s activities, the quality of personnel, organization changes and also employee turnover. External factors include fluctuating economic conditions, changes in the industry, socio-political realities and technological advances.*Risk assessment by Internal Control System differs from the business risk management process which typically focuses more on the review of business strategies developed to maximize the risk/reward trade-off within the different areas of the bank. The risk assessment by Internal Control focuses more on compliance with regulatory requirements, social, ethical and environmental risks those affect the banking industry.1.5.4 Control Activities and Segregation of Duties:*Effective internal control system requires that an appropriate control structure is set up with control activities defined at every business level, i.e. top level review; appropriate activity controls for different departments or divisions; physical controls; checks for compliance with exposure limits and follow-up on non-compliance; a system for approvals and authorizations and system pf verification and reconciliation.*Control activities involve two steps: (1) the establishment of control policies and procedures and (2) verification that the control policies and procedures are being complied with.*Senior management should ensure that adequate control activities are anintegral part of the daily functions of all relevant personnel;this enables quick response to changing conditions and avoids unnecessary costs. Control activities are most effective when they are viewed by management and all other personnel as an integral part of daily activities rather than an addition to it.*One of the most important aspects of internal control system requires that there is appropriate segregation of duties and personnel are not assigned conflicting responsibilities.*Furthermore the employees must also be provided with necessary authority which will enforce segregations of duties.*For employees to carry out their responsibilities properly each employee should have appropriate job description.*Areas of potential conflicts of interest should be identified, minimized and subject to careful independent monitoring.1.5.5 Management Reporting System:*Effective internal control system requires that there is an effective reporting system of information that is relevant to decision making. The information should be reliable, timely accessible and provided in a consistent format.*Information would have to include external market information about events and conditions that are relevant to decision making. Internal information include financial, operational and compliance data.*There should be appropriate committees within the organization which would evaluate data received through various information systems. This will ensure supply of correct and accurate information to the management.*Internal information must cover all significant activities of the bank. These systems including those that hold and use data in electronic form must be secure, monitored independently and supported by contingency arrangements.*Most importantly the channels of communication must ensure that all staff fully understand and adhere to policies and procedures effecting their duties and responsibilities and that other relevant information is reaching the appropriate personnel.1.5.6 Monitoring Activities & Correcting Deficiencies:*Effectiveness of the Bank’s int ernal controls should be monitored on an ongoing basis. Key/high risk items should be identified and monitored as part of daily activities. In addition there should be periodic evaluation by the business lines and internal audit team.*There should be an effective and comprehensive internal audit of the internal control system carried out by operationally independent, appropriately trained and competent staff specially designated by the management. The significant deficiencies identified by the audit team should be reported to the board on a periodic basis. The Audit Committee of the board should be the cell to whom such report should be forwarded for review.*Preferably the internal control team should be reporting to the board of directors or its audit committee. If practical considerations do not permit internal control team to directly report to the board of directors then it can report directly to the MD.*Internal control deficiencies, whether identified by business lines, internal audit or other control personnel should be reported in a timely and prompt manner to the appropriate management level and addressed immediately.*Material internal control deficiencies should be reported to senior management and board of directors with recommendations where necessary. Each bank should set out its own guideline regarding what should be considered as majorbranches. However, it should be noted that consideration should be given to major financial exposure or loss, significant process lapses, serious employee misconduct etc.1.5.7 Role of External Auditors in Evaluating Internal Control System:*External Auditors by dint of their independence from the management of the bank can provide unbiased recommendation on the strength and weakness of the internal control system of the bank.*They can examine the records, transactions of the bank and evaluate its accounting policy, disclosure policy and methods of financial estimation made by the Bank; this will allow the board and the management to have an independent overview o n the overall control system of the bank.1.5.8 Regulatory Compliance:* For the banks Central Bank is the primary regulator, who governs the activities of banks. In addition Tax Authority, Registrar of Joint Stock Company, Finance Ministry etc. are different types of regulatory bodies whose directives have significant impact of bank’s business.*The internal control system should always take into account the bank’s internal processes to meet the regulatory requirement before conducting any operation.*The internal control system of the bank must be designed in a manner that the compliance with regulatory requirements is recognized in each activity of the bank. The bank must obtain regular information on regulatory changes and distribute among the concerned department, so that they can take necessary action to adapt to such changes.*The bank must develop an effective communication processwhich will allow smooth distribution of relevant regulations among different departments and personnel.1.5.9 Establishment of a Compliance Culture:*A bank is said to have strong compliance culture when throughout the organization employees are encouraged to comply with policies, procedures and regulation. Even an individual at the lowest echelon should be empowered to speak up without the fear of reprisal if she/he identifies something non-compliant.*The board of directors and the senior management must establish a compliance culture within the banking organization that emphasizes and demonstrates to all levels of personnel the importance of internal control.*In order to establish a compliance culture the board of directors and senior management must promote a high ethical and integrity standard.*In reinforcing ethical values the banking organization should avoid policies and practices that provide inadvertent incentive for inappropriate activities. Examples of such policies and practices include undue emphasis on performance targets or operational results, particularly short term ones that ignore long term risks and compensation schemes that overly depend on short term performance.*The board of directors and the senior management may establish a ‘Code of Ethics’ t hat all levels of personnel must sign and adhere to.Source: Mr. Jahangir Alam, Mr. Jalal Ahmed, Mr. R. Q. M. Forkan,Mr. Moinul Islam,Mr. Rais Uddin Ahmad,Mr. Siddiqur Rahman,2007.“managing core risks in banking:internal control&compliance” . Journal of Ac counting and Economics.pp.166–192.译文：银行业务的核心在风险管理：规范内部控制内部控制政策1.1概述银行拥有多元化和复杂的金融活动，不再是一国范围内的地理边界所限制。
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文献出处：Nicely E. The research of commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Research in International Business and Finance, 2015, 8(2): 17-26.原文The research of commercial bank credit risk managementNicely EAbstractCommercial bank credit card business risk management broad sense refers to the commercial bank credit card business, because of various unfavorable factors caused by the issuers, cardholders, specially engaged the possibility of loss. Credit risk refers to the pure credit for credit CARDS are unsecured loans, and credit is not high, the customer more than individual, as well as small amount of single feature, lead to the possibility of loss of card issuers. Through to the commercial Banks to do a good job of credit card risk management put forward the Suggestions and comments, and pay attention to the risks of commercial Banks to establish perfect management system, system, business process research, and put forward the commercial Banks in establishing a system of credit card business management structure, regulations, at the same time, want to notice to each kind of risk identification, measurement, assessment and do a good job in risk loss provisions in personnel management, should pay attention to establish risk rewards and punishment mechanism, pay attention to the positive incentives to the employees.Keywords: Credit CARDS; Risk management; Incentive mechanism1 IntroductionCredit card refers to the bank issued to individuals and units, with the function such as shopping, consumption and access cash bank card. Its striking feature is that the Banks granted to customer a certain line of credit, customers can enjoy the privilege of the reimbursement after be being card first, its form is a positive with the issuing bank name, the period of validity, card number, card, the cardholder's name, article with a magnetic stripe, signature on the back of the information such as bank CARDS. We now call the credit card, generally refers to borrow write down card. Credit risk refers to the bank credit card holders for various reasons failed to fullyrepay bank debt and cause the possibility of default, defaults, bank will because the cardholder does not thereby causing loss to the bank funds paid promptly. Credit card main risk including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, accredit card risk management refers to in the process of credit card business, the possible including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, etc, all kinds of risk management and control is to reduce the possibility of loss The loss rate of operation and management activities.2 Literature reviewThe concept of risk management since the 30 s of 20th century, after nearly 40 years of development to form a system, gradually by people began to attach importance to and cognition, form a new management discipline. The concept of risk mainly comes from the insurance industry, insurance for risk defined as the uncertainty of loss. In 1964, the United States of the risk management and insurance, it has made the definition: risk book points out that through the risk identification, assessment, and control to achieve with minimum cost to make a management method of minimizing the risk loss. In 1976, eight Gerry, in his book, the risk management of international enterprise, points out that protection of enterprise's financial stability, reduce the loss caused by risk events is the main goal of the enterprise risk management. In 1975, risk management and insurance management society, scholars from all over the world including general principles, risk management was determined by the talk of risk identification and measurement, risk control and other criteria. The establishment of these guidelines, marks all over the world, risk management theory with the preliminary development, management framework has been set up. Also marks the risk management has entered a new stage. In July 2004, Basel 2 rules on commercial Banks, puts forward a new risk management requirements, he fully considered for the bank including market risk, liquidity risk, credit risk and operational risk, a variety of provide for risk identification, risk measurement standard, make risk management work more accurate quantitative measurement. In 2004, the COSO committee issued "enterprise risk management integrated framework", put forward by the enterprise internal control into risk control as the main direction of management thinking. Puts forward the concept of comprehensive risk management,including internal environment, goal setting, time identification, risk evaluation, risk countermeasure, control activities, information and communication and so on eight aspects. American engineer bill fair and Earl joint research and development of the FICO credit score model, since the most card issuers have also been used this model. This model gives the credit scoring system out of a possible 900 points, according to the situation of the borrower's credit history and compare the data with other borrowers, given the borrower credit situation trend in the future.3 Credit card risk3.1 Credit card cash outCredit card cash out to merchants with the bad cardholders or other third party in collusion, or merchants themselves by credit card as the carrier, through the fictitious transactions, asking price, cash return, show the credit card credit behavior, including but not limited to: merchants and cardholders conspired to use point-of-sale terminals (POS), with fictitious transactions, falsely making out the price, cash returns to the behavior of the cardholders to pay cash directly; Or merchants to help paid the cardholder account overdraft, after using the POS machine will advances in fictitious trading way back to their accounts, and collect fees to the cardholder a card such as behavior; Or online merchants cardholders conspired to fictional price, false transactions, such as buying from selling the way, show the credit card for trafficking in fraudulent credit card Internet consumption credit, etc.3.2 False card stolen brushFalse card stolen brush refers to criminals use false card on the POS terminal for credit card transactions to steal bank funds, belong to the important type of fraud. Criminals often by merchants, independent bank terminals, as well as a variety of convenient payment terminal channels, using dedicated track record the equipment needed for the bank card information side track information through various channels, such as the Internet or buy others have steal bank card track information, password access usually by peeping in the cardholder spending places the cardholder password or independent in ATM equipment installed video cameras record customer password, even through ATM keyboard paste, such as false record customer password keyboard,or using client code, easy to guess the cardholder password and other means to obtain the cardholder password.3.3 Online payment fraudOnline payment fraud refers to the fraud part swindled through Internet channels and the cardholder's bank. On-line payment fraud mainly by non-financial institutions or commercial Banks provide online payment channel for fraud. Current fraud activists by phishing site, bank card fraud or Trojan virus, characterized by use of phishing site or Trojan virus to steal the cardholder's bank card number, password and verification code information, phishing cardholders to online trading, to defraud money. Or commercial bank online banking channel for bank card fraud, fraud part using bank online banking vulnerabilities, and the weak link in the online banking fraud.3.4 Operating riskPrevention and control of credit card operation risk, first, to find a good risk points, find out in the hairpin and post-loan risk prone link in the entire process, find out the risk points, and then control the risk. Credit card's life cycle is divided into application stage, audit stage, hairpin used to send phase, activation and post-loan management, such as card renewal phase. First by the applicant voluntarily to the commercial bank to apply for or commercial bank marketing personnel to promote credit card products to the applicant, the applicant according to the guidance of sales people to fill out credit card application form after the above requirements to fill out information, to submit proof of identity is required by the application, work proves that the domicile certificate materials, such as bank marketing personnel will be the applicant's application form submitted to the bank's examination and approval department, by a bank according to the customer qualification examination and approval department for credit card mail after examination and approval to the customer. Customers call the bank customer service special line opened activate the card, the card can normal use, generally the validity of the credit card for 3 ~ 5 years according to the process of the life cycle of credit card sorting operation risk points exist in the whole cycle.4 Conclusions and recommendationsFalse card stolen brush loss brings to the commercial Banks, cardholders Carrie's money is missing, tend to give the feeling of cardholders' money in the bank is not safe, affect the reputation of the bank, bring bank reputation risk. In the process of pursuing for unauthorized, if not solve in time, often commercial Banks must bear a lot of damage. Due to false card stolen brush is not tight to bank losses, and seriously affected the reputation of the bank. So focus on guard against the risk of false card stolen brush is the key of the bank fraud risk control. Commercial bank credit card business is strengthening risk prevention. To do the following: to strengthen the education of the cardholder and prevent unauthorized knowledge propaganda, tip card holders do not use the card to the others, pay attention to protect the password in the daily charge without being stolen. Strengthen the bank back transaction monitoring, summarizes the characteristics of the pseudo card stolen brush, such as the combination of false card stolen brush is easy to occur before time, business category, unauthorized ongoing balance inquiry, around zero, fraud part of bank daily trading limit restrictions for unauthorized transaction monitoring rules set by the characteristics. When the transaction behavior, identity card and cardholders are found not to conform or high transaction should contact the cardholder to confirm authenticity, to confirm that the cardholder to authorize the transaction after I deal correct. Effectively raise Banks to prevent false card stolen brush ability of risk prevention and control. Magnetic stripe card renewal work done as soon as possible because the bank magnetic stripe card refers to magnetic materials for storage medium, such as bank account information recorded in the magnetic stripe CARDS, magnetic stripe card is easy to be copied to the bank money loss, therefore at present a lot of Banks have begun to bank card renewal work, with good safety performance of financial IC card instead of bank magnetic stripe card. In addition, improve the incentive mechanism construction of risk management, on the basis of regular and irregular in the risk assessment results, good for the risk assessment results, comprehensive risk management framework construction perfect mechanism, through the authorization for adjustment, performance ratings, priority support to start newbusiness delegation, adjustment factors of business innovation, management, can be appropriately in the human resources and cost allocation give policy tilt, can give points in performance appraisal review. For risk management body have made outstanding contributions or reduce loss of major risk events offer certain material and spiritual reward employees, and on the personal career advancement channels give sufficient consideration; For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration. For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration.译文商业银行信用卡风险管理研究Nicely E摘要商业银行信用卡业务风险管理广义上讲是指在商业银行信用卡业务经营中，因各种不利因素而导致的发卡机构、持卡人、特约商户等损失的可能性。