科技英语第二次课_game_theory
《科技英语》课后习题答案
Main Content: UNIT 1 MATHEMATICSI.Text OrganizationParts ParagraphsMain IdeasPart One Paras. 1-3 Game theory can be defined as the science ofstrategy which studies both pure conflicts(zero-sum games) and conflicts in cooperativeforms.Part Two Paras.4-11 There are two distinct types of strategic interdependence: sequential-move game and simultaneous-move game.Part Three Paras.12-19The typical examples of game theory are givenas the basic principles such as prisoners’dilemma, mixing moves, strategic moves,bargaining, concealing and revealinginformation.Part Four Para. 20 The research of game theory has succeeded inillustrating strategies in situations ofconflict and cooperation and it will focus onthe design of successful strategy in future. nguage PointsThe games it studies range from chess to child rearing and from tennis to takeovers. (Para.1)Paraphrase: The games it (game theory) studies extends from chess to child bringing-up and from tennis to handovers.range: v. to vary between limits, extend, run in a linee.g. (1) The price ranges from $ 30 to $ 80. (2) The boundary ranges from north to south.takeover: n. the act or an instance of assuming control or management of or responsibility for sth. 接收、接管e.g. The economy of Hongkong goes well after its takeover. Game theory was pioneered by Princeton mathematician John von Neumann. (Para.2)pioneer: v. to be a pioneer; to originate (course of action etc., followed later by others)e.g. The new treatment for cancer was pioneered by the experts of state hospital.pioneer: n. original investigator of subject or explorer or settler; initiator of enterprisee.g. The young generation was greatly motivated by the pioneers’exploits.That is, the participants were supposed to choose and implementtheir actions jointly. (Para.2)Paraphrase: That is, the players were expected to select and carry out their actions together.…he must anticipate and overcome resistance to his plans. (Para.3) anticipate: v. 1) to expect or realize beforehand; to foresee e.g. The experts are anticipating the negative effects of air pollution.anticipate: v. 2) to deal with or use before proper time 预支e.g. Ted was not used to saving monthly and he would always anticipate his income.The essence of a game is the interdependence of player strategies. (Para.4)Paraphrase: The key principal of a game is that player strategies are dependent on each other.essence: n.1) the quality which makes a thing what it is; the inner nature or most important quality of a thinge.g. The two things are the same in outward form but different in essence.essence: n. 2) extract obtained from a substance by taking out as much of the mass as possiblee.g. milk essence; essence of peppermint (椒薄荷、椒薄荷油) interdependence: n. the quality or fact of depending on each otherinter-为前缀，意为between each other, 类似的词还有interchange、intermarry、international、interview等。
关于科技的英语作文精选
关于科技的英语作文精选5篇关于科技的英语作文1In the modern time, the growth of technology is increasingly developed. More and more people don’t use their brains when there is no need to use other instruments. Too much people use technology so that people are lazier and less healthy than before. They rely on technology too much.Some believe that modern technology shorten the distance of human. For instance, people all use cellphone to call friends or family, or computer to search information, or use QQ, MSN, twitter, blog etc. These modern instruments shorten the distance between human.However, others think that it’s just the reverse. Technology makes people use less face-to-face communication. The contact in real life is less and less. People do less interaction to each other. In the long term, people will get depressed without enough communication.As far as I’m concerned, modern technology provides convenience to people. It makes people easily to get information. Only could we use it correctly, it does much contribution to us.关于科技的英语作文2Science and technology have been bringing human beings tremendous benefits. Thanks to science and technology, we now live comfortably and conveniently in houses furnished with air conditioners, refrigerators, washing machines and televisions etc. Thanks to science and technology, we can eat fresh vegetables at the year round. Thanks to science and technology, we can travel long distances in the fraction of a second on planes, trains and cars. Thanks to science and technology, we wear clothes with synthetic materials which can not easily be worn out.However, science and technology have atso brought us a lot of disasters. First, because of the many breakthroughs in the field of medicine, people are now living much longer than they used to. As a result, the population of the world is increasing, causing lots of problems. Second, because of the development of industry, lots of the wastes from factories pour into the air and rivers, causing pollution of all kinds. Third, some terrorists are using science and technology against mankind. They use biological, chemical and unclear weapons to threaten world peace...So it's urgent that we find ways to solve these problems. But we should not stop the development of science and technology because of these disasters they bring, just as we should not give up eating for fear of choking. In addition, we should make some rules to regulate our actions. As long as we use science and technology in a proper way, they may bring us even more benefits.关于科技的英语作文3Here is a difference between science and technology.Science is a method of answering theoretical questions; technology is a method of solving practical problems. Science has to do with discovering the facts and relationships between observable phenomena in nature and with establishing theories that serve to organize these facts and relationships; technology has to do with tools,techniques, and procedures for implementing the findings of science.Another distinction between science and technology has to do with the progress in each. Progress in science excludes the human factor. Scientists, who seek to comprehend the universe and know the truth with the highest degree of accuracy and certainty, cannot pay heed to their own or other people's likes or dislikes, or to popular ideas about the fitness of things. What scientists discover may shock or anger people--as did Darwin's theory of evolution. But even an unpleasant truth is more than likely to be useful; besides, we have the option of refusing to believe it! But hardly so withtechnology;we do not have the option of refusing to hear the sonic boom produced by a supersonic aircraft-flying overhead; we do not have the option of refusing to breathe polluted air. Unlike science, progress in technology must be our slave and not the reverse. The legitimate purpose of technology is to serve peopie--people in general, not merely some people; and future generations, not merely those who presently wish to gain advantage for themselves.We are all familiar with the abuses of technology. Many people blame technology itself for widespread pollution, resource depletion and even social decay in general--so much so that the promise of technology is obscured. That promise is a cleaner and healthier world. If wise applications of science and technology do not lead to a better world, what else will?关于科技的英语作文421st century is the century of technology. Nowadays, technology is everywhere around us. The development of technology has a significantaffact toward the society. Several technologies that we usually use are the internet, computer, and cellphone. These new technologies make our life much easier and better.First, the development of computer changes our life. Decades ago, people needed to do lots of complex calculation on hand because they did not have computer, and more obvious, they did not have the software for calculation. As the result of that, people spent hours on the equations that a computer can solve in just a minute. Since the development of computer, people are able to use some kind of software to compute lots of complex functions and mathematical calculation. Computer becomes the most helpful equipment for the sciencists because they can use their time more efficiently.Also, internet is another useful tool for us today. The development of internet brings a great impact toward the society. Instead of going to library and fliping all the books to figure out some information, we can just simply use a mouse and click on the website to do research. The internet leads us to a place where we can find unlimited information and resources. It makes our life much easier and better.The last technology is cellphone. Nowadays, many people have a cellphone. But it just appears on the market for about 10 years. It is very convenience to the users because we can talk to anyone we want with a phone as small as a wallet. Also, we can communicate with others by making a phone call instead of sending letters. It is very fast and useful way to communicate.In conclusion, I believe the development of technology brings significant impact to our life. It is very helpful to us and I believe technology will keep improving in future.关于科技的英语作文5The advent of modern technology brings a substantial impact on the whole world. It not only boosts the economy, but also changes the people’s conception on the world. It also increases global communication among countries. In my opinion, modern technology is creating a single world culture in that such technology as computer and internet is bringing people together and making the world get smaller.First of all, modern technology promotes the globe to frequently use one language. The invention of computers and Internet promotesEnglish to be a global language and dominate in the communication worldwide. Since language is the agent of culture, the worldwide use of English fosters more and more minds thinking alike.Besides, the development of the internet brings people’s life style into uniform. The availability of Internet makes people have a lot in common, such as access to information, online shopping or payment. People from all over the world are doing the same thing each day on the Internet, and their living habit is becoming closer and closer with each passing day.Based on the points discussed above, it is obvious that modern technology is creating a single world culture.关于科技的英语作文精选5篇。
科技英语词汇
科技英语词汇数学absolute value 绝对值acute angle 锐角aggregate集合algebra 代数；代数学algorithm 算法analysis 分析analysis of variance 方差分析analytic function分析函数；解析函数analytic geometry 分析几何analytic number theory 分析数论angle 角angular 角的area 面积arithmetic 算术axiomatic set theory 公理集合论calculus of finite difference 有限差演算calculus of variations 变分法cardinal number 基数category 范畴central limit theorem 中心极限定理circle 圆circular points at infinity 圆点class field theory 类域论classical group 典型群common factor公因数complex function 复变函数complex number 复数cone 圆锥体congruence 同余conjugate function 共轭函数constant 常数convolution 卷积coordinate system 坐标系correlation analysis 相关分析curve 曲线curve of second degree 二次曲线cylinder 圆柱体data anlysis 数据分析decimal 小数decision analysis 决策分析denominator 分母derivative 导数determinant 行列式developable surface 可展曲面differential 微分differential and integral calculus 微积分学differential calculus 微分学differential coefficient 导数differential topology 微分拓扑学dimension 维数divisibility 整除elementary function 初等函数elimination method 消元法ellipse 椭圆elliptic function 椭圆函数entropy 熵equal sign 等号equation 等式；方程式error 误差even number 偶数extract roots开方；求根extremum 极值field 域figure 图形finite field 有限域formula (pl. formulae) 公式function 函数functional 泛函数fuzzy logic 模糊逻辑game theory 博弈论generalized inverse matrix 广义逆矩阵geometry 几何学golden section 黄金分割harmonic function 调和函数hyperbola 双曲线improper integral 广义积分incenter 内心indeterminate 不定方程inequality 不等式infinitesimal 无穷小infinity无穷大integral 积分integral calculus 积分学integral equation 积分方程integration 积分法interval analysis 区间分析limit 极限linear 线性的；一次的linear algebra 线性代数linear operator 线性算子line segment 线段logical calculus 逻辑演算mapping 映射matrix 矩阵maximum function 极大函数minimal surface 极小曲面minus减去；负号model logic 模态逻辑moment矩nomogram 算图normal distribution 正态分布numerator分子numerical analysis 数值分析obtuse angle 钝角odd number 奇数optimization 最优化optimization method 优选学origin 原点parabola 抛物线paradox 悖论parallel 平行；平行线parallel algorithm 并行算法parallelogram平行四边形parameter 参数parity 奇偶性partial derivative 偏导数perpendicular bisector中垂线plane 平面polygon 多边形polyhedron 多面体polynomial 多项式positive sign 正号power 幂probability 概率quadratic 二次的radical sign根号random variable 随机变量real number 实数rectangle 长方形；矩形recursion theory 递归论right angle 直角rotundity圆形semicircle 半圆形series 级数set集；集合side 边simple equation 一次方程式sphere 球体；球面square 正方形；平方；直角尺straight line 直线supplementary 互补surface 曲面symmetry 对称taper 圆锥（形）trapezoid / trapezium 梯形triangle 三角形trigonometry 三角学unknown （未知）元；未知数variable 变量variance变方差vector 向量volume 体积物理absolute zero 绝对零度absorption 吸收acceleration 加速；加速度acoustics 声学activator 激活剂alkaline 碱的；碱性的alloy 合金alternating current (AC) 交流电ampere 安培ampere-meter 安培计annealing 退火antiparticle 反粒子atom原子atomic原子的atomic beam 原子束atmosphere 大气层beam splitter 分光膜boson 玻色子calorie 卡calorimetry 量热术cell 电池Celsius temperature 摄氏温度centripetal force 向心力centre of gravity 重心centre of mass 质心centrifugal force 离心力charge 电荷coating 涂层；覆盖collision 碰撞collider 对撞机compass 指南针conservation of energy能量守恒constraint 约束continuum 连续体；连续介质convex 凸起的cosmic ray 宇宙射线coulomb 库伦coupling 耦合critical state 临界状态cross section 截面crystal 晶体crystallization 结晶crystallography 晶体学cyclotron 回旋加速器damping 阻尼decay 衰变diamagnetism 抗磁性dielectrics 电介质；绝缘体diffraction 衍射diffusion 扩散direct current (DC) 直流电discharge 放电dislocation 位错dispersion 色散displacement 位移distortion 畸变divergence发散Doppler effect 多普勒效应drag 阻力drift 漂移dynamics 动力学eddy current 涡电流elastic force 弹性力elasticity 弹性力学electromagnetic 电磁的electret 驻极体electric circuits 电路electric current 电流electric field 电场electricity 电学electric polarization 电极化electric potential 电位electric power 电功率electroacoustics 电声学electrocaloric effect 电热效应electrolytic 电解的electromagnetic 电磁的electromagnetic induction 电磁感应electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射electromagnetic shielding 电磁屏蔽electromagnetic wave 电磁波electromagnetism 电磁学electron 电子electroscope 验电器electrostatic field 静电场elementary particle 基本粒子energy 能量enthalpy 焓；热函entropy 熵exciton 激子；激发子farad 法拉ferroelectricity 铁电性fiber optics 纤维光学first cosmic velocity第一宇宙速度fission裂变fluctuation 波动fluid mechanics 流体力学fluorescence 荧光；荧光性force 力free nergy 自由能friction 摩擦fusion聚合galvanometer 电流计gaseous discharge 气体放电generator 发电机；发生器gluon 胶子grating 光栅gravitational interaction 引力相互作用graviton 引力子gravity wve 重力波hadron 强子heat transfer 热传递heavy lepton 重轻子helium 氦holography 全息摄影术humidity 湿度hydrogen 氢hyperon 超子impulse 冲量incandescent lamp 白炽灯inductance 电感inertia 惯性inertial force 惯性力infrared ray 红外线insulator绝缘体ion 离子ionic离子的ionize 电离；使离子化isotope 同位素jet 喷注joule 焦耳kinetic energy 动能laser 激光latent heat 潜热lever 杠杆lens 透镜magnet 磁体；磁铁magnetic field 磁场magnetics 磁学magnetization 磁化（强度）mass 质量meson 介子microscope 显微镜molecule 分子moment 力矩momentum 动量multimeter 万用（电）表neucleon 核子neucleus 原子核neutrino 中微子neutron 中子nuclide 核素ohm欧姆ohmmeter欧姆计optics 光学ozone 臭氧层parity 宇称phase 相phosphor 荧光粉photon 光子plasma 等离子体pulley 滑轮pyrometer高温计quark 夸克quartz 石英quenching 淬火reacting force反作用力radar 雷达radiation 辐射radioactivity 辐射性raodiocarbon dating 碳定年recoil反冲reflection 反射resistance 电阻resonance 共振（态）reverberation 混响rolling 轧制screw 螺旋semi-conductor 半导体shock wave 激波；冲击波soild 固体sonar 声呐spectrum 光谱spin 自旋stress 应力superconductivity 超导电性swing振幅synchronizer 同步装置telescope 望远镜temperature 温度tension 张力transistor 晶体管ultrasonic 超声的ultraviolet ray 紫外线universal gravitation万有引力uranium 铀vacuum 真空velocity 速度vibration 振动viscosity 粘性急volt 伏特voltage 电压voltmeter 伏特计vortex 涡旋weld 焊接work 功X ray X射线化学acid 酸absorbate 吸附质aerosol 气溶胶alkali 碱alkaline 碱（性）的amino acid 氨基酸anode 阳极base 碱boiling point 沸点bubble point 泡点calorimetric entropy量热熵capillarity 毛细现象carbonification 碳化作用catalyst催化剂cathode 阴极chemical affinity 化学亲合势chemical potential 化学势clone 克隆（无性系繁殖）compound 化合物composite reaction复合反应condensation in capillary 毛细管凝结condensed state 凝聚态conductivity 电导率conductance电导consecutive reaction连串反应coulometer电量计；库伦计critical parameter临界参数cyclic process 循环过程decomposition voltage分解电压demulsification 胶凝作用dew point露点dispersion phase 分散相electrode potential 电极电势electrolytic cell 电解池electromotive force 电动势electrophoresis 电泳embryo 胚胎energy level能级entropy 熵enzyme 酶equilibrium state平衡态ethane 乙烷ethanol 乙醇eutectic point 低共熔点excess pressure 附加压力extensive property 广延性质ferment 发酵；酵素freezing point凝固点gelatin凝胶gene 基因genome 基因组half cell 半电池heat of dissociation 离解热heat of neutralization 中和热heat pump 热泵ionic strength离子强度internal energy内能intermolecular force 分子间力latent heat 潜热macromolecular solution高分子溶液mechanical equivalent of heat热功当量metabolism 新陈代谢methane 甲烷microstate 微态molecular distillation 分子蒸馏negative pole 负极negative adsorption 负吸附overheated liquid 过热液体oxidation 氧化（作用）oxidation-reduction 氧化还原partial pressure 分压pascal 帕斯卡phase change 相变photoreaction 光反应photosensitized reaction 光敏反应photosynthesis 光合作用polarization极化作用polyelectrolyte 聚（合）电解质polyethylene 聚乙烯polymer 聚合物rectify精馏reduced temperature 对比温度relative viscosity 相对粘度relative volatility 相对挥发度reversible process 可逆过程salting out 盐析saturated vapor饱和蒸气sedimentation 沉降solid phase line 固相线solid solution 固态混合物solution 溶液straight chain reactions 单链反应surface excess表面吸附量thermodynamics 热力学transgenic 转基因的triple point 三相点unimolecular reaction单分子反应vaporization 气化work content 功函yield 产率计算机专业access arm 磁头臂；存取臂access time 存取时间adder 加法器address 地址alphanumeric 字母数字的analog computer 模拟计算机analyst 分析员area 区域array 数组；阵列ASCII 美国信息交换标准码assembler 汇编程序audio音频band 区band width带宽batch processing 成批处理BBS 电子布告栏系统binary code 二进制码binary digit 二进制位；二进制数字bit 比特,二进制的一位branch 分支,支线browser 浏览器brush 电刷buffer storage 缓冲存储器byte 字节calculator 计算器call instruction 呼叫指令cancel 取消card punch 卡片穿孔机card reader 卡片阅读机；读卡机cell 单元channel 通道；信道character 字符check digit 校验数位chip 芯片circuit 电路；线路click 点击clear 清除；清零clock 时钟code 代码；编码coder 编码员；编码器command 指令；命令compact disk (CD)光盘compatible兼容的compatibility兼容性compiler 编译程序computer language 计算机语言control unit 控制器core storage, core store 磁心存储器counter 计数器CPU 中央处理器cybernetics 控制论cycle 循环cursor 光标data 数据data processing 数据处理debugging 调试decision 制定delete 删除desktop桌面display 显示屏dialog box 对话框digit 数字,数位,位digital computer 数字计算机disc, disk 磁盘display unit 显示装置driver驱动器drop-down menu 下拉菜单edit 编辑EMS memory 内存encode 编码erase 擦除；清洗；抹除feed 馈送；供给feedback 反馈field 字段；信息组,域file 文件fire wall 防火墙floppy disk软盘flush left 左对齐folder 文件夹font 字体format 格式frame 帧hack 黑客hard disk 硬盘help 帮助highlight 突出显示icon图标identifier 标识符index 索引information 信息inline processing 内处理input 输入inquiry 询问insert 插入interactive 交互式instruction 指令item 项目；项jump 转移key 键,关键码keyboard 键盘latency time 等待时间library 库,程序库linkage 连接line spacing single 单倍行距load 装入；寄存；写入；加载location 存储单元logger 登记器,记录器log in/on注册；登录loop 循环machine language 机器语言magnetic storage 磁存储器magnetic tape 磁带main frame主机matrix 矩阵memory 存储器menu 菜单message 信息；报文microcomputer 微型计算机module 组件；模块modify 修改monitor 监视器；监督程序；管程motherboard主板mouse 鼠标multimedia 多媒体nanosecond 毫微秒network 网络；网numeric, numerical 数字的；数值的octet 八位位组；八位字节operator 操作员optical character reader 光符阅读机optical scanner 光扫描器output 输出overflow 溢出；上溢panel 平板parameter 参数；参量perforator 穿孔机peripheral equipment 外围设备；外部设备personal computer 个人计算机printed circuit 印制电路printer 打印机printout 打印输出process 处理processor 微处理器processing unit 处理部件program 程序program 程序编制programmer 程序设计员programming 程序设计；程序编制punch 穿孔punch 穿孔punched card, punch card 穿孔卡片punch hole 孔；穿孔punched tape, punch tape 穿孔纸带random access 随机存取read 读取reader 阅读程序reading 阅读read-only file 只读文件real time 实时record, register 记录redundancy 冗余right-click 右击routine 例行程序selector 选择器,选择符sentinel 标记sequence 序列,顺序sequential 顺序的serial 串行的.连续的server 服务器shift 移位,移数signal 信号simulation 模拟simulator 模拟器；模拟程序software 软件；软设备sort 分类,排序sorter 分类人员；分类机；分类程序；排序程序sound box 音箱storage 存储器store 存储subroutine, subprogram 子程序switch 开关symbol 符号symbolic language 符号语言system 系统table 表格tabulator 制表机teleprinter 电传打字机terminal 终端terminal unit 终端设备timer 时钟；精密计时器time sharing 分时timing 定时toolbar 工具按钮track 磁道transducer 传感器；翻译机translator 翻译程序：翻译器tools 工具update保更新view 视图virus 病毒visual 视频window 窗口经贸acceptance 承兑acquisition 收购ad valorem duty 从价税after-sales service 售后服务amortization 分期偿还（欠款本息）anti-dumping 反倾销appreciation 升值arbitration 仲裁assessment 估价auction 拍卖auditing 审计average 海损bad debt 呆帐bail out 财政援助balance of payment 国际收支差额balance sheet 资产负债表bank credit 银行信贷bankrupt 破产bar chart 柱形图bar code 条形码bargain 讨价还价benchmark 基准beneficiary 受益人bill of entry 报关单bill of exchange 汇票bill of lading 提单blue chip 蓝筹股board 董事会bonded warehouse 保税仓库bonus 红利brainstorming 集思广益brand loyalty 品牌忠诚度break-even point 收支相抵点broker 经纪人budget 预算bulk goods 散装货byproduct 副产品telegraphic transfer 电汇capital gains 资本收益capital stock 股本carriage 运费certificate of origin 原产地证明chamber of commerce 商会claim 索赔commission 佣金consignee 收货人consumer durables 耐用消费品customize 定制dealer 经销商debit card 借记卡decision-making 决策declaration of income 收入申报deficit 赤字deflation 通货紧缩delivery note 交货单differentiation 产品差异化distribution 分销diversification 经营多样化Dow Jones Industrial Average 道琼斯工业平均指数down payment 首付；定金economic indicator 经济指数endorsement 背书enquiry 寻盘exchange control 外汇管制face value 面值floating rate 浮动汇率foreign exchange 外汇franchise 特许经营freelance 自由职业者free on board 离岸价futures market 期货市场gross domestic/national product 国内/国民生产总值hedging 套期保值idle money 闲置资金import licence 进口许可证industrial tribunal 劳资仲裁庭inflation 通货膨胀infrastructure 基础设施insurance policy 保险单interest rate 利率investment trust 投资信托公司joint venture 合资公司legal expense 诉讼费用letter of credit 信用证liquidation 清算management buyout 管理层够入全部股权marginal cost 边际成本marine insurance 海运保险marketing mix 营销组合market segmentation 市场细分merger 合并mortgage 抵押贷款net asset value 净资产值offer 报盘off-season 淡季的option 期权order 定单overdraft 透支overhead 经常费用patent 专利payoff 回报，赢利performance 业绩price discrimination 价格歧视portfolio 投资组合product life cycle 产品生命周期promotion 促销public relations 公共关系quotation 报价rate of returns 收益率rationalization 合理化改革real estate 房地产refund 退款retail price 零售价securities 证券stock exchange 股票交易所subsidy 补贴surplus 过剩tariff 关税trade deficit 贸易赤字transactions velocity of circulation 货币流通速度underwriter 承保人value added tax 增值税医学albomycin 白霉素allergen过敏原allergy过敏allergic reaction 过敏反应allergic rhinitis过敏性鼻炎anaphylactic shock过敏性休克anatomy解剖学anemia贫血anorexia厌食症apoplexy 中风arthritis 关节炎beriberi脚气病blood pressure 血压blood test 验血blood type A A血型；A型血brainwave脑波bronchitis 支气管炎cancer癌症cerebral apoplexy 脑溢血cholera霍乱circulatory system循环系统clinic 诊所color blindness 色盲common cold感冒computerized tomography CT扫描contraceptive避孕用具cough咳嗽dentin牙质dentist 牙科医生dermatologist 皮肤科医生detoxification解毒作用diabetes 糖尿病dialysis 透析diarrhea 痢疾dissection解剖eardrum / tympanic membrane鼓膜electrocardiogram (ECG) 心电图electroencephalogram (EEG) 脑电图ENT (ear-nose-throat) doctor 耳鼻喉科医生epilepsy癫痫erythromycin 红霉素gastric ulcers 胃溃疡glucose葡萄糖gynaecologist 妇科医生gynecology妇科学head nurse 护士长heat stroke 中暑hormone激素house surgeon 住院外科医生hospitalization 住院治疗immune system免疫系统infectious disease 传染病infertility不孕injection 注射in-patient住院病人in-patient department 住院部intern 实习医生in vitro fertilization试管内受精leukemia白血病life expectancy预期寿命lymph淋巴malnutrition营养不良me asles 麻疹migraine偏头痛nutrition营养obesity 肥胖症obstetrician 产科医生oculist 眼科医生oligocardia 心动徐缓oligoocholia 胆汁过少oligospermia 精子减少oligopnea 呼吸迟缓oligosideremia 血铁减少oligochromimia 血红蛋白过少oligocythmia 红细胞减少oligosteatosis 皮脂减少oncologist 肿瘤科医生ophthalmologist眼科专家ophthalmology眼科学ophthalmic眼炎orthopedist 骨科医生out-patient 门诊病人out-patient department 门诊部ovulation排卵paediatrician 儿科医生paralysis 瘫痪penicillin 青霉素perspiration排汗plastic surgeon 整形外科医生pneumonia 肺炎radiologist 放射科医生register / registration 挂号rejection排斥反应resident physician 住院内科医生resistance抵抗力rheumatoid arthritis类风湿性关节炎saturated fat饱和脂肪scarlatina 猩红热scurvy坏血病sinus窦sinusitis鼻窦炎skin test 皮试smallpox 天花sphygmomanometer 血压计stethoscope听诊器streptomycin 链霉素student nurse实习护士syphilis梅毒total lung capacity总肺活量transplant operation 移植手术tuberculosis (TB) 结核病tumor肿瘤typhoid fever伤寒ultrasonic diagnosis B B超urinalysis 尿检urologist 泌尿科医生vaccine 疫苗venous injection 静脉注射vomit 呕吐ward 病房生物学chrom颜色chromophore生色团chromosome染色体chromatography色谱法melan, melano, nigr 黑melanoma黑素瘤melanin黑色素melanophore黑色素细胞xantho, flavo, fla, flavi, lute黄xanthophyl叶黄素xanthous黄色的，黄色人种xathine黄嘌呤flavin(e)黄素flavone黄酮letein黄体素，叶黄素flavin adenine dinucleotide(FAD)黄素腺嘌呤二核苷酸erythro, rub, rubrm, ruf 红erythrocyte红细胞erythromycin红霉素erythropoitin(EPO)促红细胞生成素chloro, chlor绿，氯chlorophyll叶绿素chloride氯化物chloramphenicol氯霉素cyan, cyano 蓝，青紫色，氰cyanophyceae 蓝藻纲cyanobacteria蓝细菌cyanide氰化物aur, glid, chrys金色aureomycin金霉素chrysose 金藻淀粉chrysanthemum菊花glidstone 金沙石glid 镀金leu, leuco, leuk, leuko, blan, alb无色，白色leucine亮氨酸albomycin白霉素cephal, capit, cran 头，头颅cyte 细胞carn, my, mya, myo,肉，肌肉haem, haemat, hem, aem, sangul 血soma, corp 体，身体some, plast 体，颗粒hepa, hepat 肝heparin 肝素hepatopancreas肝胰腺hepatocyte 肝细胞hepatoma肝癌ren, nephr 肾adrnal肾上腺的nephridia肾管nephron肾单位card, cord 心cardiotoxin 心脏毒素cardiovascular center 心血管中枢electrocardiogram心电图concord一致，和谐ophthalm, ocell, ocul 眼bronchi 鳃filibranch丝鳃lamellibrnch瓣鳃sencondary branchium次生鳃brac, brachi 腕，手臂brachiolaria 短腕幼虫brachionectin臂粘连蛋白bracelet手镯dent, odont 牙齿dentin牙质odontphora 齿舌odontoblast成牙质细胞plum羽plumatus 羽状的plumule绒毛plumage （鸟的）羽毛foli, foil 叶follicle滤泡foiling叶形foliage 叶子foliose 多叶的Haplodermatitis 单纯皮炎haplolichen 单纯苔藓haploid 单倍体Haplomycosis 单孢子囊菌病pan agglutination 全凝集ultra micron 超微粒ultrasonic 超声波的ultraviolet 紫外线ultrasound 超声Subabdominal 腹下的subarchinoid 蛛网膜下腔的subaural 耳下的subscapular 肩胛下的subcapduloperiosteal 关节囊骨膜下的subclavicular 胸骨下的substratum 下层hypoderm 皮下组织cranium颅cranial bone颅骨cranial cavity 颅腔hip 髋coax bone / hip bone 髋骨hip girdle 髋带hip replacement 髋置换base pair盐基对base盐基hydrochloric acid 盐酸salts 盐类tooth decay龋齿dental caries 龋齿palatine bone 腭骨patella髌骨pulp cavity 髓腔medulla 髓质medulla 髓质myelin 髓磷脂cellulose纤维素fibrin 纤维蛋白fibrinogen 纤维蛋白原fibrous cartilage纤维软骨农业land, soil 土壤arable land, tilled land 耕地dry soil 旱田fertile soil 沃土，肥沃的土壤humus 腐殖质irrigable land 水浇地lean soil, poor soil 贫瘠土壤wasteland, barren land 荒地grassland 草地meadow 草甸prairie 大草原pasture land 牧场fallow 休闲地stubble, stubble field 亩茬地straw, hay 稿杆rural population 农村人口rural exodus 农村迁徙land reform, agrarian reform 土地改革mechanization of farming 农业机械化mechanized farming 机械化耕作cattle farm 奶牛场ranch 大农场，牧场hacienda 庄园holding 田产plot, parcel, lot 地块cooperative farm 合作农场collective farm集体农场country, countryside 农村countryman 农民，农夫countrywoman 农民，农妇agronomist 农学家latifundium, large landed estate 大农场主farmer 农户producer 农业工人landowner 地主，土地拥有者absentee landlord 外居地主smallholder, small farmer 小农rancher 牧场主tenant farmer, leaseholder 土地租用人sharecropper 佃农ploughman 农夫，犁田者farm labourers 农场工人，农业工人（美作：farm laborers）farm hand 农场短工cattle farmer 牧场工人cowherd, cowboy 牛仔shepherd 牧人fruit grower 果农vinegrower 葡萄栽植者vintager 采葡萄者farming, husbandry 农业animal husbandry, animal breeding 畜牧业dairy farming 乳品业，乳牛业horticulture 园艺market gardening 商品蔬菜种植业fruit growing 果树栽培vinegrowing, viticulture 葡萄栽培olive growing 油橄榄栽培arboriculture树艺silviculture 造林学agricultural products, farm products 农产品foodstuffs 食品dairy produce, dairy products 乳制品dairy industry 乳品加工业crop year, farming year农事年season 季节agricultural, commodities market 农业市场livestock 牲畜alfalfa 紫苜蓿apple 苹果apricot 杏子aquiculture 水产养殖asparagus 芦笋banana 香蕉barley 大麦bean 豆bee-keeping 养蜂beeswax 蜂蜡branch 树枝breed 繁殖，生育，饲养buffalo 水牛，野牛cabbage 洋白菜calf 小牛，仔camel 骆驼carp 鲤鱼carrot 胡萝卜cassava 木薯castor—bean 蓖麻籽castor—O¨蓖麻油cat fish 鲇鱼cattle 牛(总称)cauliflower 菜花chemical fertilizer 化学肥料cherry 樱桃chicken 小鸡chlorophyll 叶绿素cock 公鸡coconut 椰子cocoon 蚕茧cod 鳕鱼colony 蜂群compost 堆肥，混合肥料corn 玉米cotton 棉花COW 母牛cowboy 牛仔crop 农作物cross—breeding 杂交dairy farm 奶牛场desert 沙漠donkey 驴duck 鸭子egg 鸡蛋fertilizer 肥料fiber 纤维fig 无花果fish 鱼forest 森林fruit 水果game bird 可猎取的鸟garlic 大蒜gene—altered food(crop) 转基因食物(作物) gene—engineered food(crop) 转基因食物(作物)ginseng 人参GM(gene—modified) food(crop) 转基因食物(作物)goat 山羊graft 嫁接grain 谷物grape 葡萄hay 干草hen 母鸡herbicide 除草剂hive 蜂箱honey 蜂蜜honeycomb 蜂巢horse 马incubate 孵化insect pest 病虫，害虫insecticide 杀虫剂irrigation 灌溉lamb 羔羊leaf 树叶levee 大堤，堤livestock (总称)牲畜lobster 龙虾locust 蝗虫log 圆木．1umbering 伐木maize 玉米mating 交配milk 牛奶mink 水貂mule 骡mushroom 蘑菇mustard 芥末nectar 花蜜nitric acid 硝酸oat 燕麦onion 洋葱orange 广柑，橙子organic fertilizer 有机肥料ox 牛parched field 焦干的土地peach 桃peanut 花生persimmon 柿子pesticide 杀虫剂pet 供玩赏的动物，爱畜，宠物photosynthesis 光合作用pineapple 菠萝plum 李子pollen 花粉potato 土豆poultry farming 养鸡场queen wasp 蜂王raise 饲养ram 公羊ranch 牧场rattan 藤reservoir 水库root 树根royal jelly 王浆seed 种子silage 青贮饲料silk 丝silkworm 蚕soybean 大豆squash 南瓜stem 茎，树干straw 稻草strawberry 草莓sugarcane 甘蔗tangerine 红皮桔till 耕作tillable 可耕作的tillage 耕作tomato 西红柿trawler 拖网渔船turkey 火鸡vegetable 蔬菜wasp 黄蜂watermelon 西瓜weed 杂草well 井wheat 小麦石油化工oil field 油田wildcat 盲目开掘的油井percussive drilling 冲击钻探rotary drilling 旋转钻探offshore drilling 海底钻探well 井，油井derrick 井架Christmas tree 采油树crown block 定滑轮travelling block 动滑轮drill pipe, drill stem 钻杆drill bit钻头roller bit 牙轮钻头diamond bit 钻石钻头swivel 泥浆喷嘴turntable, rotary table 轮盘pumping station 泵站sampling 取样sample 样品，样本core sample 矿样storage tank 储油罐pipeline 油管pipe laying 输油管线oil tanker 油轮tank car, tanker （铁路）罐车，槽车tank truck, tanker （汽车）运油罐车，油罐车refining 炼油refinery 炼油厂cracking 裂化separation 分离fractionating tower 分馏塔fractional distillation 分馏distillation column 分裂蒸馏塔polymerizing, polymerization 聚合purification 净化hydrocarbon 烃，碳氢化合物crude oil, crude 原油petrol 汽油（美作：gasoline）LPG, liquefied petroleum gas 液化石油气LNG, liquefied natural gas 液化天然气octane number辛烷数，辛烷值vaseline 凡士林paraffin 石蜡kerosene, karaffin oil 煤油gas oil 柴油lubricating oil 润滑油asphalt 沥青benzene 苯fuel 燃料natural gas 天然气olefin 烯烃high-grade petrol 高级汽油plastic 塑料机械assembly line组装线layout布置图conveyer流水线物料板rivet table拉钉机rivet gun拉钉枪screw driver起子electric screw driver电动起子pneumatic screw driver气动起子worktable 工作桌OOBA开箱检查fit together组装在一起fasten锁紧(螺丝)fixture 夹具(治具)pallet栈板barcode条码barcode scanner条码扫描器fuse together熔合fuse machine热熔机repair修理QC品管cosmetic inspect外观检查inner parts inspect内部检查thumb screw大头螺丝lbs. inch镑、英寸EMI gasket导电条front plate前板rear plate后板chassis 基座bezel panel面板power button电源按键reset button重置键hi-pot test of SPS高源高压测试voltage switch of SPS 电源电压接拉键sheet metal parts 冲件plastic parts塑胶件SOP制造作业程序material check list物料检查表work cell工作间trolley台车carton纸箱sub-line支线left fork叉车planning department企划部QC Section品管科stamping factory冲压厂painting factory烤漆厂molding factory成型厂common equipment常用设备uncoiler and straightener整平机punching machine 冲床robot机械手hydraulic machine油压机lathe车床planer 'plein?刨床miller铣床grinder磨床driller铣床linear cutting线切割electrical sparkle电火花welder电焊机staker=reviting machine铆合机general manager总经理be put in storage入库pack packing包装to apply oil擦油to file burr 锉毛刺final inspection终检to connect material接料to reverse material 翻料wet station沾湿台Tiana天那水cleaning cloth抹布to load material上料to unload material卸料to return material/stock to退料scraped 'skr?pid报废scrape ..v.刮;削deficient purchase来料不良manufacture procedure制程deficient manufacturing procedure制程不良oxidation ' ksi'dei?n氧化scratch刮伤dents压痕defective upsiding down抽芽不良defective to staking铆合不良embedded lump镶块feeding is not in place送料不到位stamping-missing漏冲production capacity生产力education and training教育与训练proposal improvement提案改善spare parts=buffer备件forklift叉车trailer=long vehicle拖板车compound die合模die locker锁模器pressure plate=plate pinch压板bolt螺栓automatic screwdriver电动启子thickness gauge厚薄规gauge(or jig)治具power wire电源线buzzle蜂鸣器defective product label不良标签identifying sheet list标示单screwdriver holder起子插座pedal踩踏板stopper阻挡器flow board流水板hydraulic handjack油压板车forklift叉车pallet栈板band-aid创可贴iudustrial alcohol工业酒精alcohol container沾湿台sweeper扫把mop拖把vaccum cleaner吸尘器rag 抹布garbage container灰箕garbage can垃圾箱garbage bag垃圾袋chain链条jack升降机production line流水线chain链条槽magnetizer加磁器lamp holder灯架to mop the floor拖地to clean the floor扫地to clean a table擦桌子air pipe 气管packaging tool打包机packaging打包missing part漏件wrong part错件excessive defects过多的缺陷critical defect极严重缺陷major defect主要缺陷minor defect次要缺陷not up to standard不合规格dimension/size is a little bigger尺寸偏大(小) cosmetic defect外观不良slipped screwhead/slippery screw head螺丝滑头slipped screwhead/shippery screw thread滑手speckle斑点mildewed=moldy=mouldy发霉rust生锈deformation变形burr(金属)flash(塑件)毛边poor staking铆合不良excesssive gap间隙过大grease/oil stains油污shrinking/shrinkage缩水mixed color杂色scratch划伤poor processing 制程不良poor incoming part事件不良fold of pakaging belt打包带折皱painting make-up补漆discoloration羿色water spots水渍polishing/surface processing表面处理exposed metal/bare metal金属裸露lack of painting烤漆不到位delivery deadline交货期cost成本engineering工程die repair模修die worker模工to start a press开机classification整理regulation整顿cleanness清扫qualified products, up-to-grade products良品defective products, not up-to-grade products 不良品waste废料board看板feeder送料机sliding rack滑料架defective product box不良品箱die change 换模to fix a die装模to take apart a die拆模to repair a die修模packing material包材plastic basket胶筐isolating plate baffle plate; barricade隔板carton box纸箱to pull and stretch拉深to put material in place, to cut material, to input落料to impose lines压线to compress, compressing压缩character die字模to feed, feeding送料transportation运输。
科技英语第二次课_game_theory
Nash equilibrium
纳什均衡，又称为非合作博弈均衡 纳什均衡 又称为非合作博弈均衡 A Nash equilibrium, named after John Nash, is a set of strategies, one for each player, such that no player has incentive to unilaterally change her action.
Game theory was pioneered by Princeton mathematician John von Neumann.
更多具有代表性的例子可能会导致共同得利博弈和共同损 失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。 失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。
Princeton
当我们把博弈的结果表述为一种均衡的时候，并不能假 当我们把博弈的结果表述为一种均衡的时候， 定博弈的每个参与者的个人最佳策略将带来共同的最优 化结果。 化结果。
Nash’s notion of equilibrium remains an incomplete solution to the problem of circular reasoning in simultaneous-move games.
Prisoners’ dilemma
Two suspects are arrested by the police. The police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, visit each of them to offer the same deal. If one testifies (defects from the other) for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent (cooperates with the other), the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full 8-year sentence. If both remain silent, both prisoners are sentenced to only one year in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each receives a five-year sentence. Each prisoner must choose to betray the other or to remain silent. Each one is assured that the other would not know about the betrayal before the end of the investigation. If we assume that each player cares only about minimizing his or her own time in jail, how should the prisoners act?
英语第一章阅读 game theory 原文及翻译
The essence of a game is the interdependence of player strategies. There are two distinct types of strategic interdependence: sequential and simultaneous. In the former the players move in sequence, each aware of the others’ previous actions. In the latter the players act at the same time, each ignorant of the others’ actions.
Game theory was pioneered by Princeton mathematician john von Neumann. In the early years the emphasis was on games of pure conflict (zero-sum games). Other games were considered in a cooperative form. That is, the participants were supposed to choose and implement their actions jointly. Recent research has focused on games that are neither zero sum nor purely cooperative. In these games the players choose their actions separately, but their links to others involve elements of both competition and cooperation.
科技英语翻译___课后答案
科技英语翻译6.1 介词的一般译法第1节翻译练习1In general, man serves as the source of infection while animals act as such only occasionally.An industrial robot shares many attributes in common with a numerical control machine tool.一般来说，人可作为感染源，而动物只是偶然如此。
工业用机器人与数控机床有许多共同的特性。
第1节翻译练习2With non-changeover control both the boiler plant and the chiller plant operate to provide simultaneous heating and cooling throughout the year.The online service delivers substantially more value to our global audience of e-business professionals in the chemical, plastics and allied industries.This device can mimic photosynthesis to produce usable energy from sunlight.采用非转换控制，锅炉设备和制冷装置都在运行，全年可同时供暖和制冷。
该网络服务主要向全球从事化学、塑料及相关工业的专业电子商务用户提供更有价值的服务。
这种装置能够模拟光合作用，利用阳光产生可用的能源。
第1节翻译练习3The longitudinal axis of the turbine generator is perpendicular to the axis of the steam generator. In the right conditions, membranes are self-assembling.Winding of the spring induces residual stresses through bending.汽轮发电机的纵轴与锅炉轴线垂直。
《科技英语文献阅读与翻译》Unit-1-TextA
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Unit One
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约翰·冯·诺依曼 (1903-1957)
匈牙利裔美国数学家, 普林斯顿大学和普林斯顿 高等研究所教授,曾任研制原子弹的顾问，并参 加研制计算机,被称为计算机之父,1954年成为 美国原子能委员会委员.作为二十世纪最杰出的 数学家之一, 他在数理逻辑, 测度论, 格论和连 续几何学方面都有开创性的成果;在博弈论和控 制论,力学,经济学和计算机研制等领域做出了杰 出的贡献. 他同莫根·施特恩合作，写出《博弈 论和经济行为》(Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, 1947)一书，这是博弈论
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博弈论
博弈论有时也称为对策论是应用数 学的一个分支, 是研究具有斗争或竞 争性质现象的数学理论和方法,也是 运筹学的一个重要学科。目前在社 会学,生物学，经济学，国际关系， 计算机科学, 政治学，军事战略和其 他很多学科都有广泛的应用。
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Unit One
Princeton has traditionally focused on undergraduate education and academic research, it now offers a large number of top-rated professional Master's degrees and PhD programs in a range of subjects.
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Princeton
Princeton is a city in Green Lake County, NJ, United States.
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《科技英语阅读》课后名词解释和翻译
Unit1 mathematics名词解释绝对补集absolute complement / 代数algebra /代数式algebraic expression / 代数方程algebraic equation / 代数不等式algebraic inequality / 任意常数arbitrary constant / 数组array / 底数；基数base number / 连续函数continuous function / 函数function / 复合函数function of function / 函数记号functional notation / 集合aggregate / 子集subset /迭代函数iterative function/优先权之争priority battle/分形特征fractal properties/有意义make sense/以越来越小的规模重复同一模式patterns repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales/混沌理论chaos theory/季刊a quarterly journal/数学界the mathematics community/波纹线crisp lines/会议公报proceedings of a conference翻译3. Translate the sentences into Chinese.1)他主要是因为用分形这个概念来描述（海岸线、雪花、山脉和树木）等不规则形状等现象而闻名于世，这些不规则形状在越来越小的规模上不断重复同一模式。
2)如果再仔细观察，就可以发现集的边界并没有呈波纹线，而是像火焰一样闪光。
3)但是，克朗兹在这场辩论中引入了一个新东西，他说曼德布洛特集不是曼德布洛特集发明的，而是早在“曼德布洛特集”这个术语出现几年以前就已经明确地在数学文献中出现了。
4)曼德布洛特同时也暗示即使布鲁克斯和马特尔斯基的论文先于他发表，但因为他们没有领会到其价值，仍然不能将他们看作是曼德布洛特集的发现者。
科技英语不同类型的范例解析2
The next section of the paper is the Introduction . In many journals this section is not given a title. As its name implies, this section presents the background knowledge necessary for the reader to understand why the findings of the paper are an advance on the knowledge in the field. Typically, the Introduction describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on a particular aspect, usually describing a finding or set of findings that led directly to the work described in the paper. If the authors are testing a hypothesis, the source of that hypothesis is spelled out, findings are given with which it is consistent, and one or more predictions are given. In many papers, one or several major conclusions of the paper are presented at the end of this section, so that the reader knows the major answers to the questions just posed. Papers more descriptive or comparative in nature may begin with an introduction to an area which interests the authors, or the need for a broader database.
09武汉科技大学英语专业综合答案
2009年硕士研究生入学考试“基础英语（专业综合）”参考答案及评分标准Section One ADVANCED ENGLISH1. Explain each of the following cultural terms briefly. (15%)1.Great Lakes: Group of five freshwater lakes, Central North America, between theUnited States and Canada, largest body of fresh water in the world. From west to east, they are Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.2.Game theory: A mathematical theory of transactions developed by John V onNeumann. He called this theory, which has important applications in economic, diplomacy, and national defense, “game theory”. Even though they are serious, however, the games are often so intricate and their rules so strange that the game becomes overtly playful.3.Fundamentalism: A usually religious movement or point of view characterized bya return to fundamental principles, by rigid adherence to those principles, andoften by intolerance of other views and opposition to secularism. Christian fundamentalism is based on a literal interpretation of everything in the Bible and regarded as fundamental to Christian faith and morals.4.Newsweek: An American news weekly established in Dayton, Ohio in 1933. In itdomestic and international news is summarized, analyzed and categorized according to topics each week. It also has special sections devoted to arts, science, medicine, sports, etc. It is one of the three largest news weeklies of America and has a wide domestic and international circulation.5.The Salvation Army: A Protestant religious body devoted to the conversion of, andsocial work among the poor, and characterized by use of military titles, uniforms, etc. It was founded in 1878 by “General”Booth in London; now worldwide in operation.II. Identify the figures of speech used in the following underlined parts of the sentences. (10%)1.Antithesis2.Transferred epithet3.Hyperbole4.Metaphor5.PersonificationIII. Vocabulary (10%)1. A2. A3. D4. D5. B6. C7. D8. C9. C 10.B IV. Reading Comprehension (55%)Passage One (10%): 1.C 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. CPassage Two:1.Paraphrase the underlined sentences in the article. (30%)(1)Just as science may acquire some of the features of a mythology, science may also beinfluenced by other cultures and ideologies. This is because science is one part of culture and can hardly stay away from the influence of cultures.(2)Newton’s thought was influenced by his intensive research into the Bibles and other Christianbooks. His thought is also influenced by his wish that his studies of natural science would lead people to believe in the existence of a supreme God who has given this world motion and order.(3)Those who study history from the psychological perspective will surely say that Einstein’supbringing has had a certain impact on his theory. He was a rather stateless person; if he had grown up in a stable environment, he would not be so ready to propose and accept the theory of relativity.(4)Only those immature followers of Bacon’s inductivist philosophy will deny that science canbe influenced by other non-scientific factors. Those inductivist followers have been trying to see a kind of “pure” science, not affected by any environmental factor.(5)We should not move quickly to deny, because of what have been mentioned, that there is adifference between the context where scientific law is discovered and the one where scientific law is proved.(6)First of all, even at the stage of inventing and thinking about his theory, a scientist willnormally change some of his ambitions or ideas about the world.(7)It is also true to say that, although the capitalist in the Victorian age welcomed the idea of thesurvival of the fittest, this could not explain the great success of Darwi n’s writing The Origin of Species.(8)If Darwin had not answered some of the specific questions in biology related to evolution, ifDarwin had not collected a huge amount of data, his theory would not have such a great influence.(9)On the other hand, even if a theory is presented in a form that is acceptable to scientificcommunity, its success or failure will not depend on whether it agrees or disagrees with the spirit of the age.(10)D arwin’s success is an example illustrating that scientific success can last for many ages;there are also examples of theories which meet the expectation of the age yet are rejected simply because they are not scientific.2.Write a summary of the passage in Chinese. (Word Limit: 160 words ) (15%)既然科学受神话的影响，科学也会受到其他文化或思潮的影响。
科技英语复习总会分析解析
1 Game theory is the science of strategy．It attempts to determine mathematically and logically the actions that“players’’should take to secure the best outcomes for themselves in a wide array of“games”．The games it studies range from chess to child rearing and from tennis to takeovers．But the games all share the common feature of interdependence．That is，the outcome for each participant depends upon the choices(strategies)of a11．In SO—called zero—sum games the interests of the players conflict totally,SO that one person’S gain always is another’S loss．More typical are games with the potential for either mutual gain(positive sum)or mutual harm(negative sum)，as well as some conflict．搏弈是有关策略的科学。
它试图以数学和逻辑的方法来帮助搏弈者作出决策，在一系列纷繁复杂的搏弈中应采取何种策略来保证自己获得最大利益。
搏弈论研究的搏弈的范围包括了从下棋到抚育儿童，从网球竞技到公司转手。
但是所有的博弈都具有一个共同的特征：相互作用。
科技英语翻译课后题答案课后习题答案
The power plant is the heart of a ship. 动力装置是船舶的心脏。
The power unit for driving the machines is a 50-hp induction motor.驱动这些机器的动力装置是一台50马力的感应电动机。
Semiconductor devices, called transistors, are replacing tubes in many applications.半导体装置也称为晶体管,在许多场合替代电子管。
Cramped conditions means that passengers’legs cannot move around freely.空间狭窄,旅客的两腿就不能自由活动。
All bodies are known to possess weight and occupy space. 我们知道，所有的物体都有重量并占据空间。
The removal of minerals from water is called softening. 去除水中的矿物质叫做软化。
A typical foliage leaf of a plant belonging to the dicotyledons is composed of two principal parts: blade and petiole.Einstein’s relativity theory is the only one which can explain such phenomena.All four (outer planets) probably have cores of metals, silicates, and water.The designer must have access to stock lists of the materials he employs.设计师必须备有所使用材料的储备表。
科技英语-game theory - 试
1.3 Typical examples
Tips：Key terms and its Chinese equivalents Nahs equilibrium纳什均衡 dominant strategy优策略 dominated strategy劣策略 optimal result最优结果 strategic interaction策略互动 the Prisoners' Dilemma囚徒困境 Mixing Moves混合性行动 Strategic Moves策略性行动
1.4 Reseach of game theory
Recent advances: • describing and prescribing
appropriate strategies in several situations of conflict and cooperation. Future: • the theory is far from complete the design of successful strategy remains an art.
1.3 Typical examples
Nash equilibrium • developed by John Nash • a set of choices, one for each player • each person's choice is best for him • all players are playing their stipulated
1.3 Typical examples
医学科技英语Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Disease and Disease-producing Organisms 2.1 What is Disease?Disease may be defined as the abnormal state in which part or all of the body is not properly adjusted or is not capable of carrying on all its required functions. There are marked variations in the extent of the disease and in its effect on the person. Disease can have number of direct causes such as:1.Disease-producing Organisms. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Theseare believed to play a part in at least one half of human illnesses.2.Malnutrition. This means a lack of essential vitamins, minerals, proteins or othersubstances required for normal life processes to take place.3.Physical Agents. These included excessive heat or cold, or injuries that cause cuts,fractures or crushing damage to tissues.4.Chemicals. Some may be poisonous or otherwise injurious if present in excess such aslead compounds (in paints), carbolic acid (in certain antiseptic solutions), certain laundry aids and other products.5.Birth Defects. Those abnormalities of structure and function which are present at birthare termed congenital. Such abnormalities may be inherited, which means they are passed on by the parents through their reproductive cells, or they may be acquired during the process of development within the mother’s womb (uterus).6.Degenerative Process. Degeneration means breaking down. With aging, there isdeterioration of tissue so that it becomes less active and less capable of performing its normal functions. Such degenerative processes may be caused by continuous infection, by repeated minor injuries to tissues by poisonous substances, or by the normal “wear and tear” of life. Thus degeneration is an anticipated result of aging.7.Neoplasms. The word neoplasm means “new growth” and refers to cancer and othertypes of tumors.Other factors which enter into the production of a disease are known as predisposing causes. While a predisposing cause may not in itself give rise to a disease, it increases the probability of a person’s becomin g ill. Examples of predisposing causes include:Age. As we saw, the degenerative process of aging can be direct cause of disease. But a person’s age also can be a predisposing factor. For instance, measles is more common in children than in adults.Sex. Certain diseases are more characteristic of one sex than the other. Men are more susceptible to heart disease, while women are more prone to develop diabetes.Heredity. Some individuals inherit a “tendency” to acquire certain diseases -- particularly diabetes and many allergies.Living Conditions and Habits. A person who habitually drives himself to exhaustion, does not have enough sleep or pays little attention to his diet is highly vulnerable to the onslaught of disease. Overcrowding invites epidemics, and lack of sunshine can cause rickets in children. The use of narcotics and the abuse of alcohol and tobacco also can lower vitality and predispose to disease.Occupation. A number of conditions are classified as “occupational disease.” For instance, miners are susceptible to lung damage caused by the constant inhalation of stone dust.Physical Exposure. Undue chilling of all or part of the body, or prolonged exposure to heat, can lower the body’s resistance to disease.Preexisting Illness. Any preexisting illness, even as mild a one as the common cold, increases the changes of contracting another disease.Psychogenic Influences. “Psycho” refers to the mind, “genic” to origin. Some physical disturbances are due either directly or indirectly to emotional upsets caused by conditions of stress and anxiety in daily living. Peptic ulcers and so-called nervous indigestion are examples.2.2 The Study of DiseaseOur brief survey of the human body should give us a glimpse into three different studies which are considered the fundamentals of medical science. These are:1.Anatomy – the science of the structure of the body and the relationship of its parts toeach other.2.Physiology – the science which deals with the activities or dynamic (functions) of thebody and its parts.3.Pathology –the science which treats of the essential nature of disease, including thestructural and functional changes produced by the disorders.The modern approach to the study of disease emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body disorder. The term used for this combined study in medical science is pathophysiology.Underlying the basic medical sciences are the still more fundamental disciplines of physics and chemistry. A knowledge of both of these is essential to any real understanding of the life process.It is interesting to note that many other sciences have grown up about the study of disease and that each has become a specialty in itself.Some examples of these more specialized sciences include:1. Bacteriology, which includes a study of the many beneficial as well as disease-producingplantlike organisms called bacteria.2. Microbiology, which is the science of microscopic plants and animals, usuallyemphasizing the bacteria. This term sometimes is synonymous with bacteriology.3. Protozoology, the study of one-celled animals.4. Parasitology, the general study of parasites, a parasite being any organism which lives ono r within another (called the host) at the host’s expense.5. Helminthology, the study of worms, particularly parasitic ones.2.3 Disease TerminologyThe study of the cause of any disease, or the theory of its origin, is etiology. Any study of a disease usually includes some indication of its incidence, which means its range of occurrence and its tendency to affect certain groups of individuals more than others. Information concerning its geographic distribution and its tendency to appear in one sex, age group or race more or less frequently than another is usually included in a presentation on disease incidence.Diseases are often classified on the basis of severity and duration as:1.Acute: Those that are relatively severe but usually last a short time.2.Chronic: Those that are often less severe but likely to be continuous or recurring forlong periods of time.3.Subacute: Those that are intermediate and fall between acute and chronic, not beingquite so severe as acute infections nor as long-lasting as chronic disorders.Still another term used in describing certain diseases is idiopathic, which means “self-originating” or “without a known cause.”A communicable disease is one which can be transmitted from one person to another. If many people in given region acquire a certain disease at the same time, that disease is said to be epidemic. If a given disease is found to a lesser extent but continuously in a particular region, the disease is endemic to that area.Diagnosis, Treatment and PreventionIn order to treat a patient, the doctor obviously must first determine the nature of the illness –that is, make a diagnosis. A diagnosis is the conclusion drawn from a number of facts put together. The doctor must know the symptoms, which are the changes in body function felt by the patient; and the signs (also called objective symptoms) which the doctor himself can observe. Sometimes a characteristic group of signs (or symptoms) accompanies a given disease. Such a group is called syndrome. Frequently certain laboratory tests are performed and the results evaluated by the physician in making his diagnosis.Although nurses do not diagnose, they play an extremely valuable role in this process by observing closely for signs, encouraging the patient to talk about himself and his symptoms, and then reporting this information to the doctor. Once the patient’s disorder is known, the doctorprescribes a course of treatment, also referred to as therapy. Many measures in this course of treatment are carried out by the nurse under the physician’s orders.In recent years, physicians, nurses and other health workers have taken on increasing responsibilities in prevention. Throughout most of medical history, the physician’s aim has been to cure a patient of an existing disease. However, the modern concept of prevention seeks to stop disease before it actually happens – to keep people well through the promotion of health. A vast number of organizations exist for this purpose, ranging from the World Health Organization (WHO) on an international level down to local private and community health programs. A rapidly growing responsibility of the nursing profession is educating individual patients toward the maintenance of total health – physical and mental.2.4 InfectionThe predominant cause of disease in humans is the invasion of the body by disease-producing microorganisms. The word “organism”means “anything having life”; “micro” means “small.” Hence, a microorganism is a tiny living thing, too small to be seen by the naked eye. Another term for microorganism is microbe or, more popularly, “germ.”Although the great majority of microorganisms are beneficial to man, or at the least are harmless, a certain few types cause illness; that is, they are pathogenic. Any disease-causing organism is a pathogen. If the body is invaded by pathogens with adverse effects, the condition is called an infection. If the infection is restricted to a relatively small area of the body, it is local.A generalized or systemic infection is one in which the whole body is affected. Generalized infections usually are spread by the blood stream.2.5 The MicroorganismsMicroorganisms are living things of a very primitive order. Because the early microscopes lacked high resolving power, many species of microorganisms such as rickettsias and viruses were unknown. Since then they have been placed in the kingdom called Protista (Fig. 2.1).Figure 2.1Some examples of protists.(/reinos-biologicos.html)ProtistaProtista, which means the first, is the term used to designate all one-celled organisms. The protists occur only as single-celled (unicellular) organisms. The main groups are as follows: Protozoa – one-celled animalsAlgae – one-celled plantsFungi – yeasts and moldsBacteriaVirusesHigher forms of life, with which we are all familiar, are composed of vast numbers of cells engaged to a greater or lesser degree in specialized tasks. Most microorganisms, however, are composed of but one cell in which all the processes of life are carried on – nutrition, growth, reproduction and so forth.BacteriaThe bacteria are once-celled plants. Although they comprise the largest groups of pathogens, most bacteria are not only harmless to man but are absolutely essential to the continuation of all life on earth. It is through the action of bacteria that dead animals and plants are decomposed and transformed into substances which enrich the soil. Sewage is rendered harmless by bacteria. One type of bacterium transforms the nitrogen of the air into a form usable by plants, a process called nitrogen fixation. Farmers take advantage of this by allowing a field to lie fallow (untilled) so that the nitrogen of its soil can be replenished. There are so many different types of bacteriathat their classification is very complicated. For our purposes, a convenient and simple groupingis based on the shape and arrangement of their cells as seen with a microscope (Fig. 2.2).Figure 2.2 Types of bacteria1.Rod-shaped cells: bacilli. Cells are straight and slender, like matchsticks. Some arecigar shaped with tapering ends. Typical bacillary diseases include tetanus, diphtheria,tuberculosis and typhoid fever.2.Spherical cells: cocci. Cells resemble dots. Cocci are seen in characteristicarrangements. Some are in pairs and are called diplococcic. Another type is arrangedin chains, like a string of beads. There are the streptococci. A third group is seen inlarge clusters and is known as staphylococci. Among the diseases caused bydiplococcic are gonorrhea and meningitis; streptococci and staphylococci areresponsible for a wide variety of infections3.Curved rods. One type has only a slight curvature, like a comma, and is called vibrio.Another form resembles a corkscrew and is known as spirillum (plural spirilla).Bacteria very similar to the spirilla, but capable of waving and twisting motions, arecalled spirochetes. Cholera is caused by a vibrio. The most serious and widespreadspirochetal infection is syphilis.In syphilis, the spirochetes enter the body at the point of contact through the genitalskin or mucous membranes. They travel to the blood stream and thus set up a systemicinfection.Bacteria can be seen only under a microscope. As a rough indication of their size, from ten to 1000 bacteria (depending upon the species) could, if lined up, span apinhead. Bacteria live in an environment of moisture and food materials. Some typesare capable of swimming rapidly about by themselves by means of threadlikeappendages called flagella. Their requirements as to water, food, oxygen, temperatureand other factors vary according to the species. Not surprisingly, the pathogenicbacteria are most at home within the “climate”of the human body. When livingconditions are ideal, the organisms reproduce (by splitting in two) with unbelievablerapidity. If they succeed in overcoming the body’s natural defenses, they can causedamage in two ways: by producing poisons, or toxins, and by entering the body tissuesand growing within them.4.Now classified as bacteria although considerably smaller are the rickettsias and thechlamydias (sometimes called rickettsiae and chlamydiae). These microorganisms canexist only inside living cells. Because they exist at the expense of their host, they areparasites; and because they can grow only within living cells, they are referred to asobligate parasites.The rickettsias are the cause of a number of serious diseases in man such as typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In almost every instance, these organismsare transmitted through the bites of such creatures as lice, ticks and fleas.The chlamydias are smaller than the rickettsias. They are the causative organism in trachoma (a serious eye infection that ultimately causes blindness), parrot fever orpsittacosis, the venereal disease lymphogranuloma venereum, and some respiratorydiseases.FungiThe true fungi are another large group of simple plants. Only a very few types are pathogenic. Although the fungi are much larger and more complicated than the bacteria, they are still a low order of plant life, lacking the green pigment chlorophyll which enables higher plants to utilize the energy of sunlight in carrying out their life processes. Like bacteria, the fungi prefer dark and damp places in which to grow.Familiar examples of fungi are mushrooms, puffballs, bread molds and yeasts (commercial yeast cakes used in baking and brewing). Of the fungi only yeasts and molds include pathogenic types. Diseases caused by fungi are called mycotic infections (myco-fungus). Examples of these are athlete’s foot and ringworm. Although few diseases are caused by fungi, some are very dangerous and all are difficult to cure.VirusesIf the bacteria seem small, they are enormous in comparison to the viruses. These latter are so tiny as to be invisible in the ordinary light microscope and can be seen only in an electron microscope. Viruses are the smallest known infectious agents. They have some of the fundamental properties of living matter, but hey are not cellular and they have no enzyme system.Like the rickettsias and the chlamydias, they can grow only within living cells –they are obligate parasites. Unlike these, the viruses are not usually susceptible to antibiotics.At present there is no universally accepted classification of viruses. For our purpose, we can think of them in relations to the diseases which they cause. There is a considerable number of them – measles, polio, hepatitis, smallpox and the common cold, to name a few.ProtozoaWith the protozoa we come to the one and only group of microbes which can be definitely classed as animals because of their mode of nutrition. Although the protozoa are one-celled, like the bacteria, they are much larger. Protozoa are found in most any body of water from moist grass to mud puddles to the sea.There are four main divisions of protozoa:1.Amebae. An ameba is an irregular blob of protoplasm which propels itself by extendinga branch of itself (a “false foot”) and then flowing over it. Amebic dysentery is causedby a pathogen of this group.2.Ciliates. This type of protozoon is covered with tiny hair called cilia which produce awave motion to propel the organism.3.Flagellates. These organisms are propelled by the long whip-like filaments calledflagella.4.Sporozoa. Unlike other protozoa, the sporozoa cannot propel themselves. They areparasites, unable to grow outside the host. A member of this groups cause malaria.Parasitic WormsMany species of warms (also referred to as helminths) are parasitic by nature and select the human organism as their host. Whereas invasion by any form of organism is usually called an infection, the presence of parasitic worms in the body also can be termed an infestation (Fig. 2.3). The microscope is required for the discovery of the eggs or larval forms of most warm infestations.Figure 2.3 Common parasitic worms.Common roundwormThe most common of the intestinal worms is the large rounded ascaris, which is very prevalent in many parts of Asia, where it is found mostly in the larval form. In the United States it is found especially frequently in the children from the rural South. This worm resembles the earthworm (fishworm) in appearance and many be present in such large numbers that intestinal obstruction ensues. The eggs produced by the adult worms are very resistant so that they can live in soil during either freezing or hot, dry weather and cannot be destroyed even by strong antiseptics. The embryo worms develop within the eggs deposited with excreta in the soil, and later reach the digestive system of a victim by means of contaminated food. Discovery of this condition may be made by a routine stool examination.PinwormsAnother fairly common infestation, particularly in children, is the seat or pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis), which is also very hard to control and eliminate. The worms average somewhat less than one-half inch in length and live in the lower part of the alimentary tract. The adult female moves outside to the vicinity of the anus to lay its thousands of eggs. These eggs are often transferred by the child’s fingers from the itching anal area to the mouth. In the digestive system of the victim the eggs develop to form new adult worms, and thus a new infestation is begun. The child also may infect others by this means. Patience and every precaution, with careful attention to the doctor’s instructions, are necessary if the patient is to be rid of the worms. Washing the hands, keeping fingernails clean, and avoiding finger sucking are all essential.HookwormsHookworms are parasites that live in the small intestine. They are dangerous because they suck blood from the host, causing such a severe anemia (blood deficiency) that the victim becomes sluggish, both physically and mentally. Most victims become susceptible to various chronic infections because of extremely reduced resistance following such a great and continuous blood loss. Hookworms lay thousands of eggs, which are distributed in the soil by contaminated excreta. The eggs develop into small larvae which are able to penetrate the intact skin of bare feet. They enter the blood, and by way of the circulating fluids, the lungs and the upper respiratory tract, finally reach the digestive system. Prevention of this infestation isaccomplished best by the proper disposal of excreta, attention to sanitation, and the wearing of shoes in areas where the soil is contaminated.Other roundwormsWhile most roundworms are transmitted via excreta, the small Trichinella found in pork and other muscle foods is an exception. These tiny round worms become enclosed in a cyst, that is, a sac, inside the muscles of the rat, the pig and man. If pork is not well cooked, these sacs or cysts are dissolved by the host’s digestive juices, and the tiny worms mature and travel to the muscles where they again become encased. This disease is known as trichinosis. Another threadlike worm causes filariasis. This tiny warm is transmitted by such biting insects as flies and mosquitoes. The warms grow in large numbers, causing various body disturbances. If the lymph vessels become clogged by them, there results a condition called elephantiasis in which the lower extremities and the scrotum may become tremendously enlarged. Filariasis is most common in tropical and subtropical lands, such as southern Asia and many of the South Pacific islands.FlatwormsSome flatworms resemble long ribbons, while others have the shape of a leaf. Tapeworms may grow in the intestinal tract to a length of from 5 to 50 feet (1.5 to 15 meters) (see Fig. 2.4). They are spread by infected, improperly cooked meats, including beef, pork and fish. As is the case with most intestinal and worm parasites, the reproductive systems are very highly developed, so that each worm produces an almost unbelievable number of eggs which then may contaminate food, water and soil. The leaf-shaped flatworms are known as flukes; they may invade various parts of the body including the blood, the lungs, the liver and the intestine.Figure 2.4 Tapeworm2.6 Microbial ControlThe Spread of MicroorganismsThere is scarcely a place on earth which is naturally free of microorganisms. One exception is the interior of normal body tissue. But on external body surfaces, on lining membranes and inside tubes and organs that are connected with the outside – such as the mouth, throat, nasal cavities, and large intestine –both harmless and pathogenic microbes live in abundance. The body has natural defenses against these organisms. If these natural defenses are sound, a person may harbor many microbes without ill effect. However, if his resistance becomes lowered, an infection can result.Microbes are spread about through an almost infinite variety of means. The simplest way is by person-to-person contact. The more crowed the conditions, the greater the chances of epidemics breaking out. The atmosphere is a carrier of microorganism. Although microbes cannot fly, the dust of the air is alive with them. In close quarters the atmosphere is further contaminated by bacteria-laden droplets discharged by sneezing, coughing and even normal conversation. Pathogens also are spread by such pets as rats, mice, fleas, lice, flies and mosquitoes. Microbial growth is further abetted by the prevalence of dirt and the lack of sunlight. In slum areas there is often a combination of crowded conditions and poor sanitation. In addition,many of the inhabitants have lowered resistance because of poor nutrition and other undesirable health practices. As a result, epidemics are apt to begin in these districts.Microbes and Public HealthAll civilized societies establish and enforce measures designed to protect the health of their populations. Most of these practices are concerned with preventing the spread of infectious organisms. A few examples of fundamental public health considerations are listed: Sewage and Garbage Disposal. In times past, when people disposed of the household “slops” by the simple expedient of throwing them out the window, great epidemics were inevitable. Modern practice is to divert sewage into processing plant in which harmless bacteria are put to work in destroying the pathogens. The resulting noninfectious “sludge” makes excellent fertilizer.Purification of the Water Supply. Drinking water which has become polluted with untreated sewage may be contaminated with such dangerous pathogens as typhoid bacilli, the viruses of polio and hepatitis, and dysentery amebae. The municipal water supply usually is purified by a filtering process, and a close and constant watch is kept on its microbial population. Industrial and chemical wastes, such as asbestos fibers, acids and detergents from homes as well as from industry, and pesticides used in agriculture complicated the problems of obtaining pure drinking water.Prevention of Food Contamination. Various national, state and local laws all seek to prevent outbreaks of disease through contaminated food. Not only can certain animal diseases (tuberculosis, tularemia) be passed on, but food is a natural breeding place for many dangerous pathogens. Two organisms which cause food poisoning are the rod-shape botulism bacillus (Clostridium botulinum) and the grapelike “staph”(Staphylococcus aureus).Most cities have sanitary regulations requiring, among other things, compulsory periodic inspection of food-handling establishments and medical examination of personnel.Milk Pasteurization. Milk is rendered free of pathogens by pasteurization, a process in which it is heated to 145℉(63℃.) for 30 minutes and then is allowed to cool rapidly before being bottled. Pasteurized milk still contains microbes, but no harmful ones.Sometimes slightly higher temperatures may be used for a shorter time with satisfactory results.Aseptic MethodsIn the practice of medicine, surgery, nursing and other health fields, specialized procedures are performed for the purpose of reducing to a minimum the influence of pathogenic organisms. The word “sepsis” means “poisoning due to pathogens”; asepsis is its opposite: a condition inwhich no pathogens are present. Those procedures which are designed to kill, remove or prevent the growth of microbes are called aseptic methods.There are a number of terms designating aseptic practices, many of which are often confused with one another. Some of the more commonly used terms and their definitions are as follows:Sterilization.To sterilize an object means to kill every living microorganism on it. In operating rooms and delivery rooms especially, as much of the environment is kept sterile as is practicable –for instance, the gowns worn by operating room personnel and the instruments used. The usual sterilization agent is live steam under pressure, or else dry heat. Most pathogens can be killed by exposure to boiling water for four minutes.However –and this is a vitally important fact to remember –a very few types of pathogenic bacteria are armorlike coat. The resulting stage is called a spore. Spores are very difficult to kill. To insure destruction of all spore-forming organisms, the time and temperature for sterilization are much greater than those required to kill most pathogens.Disinfection. Disinfection refers to any measure which kills all pathogens (expect spores), but not necessarily all harmless microbes as well. Most disinfecting agents (disinfectants) are chemical. Examples are iodine and phenol (carbolic acid). Two other terms for bacteria-killing agents, synonymous with disinfectant, are bactericide and germicide.Antisepsis. This term refers to any process in which pathogens are not necessarily killed, but are prevented from multiplying, a state called bacteriostasis. Antiseptics are less powerful than disinfectants.ChemotherapyChemotherapy is the treatment of disease by the administration of chemical substances which kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms within the body. Unlike disinfectants, which cannot be taken into the body without damage to its tissues, chemotherapeutic agents exert what is called a selective action; that is, they act against the parasites without harm to the host. For instance, quinine (made from the bark of a tree) kills the malaria parasite but does not injure the body tissues. A large group of chemotherapeutic agents are the sulfonamide (“sulfa”) compounds, used against a number of disease organisms. Because these drugs can be toxic to the body in some cases, they have been largely superseded by the antibiotics.AntibioticsAn antibiotic is a chemical substance, produced by living cells. It has the power to kill or arrest the growth of pathogenic microorganisms by upsetting vital chemical processes within them. Most antibiotics are derived from molds and soil bacteria. Penicillin, the first widely used antibiotics, is made from a common blue mold, Penicillium. Another large group of antibiotics is produced by Streptomyces, a type of soil bacteria; a well-known example of this group is。
光电英语词汇（D2）_科技英语词汇
diluted colour 非饱和diluted hydrofluoric acid 稀氢氟酸diluted mineral acid 稀无机酸dilution (1)稀释，冲淡(2)稀释度dim 模糊的，暗淡的dim light 微光，弱光dim lisht color photo 微光彩色摄影dimension (1)尺寸(2)量钢(3)维，度dimension limit 尺寸极限dimension scale 尺寸比例尺dimensional analysis 量钢分析dimensional equation 量纲方程dimensional metrology 尺寸测量术dimensional stability 尺寸稳定性dimensionless (1)无量钢的(2)无维的，无度的dimensionless wave number 无量纲波数dimer 二元物；二聚物；双合体dimer laser 双原子激光器，二聚物激光器dimethylsulfoxide 二甲基亚碤diminisher (1)减光器(2)减声器diminsished image 缩小像dimmer (1)遮光器(2)光度调整器dimple (1)波纹(2)表面微凹din color system 德国工业标准彩色系统din spend 德国工业标准感光度diode 二极管diode demodulator 二极管解调器diode image converter 二极管变像器，二极管光电图像变换器diode image tube 二极管摄像管diode laser 二极管激光器diode pump solide-state laser (dpssl)二极体激发式固态雷射diode pumping 二极管抽运diode-array target tv-camera tube 二极管阵列靶电视摄像管diode-pumped miniature solid-stat laser 二极管抽运微型固体激光器diode-triode 二极-三极复合管dioe matrix 二极管矩阵diople-quadrupole interaction 偶极-四极相互作用diopside 透辉石diopter (1)折光度，屈光度(2)瞄准器，照准仪diopter lens 折光透镜，屈光透镜diopter scale 折光标，屈光标diopter sight 折光瞄准具，屈光瞄准具dioptometer 折光度计，屈光度计dioptoscopy 折光测量法dioptra 折光仪，屈光仪dioptre (=diopter)(1)折光度，屈光度(2)瞄准器，照准仪dioptri scale 折光标度，屈光标度dioptric adjkustment ring 折光度调环，屈光度调节环dioptric apparatus 折光仪，屈光仪dioptric glass 折光玻璃，屈光玻dioptric imaging 折射成像dioptric lens 折光透镜，屈光透镜dioptric power (1)折光度，屈光度(2)折光本领，屈光本领dioptric strength 折光度，屈光度dioptric substances 折光材料，屈光材料dioptric system 折光系统，屈光系统dioptric tester 折光度计，屈光度计dioptrical 折光的，屈光的dioptrics 折射光学，屈学dioptrometer 折光度计，屈光度计dioptry 折光度，屈光度dioter ring 折光度调节环，屈光度调节环dioxide 二氧化物dip (1)麻点(2)倾斜度(3)倾角dip circle 磁倾仪dip compass 倾斜测量仪diphase 双相，二相diphenylene naphthalene 联二亚本基奈diploe moment 偶极子矩diploid (1)扁方二十四面体(2)二重的，倍数的diplopia (diplopy)(1)复视(2)双像dipmeter 倾斜测量仪dipolar polarizability 偶极子极化率dipolarity 偶极性dipole (1)二极(2)偶极子dipole absorption 偶极子吸收dipole antenna 偶极天线dipole prolarization 偶极子极化dipole radiation pattern 偶极辐射图样dipole source 偶极子源dipole-dipole broadening 偶极-偶极展宽dipole-quadrupole effecty 偶极-四极效应dipping polish 浸渍抛光dipping refractometer 浸式折射计dipvergence (1)双目垂直角差(2)高低发散差dirac comb function 狄喇克梳状函数dirac delta function 狄喇克函数dirac matrices 狄喇克矩阵dirac-electron wave 狄喇克电子波dirct nuclear pumping 直接核抽运direct calibration 直接校准direct comparison method of measurement 直接比较测量法direct current (d.c)直流电direct current motor 直流电动机direct curretn shumt motor 直流分激电动机direct detection 直接探测direct digital controller (ddc)直接数字控制仪direct duplicating film 真接拷贝direct glare 直照闪光direct indexing 直接分度法direct inlet system 直接输入系统direct insertion probe 直插式探针direct light 直射光direct lighting 直接照明direct measurement 直接测量direct method 直接法direct method of measurement 直接测量法direct modulation 直接调制direct nuclear pumped laser 直接核抽运激光器direct proportaion 正比例direct reading 直接读数，直接读出direct reading mether 直读计direct reading spectrometer 直读分光计direct reflection 直读反射direct transmission 正透射，定向透射direct transmission factor 定向透射系数direct view thermal image tube 直射视式热摄像管direct vision finder 直视取景器direct vision prism 直视棱镜direct vision prisms 直视棱镜direct vision spectroscope 直视分光镜direct wave 直达波direct-detection receiver 直探测接收机direct-fire elbow telescope 指束射击望远刽direct-fire etelescope 指挥射击望远镜direct-indirect transition 直接-间接跃迁direct-positive photographic material 直接正摄材料direct-radio spectrophotometer 正比分光光度计direct-vision spectrograph 直视抏谱仪directed beam 定向光束directed ray 定向射线directing point 基准点direction (1)方向(2)方位direction cosine 方向余弦direction finder (1)探向器(2)无线电罗盘direction fluctuation 方向起伏directiona diffuseness 定向漫射directional antenna 定向天线directional coupler 定向耦合器directional emissivity 定向发射率directional emittance 定向发射度directional focusing 指向聚焦directional reflectance 定向反射比directionality (1)方向性(2)定向性directionality effect 定向效应directionless 无方向的directivity (1)方向性(2)定向性，指向性directon theodolite 方向经纬仪director 导向器，指挥仪director telescope 导向望远镜directrix 准线direichlet series 狄利克雷级数diretpath 直接路径dirivig member 传动构件，主动构件diriving infrared binoculars 夜行车用红外双筒望远镜dirt 污物，灰尘dirt optics 不洁光学装置dirt spot 污点disability glare 致残闪光disalignment (1)失中(2)失调disappearing-filament optical pyrometer 隐丝光学高温计disc (1)盘，圆盘(2)磁盘(3)研磨盘(4)斑disc cam 盘形凸轮disc laser 圆盘形激光器disc of confusion 弥散斑disc storage 磁盘存储器disc type shutter 圆盘快门discerning method 分辨法，鉴别法discernment (1)分辨(2)分辨力discharge (1)释放(2)放电discharge chamber 放电室discharge current noise 放电流噪声discharge excited 放电激发的discharge tube 放电管discharger (1)放电器(2)火花隙discoloration 褪色，去色disconnection 分开，断开，断路discontinuity (1)不连续性(2)突变性(3)突变点discontinuous wave 非连续波discrete (1)分立的(2)离散的discrete channel 离散信道discrete component 分立元件discrete distribution 离散分布discrete energy state 分立能态discrete fourier transform 离散傅里叶变换discrete maximum principle 离散最大值原理discrete message 离散信息discrete mode spectrum 离散模谱discrete picture 离散图像discrete random process 离散随权过程discrete signal 离散信号discrete source 离散信源discrete spectrum 离散谱discrete value 分立值discrete-carrier hologram 离散载体全息图discretely tunable infrared laser 不连续可调红外激光器discreteness (1)分位性(2)离散性discriminablility (1)鉴别力(2)鉴频能力discriminant 判别式discrimination error 鉴别误差discrimination of brightness 亮度鉴别discrimination threshold 鉴别阈discriminator (1)鉴别器(2)鉴频器disdropmeter 示滴仪dish (1)盘(2)盘状物dish aerials 盘式天线disilicon trioxide 三氧化二硅disintegration 蜕变disintegratoor 粉碎机disk (=disc)(1)盘，圆盘(2)磁盘(3)研磨盘(4)斑disk-annulus pattern 圆环状图样dislocation (1)位移(2)位错dislocation density 位错密度dislocation theory 位错理论dislocation-free 无位错disorder 无序，不规则disordered thin film 无序薄膜disorientation 乱取向dispersing prism 色散棱镜dispersing reflector 色散反射器dispersing resonator 色散共振腔dispersing spectromodulator 色散光谱调制器dispersing-type spectroradiometer 色散型光谱辐射计dispersion (1)色散，频散(2)弥散dispersion angle 色散角dispersion conefficient 色散系数dispersion curve 色散曲线dispersion electron 致色散电子dispersion force 弥散力dispersion gradient 色散陡度dispersion law (1)色散律(2)离散定的dispersion line 色散谱线dispersion spectrum 色散光谱dispersion-shifted fiber 色散位移光纤dispersionless 无色散的dispersity (1)色散度(2)弥散度dispersive 色散的dispersive delay line 色散延迟线dispersive laser cavity 色激光共振腔dispersive medium 色散媒质dispersive modulator 色调制器dispersive optical maser 色散光学微波激射器dispersive optical system 色散光学系统dispersive power (1)色散本顉(2)色散率dispersive pspectrometer 色散分光计dispersiveness 分散性dispersoid 弥散体dispersor 色散器displacement (1)位移(2)排出量displacement bar 偏移指示器displacement current 位移电流displacement graticule 位移分划板displacement target 位移目标display 显示，指示，显像display device 显示装置，显像装置display file 显示文件display lamp 指示灯display optical film 显示器用光学膜display panel 显示板display-storage ballast 显示存储管display-storage tube 显示存储管disposition (1)配置，布置，安排(2)倾向disproportion (1)不均衡，不相称(2)不成比例disruption (1)破坏，破裂(2)击穿dissceting microscope 解剖显微镜disscetor 析像管dissection (1)解剖(2)分析dissection image tube 析像管dissemination (1)弥散(2)散逸，扩散(3)散射dissipation (1)耗散，消耗，散逸(2)弥散，散射dissipation loss 耗散损失，散射损失dissipation region (1)耗散区域，弥散区域(2)散射范围dissociation 离解，分解dissociative excitation 离解激发dissolubility 溶解度dissolution 溶解dissolve (1)溶(2)图像渐隐dissolvent 溶剂dissolver 溶解装置，溶解器disstortion-meter 畸变计dissymmetric 不对称的dissymmetry factor 不对称因子distance (1)距离(2)远距离distance cathode 远距阴极distance control 遥控distance of distinct vision 明视距离distance scale 距离尺标distance-lens 远视透镜distance-measuring theodolite 测距经纬仪distant control 遥控distant shot 远摄，远景distant view photograph 全景照片，远景照片distillatio (1)蒸馏(2)蒸镀distillation film 蒸镀薄膜distilled water 蒸馏水distinctness (1)差别(2)清晰度distinot vision 明晰视觉distometer 测距计distorition 畸变distorted lattice 畸变点阵distorted wave 畸变波distortion factor 畸变因数distortionless 无畸变的distortionless telephoto objective 无畸变远摄物镜distributed bragg reflector 分布布拉格反射器distributed circuit 分布电路distributed feedback 分布反馈distributed feedback laser 分布反馈激光器distributed paramp 分布参量放大器distributed-feedback dye laser 分布反馈染料激光器distributed-feedback semiconductor laser 分布反馈半导体激光器distribution (1)分配(2)分布(3)配电distribution board 配电盘distribution photometer 分布光度计distributor (1)配电盘(2)分配器distributor case (1)分配箱(2)配电箱distroted spectrum 畸变谱disturbace resolution 扰动分辨率，干扰分辨率disturbance (1)扰动，干扰(2)摄动dit 小沙眼ditance finder 测距计ditertragonal prism 复正方柱核镜ditertrahedron 双四面体ditetragon 双四边形ditrigon 双三角形ditrigonal prism 复三角柱棱镜diurnal variation 周日变化divalent 二价的divalent ion 二价离子diveded-circle 度盘仪器divergence (divergency)(1)散度(2)发散度(3)发散divergent (1)发散的(2)辐散的divergent beam 发散光束divergent lenses 发散透镜divergent mirror 发散镜divergent pencil of rays 发散光束divergent wave 发散波divergent-beam photography 发散光束摄影术divergent0meniscus lens 弯月形发散透镜diverging light 发散光diverging ocular 发散圆镜diverging wave 发散波diversion 转向，转换，转移diversity (1)相异性，多样性(2)分集diverter (1)分流器(2)分流电阻divided circle 圆度盘，刻度盘divided scale 被除数divided-circle instrument 分液显影dividend (1)分压器(2)除法器(3)双脚规，分线规divider 圆规，分规divider salipers (1)分度(2)分度法(3)除dividing 分度盘dividing dial 分度盘dividing disc 分度机，刻度机dividing engine 分度头dividing head 分度键dividing key 分度盘dividing plate 航差指示器，偏差计divieded development 分划尺，刻度尺diviometer (1)刻度(2)等分(3)除法division of amplitude 除数divison 分振辐法divisord 型镜头头dizao (1)重氮(2)重氮dizazo process 重氮照相法dlp digital light processing 数位光源处理器dmd digital micromirror device 数位微镜装置dmensionality 维度dobule-discharge technique 双放电技术document scanner 十二面体documentary film 纪录片摄影术documentary photography (1)文件扫描器(2)文件扫描程序dodechedron 遮光dodging dog (1)止块(2)小型制动机构dog clutch 抓形离合器dolly 摄影机移动车dolly on 推摄，近摄dolly out 拉摄，远摄dolomite glass 白云石玻离domain (1)畴(2)域domain of definiton 定义域domain of dependence 依赖域dome (1)圆顶盖，半球形(2)罩(3)玻面dome director 圆顶指示器dome nut 圆盖螺母dome reflector 穷面反射器dome slot 圆形糟，半球形缝dominant wave 主波dominant wvelenght 主波长domination 支配，控制donaldson colorimeter 唐纳森色度计donor 施主donor element 施主元素donor impurity 施主杂质donor impurity level 施主杂质能级donor molecule 施主分子donor site 施主能级donor-acceptor pair 施主-受主对donut (1)环形室(2)环形真空罩dopant 掺质，掺杂剂doped glass 掺杂玻璃doped single crystal 掺杂单品doping 掺杂doping accuracy 掺杂精度doping density 掺杂密度doping gradient 掺杂陡度doppler accuracy 多普勒精度doppler broadening 多普勒增宽，多普勒展宽doppler direction finder 多普勒效应定向仪doppler effect 多普勒效应定向仪doppler frequency 多普勒频率doppler half-width 多普勒半宽doppler line shape 多普勒线形doppler linewidth 多普勒线形doppler profile 多普勒剖面doppler q switching 多普勒q 开关doppler radar 多普勒雷达doppler shift 多普勒频移doppler spectrum 多普勒频谱doppler velocimeter 多普勒速度计doppler width 多普勒宽度doppler-broadened laser transition 多普勒展宽激光跃迁doppler-fizeau effect 多普勒-菲索效应doppler-free spectrocopy 无多普勒光谱学doppler-free two-photon spectroscopy 无多普勒双光子光谱学doppler-shifted reflection 多普勒频移反射doran 多普勒测距系统dorsal view 背视图dosage 剂量dose 剂量dose meter (dosimeter)剂量计dosimetry 剂量测定法dot beamsplitter 点式射束分离器，点式分束器dot formation 网点形成dot pattern 光点图，点图样dot product 点积dot raster character generator 点阵法字符产生器dot reproduction 网点再现dot-shaded line 点影线dotted line 虚线doubel image eyepiece 双像目镜doubel water glass 双料水玻璃doubel-gauss goniometer 双向测角仪doubel-gauss objective 双高斯型物镜doubel-resonance 双共振double anastigmat 消像散双镜组double beam interferometer 双光速干涉差double beam microspectrophotometer 双光束显微分光光度计double beam photometer 光束光度计double beam photometers 复光束光度计，复光束量测器double calcite plate 双方解石片double concave 双凹的double convex 双凸的double crucible 复式坩埚，双层坩埚double crystal spectrography 双晶摄谱仪double discharge initiated hf laser 双放电引发hf 激光器double doughunt laser 双圈激光器double eccentric connector 双偏心连托器double elliptical cavity 双椭圆共振腔double exposure device 两次曝光装置double exposure holographic interferometry 两次曝光全息干涉量度计，双曝光全息干涉法double exposure prevented device 防止重拍机构double extra dense flint 双超重火石玻璃double focusing 双聚焦double frequency 倍频，双频double half-wave filter 双半波滤光片double heecojunction laser 双异质结激光器double helical gear 人字齿轮double helical tooth 人字齿double image 双像double image micrometer 双像测微器double image ocular 双像目镜double image prism 双像棱镜double image range finder 双像测距仪double integral 二重积分double layer 双层double lens magnifier 双透镜放大镜double mirror 双面反射镜double pass planar dye laser amplifier 双程平面染料激光放大器double prism field glass 双棱镜望远镜double protractor 双斜量角器double pulse excitation 双脉冲激励double pulsing 双脉冲double quartz prism spectroradiometer 双石英棱镜光谱辐射计double reflection 双反射double refracting crystal 双折射晶体double refraction 双折射double samping inspetion plan 复式抽样检查方案double scattering 双散射double sided angle-reading system 双向读角系统double sighting error 二倍照准误仪double star 双星double stratum 双层double thread 双头螺纹double vernier 复游标double vision 双视double-beam densitometer 双光束密度计double-beam polarizer 双光束偏振器double-center theodolite 复合经纬仪double-crystal diffractometer 双晶衍射计double-crystal spectrometer 双晶分光计double-directional focusing 双向聚焦double-discharge stabilization 双放电稳定double-doped laser 双掺激光器double-dove scan prism 双道威扫描棱镜，立方扫描棱镜double-exposed hologram (1)两曝光全息图(2)两次曝光全息照片double-exposure holography 两次曝光全息术double-exposure inteferometry 两次曝光干涉法double-fine structure 双重线精细结构double-focus interferometer 双焦点干涉仪double-focusing mass spectrometer 双聚焦质谱仪double-folded astigmatically compensated optical cavity 双折光式像散光学共振腔double-gauss derivatives 双高斯型物镜变型double-gauss lenses 双高斯透镜double-heterostructure 双异质结构double-heterostructure injection laser 双异质结构注入式激光器double-humped 双峰double-humped wave 双峰波double-pass monochromator 双程单色器double-pass spectrometer 双程分光计double-pivoted type 双轴尖式double-pulsed flash lamp 双脉冲闪光灯double-pulsed time 双脉冲间隔double-purpose camera 两用照相机double-slit interferometer 双缝干涉仪double-threaded screw 双头螺旋double-thrust bearing 对向推力轴承，对向止推轴承double-wedge 菱形的，双楔形的doublem\-beam spectrophotometer 双光束分光光度计doubler 倍频器doublet (1)双重线(2)偶极天线(3)双合透镜(4)偶极子doublet interval 双线间隔doubly charged ion 双倍带电离子doubly clad optical fiber 双包层光纤维doubly clad wavegudie 双包层波导doubly diffuse density (1)双漫射密度(2)双散射密度doubly refracting crystal 双折射晶体doubly resonance (1)双共振(2)双共呜doubly resonant oscillator 双共振振荡器doubly resonant parametric oscillator 双共振参量振荡器doubly-dispersed spectrum 两次色散光谱doubly-excited levels 双重受激能级doughnut-shaped flash lamp 环形闪光灯doughunt (1)环形室(2)环形真空罩dove prism 道威棱镜dovetail (1)燕尾(2)楔形准dovetail groove 燕尾槽dovetail guide 燕尾道轨dovetail slide 燕尾滑板dovetailed way 燕尾导轨dovetailing 燕尾连接dowel [pin] (1)定缝销钉，暗钉(2)木钉(3)定位销dowell interferometer 多威耳干涉仪down shot 俯瞰摄影down-coming wave 下射波down-conversion 下转换，降频转换down-converter (down-convertor)下换器，降频转换器draft (1)草图(2)草案draft equipment 绘图设备drafter 制图机械drafting 制图drafting board 制图板，绘图板drafting scale 制图尺，绘图尺drag 曳力，阻力drag coefficient 电力系数drag detector 曳力测定器drain (1)消耗(2)漏极drain current 漏电流draw power 抽拉功率，抽运功率drawbar (1)拉杆(2)挂钩drawer shutter 瓣式快门drawing (1)抽，拉，压延(2)牵引(3)提取(4)回火(5)绘图drawing apparatus 描绘器，绘图器drawing machine 制图机，绘图机drawplate 拉模反dresser 整形器，修正器dressing 整形，修整drier (1)干燥剂(2)燥形器，烘箱drift (1)漂移(2)偏差drift coefficient 漂移系数drift mobility 漂移迁移率drift region 漂移区域drift velocity 漂移速度drill (1)钻头(2)钻床drill gauge 钻径规drill press 钻床driller 钻床drilling 钻孔drilling machine 钻床drive (1)驾驶(2)传动，驱动，起动(3)激励(4)传体装置，驱动装置drive axle (1)传体轴(2)主动轴drive circuit 驱动电路drive fit 紧配合drive pinion 传动小齿轮driven 被动的，从动的driven gear 被动齿轮，从动齿轮driven sweep 致动扫描driver 传动器，激光器，激励器driver ic 显示面板用驱动ic driverscpe 驾驶仪drivign belt 传动皮带drivign frequency 驱动频率driving (1)传动，驱动(2)激厉(3)主动的driving band 传动带driving current 驱体电流driving gear (1)传动齿轮(2)主动齿轮driving oscillator 主控振荡器driving power 驱动功率driving spindle (1)传动轴(2)主动轴drone (1)遥控无人驾驶飞机(2)靶机droop 下垂，低垂drop (1)滴(2)下落，降落droplet (1)微滴(2)飞沫droplet interfermetry 微滴干涉测量法dropout (1)脱落(2)遗失信息dropper (1)滴管(2)挂钩drum (1)鼓，鼓形物(2)磁鼓(3)鼓轮(4)滚筒(5)绕线架drum cam 凸轮轴，凸轮鼓drum camera 鼓轮摄影机drum dial 鼓形刻度盘，刻度鼓drum lens 鼓形透镜，drum reading 测微鼓读数drum scanner 鼓形扫描设备drum storage 磁鼓存储器drunkenness error 缧纹导程周期误差dry battery 乾电池组dry cell 乾电池dry lens 乾式透镜dry objective 乾式物镜dry photopolymer film 乾式光聚合薄膜dry-ic 乾冰dryer (1)乾燥器(2)乾燥剂dryness 乾燥度dt target 氘氚靶dtl diode-transistor logic 二极体电晶体逻辑dtr process (diffusion transfer reversal process)扩散转移反转法dual (1)二的(2)双重的(3)对偶的dual beam interferometer 双光束干涉仪dual flank gear rolling tester 双面啮合齿轮检查仪dual frequency dye laser 双频染料激光器dual lattice 倒易点阵dual lens 双透镜dual mode coding 对偶式编碥dual-cavity laser 双腔激光器dual-grating spectrography 双光栅摄谱仪dual-polarization 双偏振，双极化dual-polarization laser 双偏振激光器dual-polarization oscillation 双偏擃荡dual-polarized ring laser 偏振环形激光器dual-seatter laser velocimeter 双重散射激光测速计dual-trace oscillograph 双线示波器dualism 二像性duality (1)二象性(2)二重性(3)对偶性(4)二元性duantd 形盘ducon 配合器，接合器duct 导管ductility (1)延性(2)柔软性ductiny 输送dull dullness (1)钝的(2)黯淡(3)模糊的dummy (1)钝度(2)黯淡(3)模糊dummy load (1)虚设物，伪装物(2)伪程序(3)假人dumper 假负载，仿真负载，等效负载dumper mirror 倒空器dumping 定镜dumpy level 倒空器duo-binary system 定镜准准仪duodeno-fiberscope 十二进制的duodiode 十二指肠纤维束内窥镜duojdecimal 双二进制duolaser 双二极管，孪二极管duple 双激光器duplex 二倍的，二重的duplicate (1)双的，二重的，复式的(2)双工的(3)双向的duplicate test (1)二重的，双联的(2)副本duplicating film 重覆测试duplication 底片durability (1)加倍(2)重覆(2)复制duralumin 耐久性，持久性duration 硬铝，杜拉铝duration of exciting 期间，持续时间duration of vision 激发持续时间durometer 视觉暂留dust 硬度计dust cap 防尘盖，防尘罩dust chamber 除尘室dust chatcher 吸尘器，集尘器dust cleaner 除尘器dust clollector 吸尘器，集尘器dust counter 尘量计dust cover 防罩dust guard 防尘dust ring 防尘圈dust-free 无尘的dust-free area 无尘区，防尘区dust-proof (1)防尘的(2)防尘器duster 除尘器duty cycle 负载循环duty factor (1)占空因数(2)负载因数dvd-rom drivesdvd-rom 光碟机dvd-romsdvd-rom 光碟片dwdm 高密度光分波多工器dwdm dense wavelength division multiplexer 高密度波长多工器dwell (1)同心部份(2)停止(3)静态dye 染料，染色dye(flash lamp pumped)lasers 染料雷射(闪光灯激发)dye(laser pumped)lasers 染料雷射(雷射激发)dye cell 染料盖dye doped polyurethane film 染料聚氨鲁膜片dye laser 染料激光器dye laser densitemetry 染料激光器显测密度术dye laser spectroscoppy 染料激光光谱学dye q-switching 染料q 开关dye sensitized photoconductor 染料敏化光导体dye vapor fluorescence 染料蒸气发光dye-gelatine filter 染色明胶滤色片dye-laser quenching 染料激光器犴灭dye-saturable absorber 染料饱和吸收器dye-sensitized 染色敏化的dyed glue process 染胶法dyestuff 染料dyhexagonal prism 复六方柱棱镜dyn 达因dynameter 倍率计dynamic (1)动力的(2)动力学(3)动态的dynamic balancer 动平衡器dynamic balnce 动平衡，动力平衡，动力均衡dynamic beam apodization 动态光束切趾dynamic equilibrium 动平衡，动态平衡dynamic error 动态误差dynamic fm conttrol 动力调频控制dynamic focusing 动态聚焦dynamic imaging 动态成像dynamic laser (1)动态激光器(2)气体激光器dynamic laser speckle 动态激散斑dynamic range 动态范围dynamic storage 动态存储dynamics 动力学dynamo 直流发电机dynamometer (1)测力计(2)功率计dynamotor 电动发电机dynaquad 三端开关器件dynatron 负阻管dynemeter 达因计dynode 倍增电极dynotron 超高频振荡三极管dyscrystalline 不良结晶质dyson interference microscope 达桑干涉显微镜dysprosium (dy)镝dysprosium laser 镝激光器dyssophotic 弱光的dytetragonal prism 复正方柱棱镜。
Game Theory 2
GAME THEORYThomas S.Ferguson Part II.Two-Person Zero-Sum Games1.The Strategic Form of a Game.1.1Strategic Form.1.2Example:Odd or Even.1.3Pure Strategies and Mixed Strategies.1.4The Minimax Theorem.1.5Exercises.2.Matrix Games.Domination.2.1Saddle Points.2.2Solution of All2by2Matrix Games.2.3Removing Dominated Strategies.2.4Solving2×n and m×2Games.2.5Latin Square Games.2.6Exercises.3.The Principle of Indifference.3.1The Equilibrium Theorem.3.2Nonsingular Game Matrices.3.3Diagonal Games.3.4Triangular Games.3.5Symmetric Games.3.6Invariance.3.7Exercises.4.Solving Finite Games.4.1Best Responses.4.2Upper and Lower Values of a Game.4.3Invariance Under Change of Location and Scale.4.4Reduction to a Linear Programming Problem.4.5Description of the Pivot Method for Solving Games.4.6A Numerical Example.4.7Exercises.5.The Extensive Form of a Game.5.1The Game Tree.5.2Basic Endgame in Poker.5.3The Kuhn Tree.5.4The Representation of a Strategic Form Game in Extensive Form.5.5Reduction of a Game in Extensive Form to Strategic Form.5.6Example.5.7Games of Perfect Information.5.8Behavioral Strategies.5.9Exercises.6.Recursive and Stochastic Games.6.1Matrix Games with Games as Components.6.2Multistage Games.6.3Recursive Games. -Optimal Strategies.6.4Stochastic Movement Among Games.6.5Stochastic Games.6.6Approximating the Solution.6.7Exercises.7.Continuous Poker Models.7.1La Relance.7.2The von Neumann Model.7.3Other Models.7.4Exercises.References.Part II.Two-Person Zero-Sum Games1.The Strategic Form of a Game.The individual most closely associated with the creation of the theory of games is John von Neumann,one of the greatest mathematicians of this century.Although others preceded him in formulating a theory of games-notably´Emile Borel-it was von Neumann who published in1928the paper that laid the foundation for the theory of two-person zero-sum games.Von Neumann’s work culminated in a fundamental book on game theory written in collaboration with Oskar Morgenstern entitled Theory of Games and Economic Behavior,1944.Other more current books on the theory of games may be found in the text book,Game Theory by Guillermo Owen,2nd edition,Academic Press,1982,and the expository book,Game Theory and Strategy by Philip D.Straffin,published by the Mathematical Association of America,1993.The theory of von Neumann and Morgenstern is most complete for the class of games called two-person zero-sum games,i.e.games with only two players in which one player wins what the other player loses.In Part II,we restrict attention to such games.We will refer to the players as Player I and Player II.1.1Strategic Form.The simplest mathematical description of a game is the strate-gic form,mentioned in the introduction.For a two-person zero-sum game,the payofffunction of Player II is the negative of the payoffof Player I,so we may restrict attention to the single payofffunction of Player I,which we call here L.Definition1.The strategic form,or normal form,of a two-person zero-sum game is given by a triplet(X,Y,A),where(1)X is a nonempty set,the set of strategies of Player I(2)Y is a nonempty set,the set of strategies of Player II(3)A is a real-valued function defined on X×Y.(Thus,A(x,y)is a real number for every x∈X and every y∈Y.)The interpretation is as follows.Simultaneously,Player I chooses x∈X and Player II chooses y∈Y,each unaware of the choice of the other.Then their choices are made known and I wins the amount A(x,y)from II.Depending on the monetary unit involved, A(x,y)will be cents,dollars,pesos,beads,etc.If A is negative,I pays the absolute value of this amount to II.Thus,A(x,y)represents the winnings of I and the losses of II.This is a very simple definition of a game;yet it is broad enough to encompass the finite combinatorial games and games such as tic-tac-toe and chess.This is done by being sufficiently broadminded about the definition of a strategy.A strategy for a game of chess,for example,is a complete description of how to play the game,of what move to make in every possible situation that could occur.It is rather time-consuming to write down even one strategy,good or bad,for the game of chess.However,several different programs for instructing a machine to play chess well have been written.Each program constitutes one strategy.The program Deep Blue,that beat then world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a match in1997,represents one strategy.The set of all such strategies for Player I is denoted by X.Naturally,in the game of chess it is physically impossible to describe all possible strategies since there are too many;in fact,there are more strategies than there are atoms in the known universe.On the other hand,the number of games of tic-tac-toe is rather small,so that it is possible to study all strategies andfind an optimal strategy for each ter,when we study the extensive form of a game,we will see that many other types of games may be modeled and described in strategic form.To illustrate the notions involved in games,let us consider the simplest non-trivial case when both X and Y consist of two elements.As an example,take the game called Odd-or-Even.1.2Example:Odd or Even.Players I and II simultaneously call out one of the numbers one or two.Player I’s name is Odd;he wins if the sum of the numbers if odd. Player II’s name is Even;she wins if the sum of the numbers is even.The amount paid to the winner by the loser is always the sum of the numbers in dollars.To put this game in strategic form we must specify X,Y and A.Here we may choose X={1,2},Y={1,2}, and A as given in the following table.II(even)yI(odd)x12 1−2+3 2+3−4A(x,y)=I’s winnings=II’s losses.It turns out that one of the players has a distinct advantage in this game.Can you tell which one it is?Let us analyze this game from Player I’s point of view.Suppose he calls‘one’3/5ths of the time and‘two’2/5ths of the time at random.In this case,1.If II calls‘one’,I loses2dollars3/5ths of the time and wins3dollars2/5ths of the time;on the average,he wins−2(3/5)+3(2/5)=0(he breaks even in the long run).2.If II call‘two’,I wins3dollars3/5ths of the time and loses4dollars2/5ths of the time; on the average he wins3(3/5)−4(2/5)=1/5.That is,if I mixes his choices in the given way,the game is even every time II calls ‘one’,but I wins20/c on the average every time II calls‘two’.By employing this simple strategy,I is assured of at least breaking even on the average no matter what II does.Can Player Ifix it so that he wins a positive amount no matter what II calls?Let p denote the proportion of times that Player I calls‘one’.Let us try to choose p so that Player I wins the same amount on the average whether II calls‘one’or‘two’.Then since I’s average winnings when II calls‘one’is−2p+3(1−p),and his average winnings when II calls‘two’is3p−4(1−p)Player I should choose p so that−2p+3(1−p)=3p−4(1−p)3−5p=7p−412p=7p=7/12.Hence,I should call‘one’with probability7/12,and‘two’with probability5/12.On theaverage,I wins−2(7/12)+3(5/12)=1/12,or813cents every time he plays the game,nomatter what II does.Such a strategy that produces the same average winnings no matter what the opponent does is called an equalizing strategy.Therefore,the game is clearly in I’s favor.Can he do better than813cents per gameon the average?The answer is:Not if II plays properly.In fact,II could use the same procedure:call‘one’with probability7/12call‘two’with probability5/12.If I calls‘one’,II’s average loss is−2(7/12)+3(5/12)=1/12.If I calls‘two’,II’s average loss is3(7/12)−4(5/12)=1/12.Hence,I has a procedure that guarantees him at least1/12on the average,and II has a procedure that keeps her average loss to at most1/12.1/12is called the value of the game,and the procedure each uses to insure this return is called an optimal strategy or a minimax strategy.If instead of playing the game,the players agree to call in an arbitrator to settle thisconflict,it seems reasonable that the arbitrator should require II to pay813cents to I.ForI could argue that he should receive at least813cents since his optimal strategy guaranteeshim that much on the average no matter what II does.On the other hand II could arguethat he should not have to pay more than813cents since she has a strategy that keeps heraverage loss to at most that amount no matter what I does.1.3Pure Strategies and Mixed Strategies.It is useful to make a distinction between a pure strategy and a mixed strategy.We refer to elements of X or Y as pure strategies.The more complex entity that chooses among the pure strategies at random in various proportions is called a mixed strategy.Thus,I’s optimal strategy in the game of Odd-or-Even is a mixed strategy;it mixes the pure strategies one and two with probabilities 7/12and5/12respectively.Of course every pure strategy,x∈X,can be considered as the mixed strategy that chooses the pure strategy x with probability1.In our analysis,we made a rather subtle assumption.We assumed that when a player uses a mixed strategy,he is only interested in his average return.He does not care about hismaximum possible winnings or losses—only the average.This is actually a rather drastic assumption.We are evidently assuming that a player is indifferent between receiving5 million dollars outright,and receiving10million dollars with probability1/2and nothing with probability1/2.I think nearly everyone would prefer the$5,000,000outright.This is because the utility of having10megabucks is not twice the utility of having5megabucks.The main justification for this assumption comes from utility theory and is treated in Appendix1.The basic premise of utility theory is that one should evaluate a payoffby its utility to the player rather than on its numerical monetary value.Generally a player’s utility of money will not be linear in the amount.The main theorem of utility theory states that under certain reasonable assumptions,a player’s preferences among outcomes are consistent with the existence of a utility function and the player judges an outcome only on the basis of the average utility of the outcome.However,utilizing utility theory to justify the above assumption raises a new difficulty. Namely,the two players may have different utility functions.The same outcome may be perceived in quite different ways.This means that the game is no longer zero-sum.We need an assumption that says the utility functions of two players are the same(up to change of location and scale).This is a rather strong assumption,but for moderate to small monetary amounts,we believe it is a reasonable one.A mixed strategy may be implemented with the aid of a suitable outside random mechanism,such as tossing a coin,rolling dice,drawing a number out of a hat and so on.The seconds indicator of a watch provides a simple personal method of randomization provided it is not used too frequently.For example,Player I of Odd-or-Even wants an outside random event with probability7/12to implement his optimal strategy.Since 7/12=35/60,he could take a quick glance at his watch;if the seconds indicator showed a number between0and35,he would call‘one’,while if it were between35and60,he would call‘two’.1.4The Minimax Theorem.A two-person zero-sum game(X,Y,A)is said to be afinite game if both strategy sets X and Y arefinite sets.The fundamental theorem of game theory due to von Neumann states that the situation encountered in the game of Odd-or-Even holds for allfinite two-person zero-sum games.Specifically,The Minimax Theorem.For everyfinite two-person zero-sum game,(1)there is a number V,called the value of the game,(2)there is a mixed strategy for Player I such that I’s average gain is at least V no matter what II does,and(3)there is a mixed strategy for Player II such that II’s average loss is at most V no matter what I does.This is one form of the minimax theorem to be stated more precisely and discussed in greater depth later.If V is zero we say the game is fair.If V is positive,we say the game favors Player I,while if V is negative,we say the game favors Player II.1.5Exercises.1.Consider the game of Odd-or-Even with the sole change that the loser pays the winner the product,rather than the sum,of the numbers chosen(who wins still depends on the sum).Find the table for the payofffunction A,and analyze the game tofind the value and optimal strategies of the players.Is the game fair?2.Player I holds a black Ace and a red8.Player II holds a red2and a black7.The players simultaneously choose a card to play.If the chosen cards are of the same color, Player I wins.Player II wins if the cards are of different colors.The amount won is a number of dollars equal to the number on the winner’s card(Ace counts as1.)Set up the payofffunction,find the value of the game and the optimal mixed strategies of the players.3.Sherlock Holmes boards the train from London to Dover in an effort to reach the continent and so escape from Professor Moriarty.Moriarty can take an express train and catch Holmes at Dover.However,there is an intermediate station at Canterbury at which Holmes may detrain to avoid such a disaster.But of course,Moriarty is aware of this too and may himself stop instead at Canterbury.Von Neumann and Morgenstern(loc.cit.) estimate the value to Moriarty of these four possibilities to be given in the following matrix (in some unspecified units).HolmesMoriartyCanterbury Dover Canterbury100−50 Dover0100What are the optimal strategies for Holmes and Moriarty,and what is the value?(His-torically,as related by Dr.Watson in“The Final Problem”in Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Memoires of Sherlock Holmes,Holmes detrained at Canterbury and Moriarty went on to Dover.)4.The entertaining book The Compleat Strategyst by John Williams contains many simple examples and informative discussion of strategic form games.Here is one of his problems.“I know a good game,”says Alex.“We pointfingers at each other;either onefinger or twofingers.If we match with onefinger,you buy me one Daiquiri,If we match with twofingers,you buy me two Daiquiris.If we don’t match I letyou offwith a payment of a dime.It’ll help pass the time.”Olaf appears quite unmoved.“That sounds like a very dull game—at least in its early stages.”His eyes glaze on the ceiling for a moment and his lipsflutterbriefly;he returns to the conversation with:“Now if you’d care to pay me42cents before each game,as a partial compensation for all those55-cent drinks I’llhave to buy you,then I’d be happy to pass the time with you.Olaf could see that the game was inherently unfair to him so he insisted on a side payment as compensation.Does this side payment make the game fair?What are the optimal strategies and the value of the game?2.Matrix Games —DominationA finite two-person zero-sum game in strategic form,(X,Y,A ),is sometimes called a matrix game because the payofffunction A can be represented by a matrix.If X ={x 1,...,x m }and Y ={y 1,...,y n },then by the game matrix or payoffmatrix we mean the matrix A =⎛⎝a 11···a 1n ......a m 1···a mn⎞⎠where a ij =A (x i ,y j ),In this form,Player I chooses a row,Player II chooses a column,and II pays I the entry in the chosen row and column.Note that the entries of the matrix are the winnings of the row chooser and losses of the column chooser.A mixed strategy for Player I may be represented by an m -tuple,p =(p 1,p 2,...,p m )of probabilities that add to 1.If I uses the mixed strategy p =(p 1,p 2,...,p m )and II chooses column j ,then the (average)payoffto I is m i =1p i a ij .Similarly,a mixed strategy for Player II is an n -tuple q =(q 1,q 2,...,q n ).If II uses q and I uses row i the payoffto I is n j =1a ij q j .More generally,if I uses the mixed strategy p and II uses the mixed strategy q ,the (average)payoffto I is p T Aq = m i =1 n j =1p i a ij q j .Note that the pure strategy for Player I of choosing row i may be represented as the mixed strategy e i ,the unit vector with a 1in the i th position and 0’s elsewhere.Similarly,the pure strategy for II of choosing the j th column may be represented by e j .In the following,we shall be attempting to ‘solve’games.This means finding the value,and at least one optimal strategy for each player.Occasionally,we shall be interested in finding all optimal strategies for a player.2.1Saddle points.Occasionally it is easy to solve the game.If some entry a ij of the matrix A has the property that(1)a ij is the minimum of the i th row,and(2)a ij is the maximum of the j th column,then we say a ij is a saddle point.If a ij is a saddle point,then Player I can then win at least a ij by choosing row i ,and Player II can keep her loss to at most a ij by choosing column j .Hence a ij is the value of the game.Example 1.A =⎛⎝41−3325016⎞⎠The central entry,2,is a saddle point,since it is a minimum of its row and maximum of its column.Thus it is optimal for I to choose the second row,and for II to choose the second column.The value of the game is 2,and (0,1,0)is an optimal mixed strategy for both players.For large m ×n matrices it is tedious to check each entry of the matrix to see if it has the saddle point property.It is easier to compute the minimum of each row and the maximum of each column to see if there is a match.Here is an example of the method.row min A =⎛⎜⎝3210012010213122⎞⎟⎠0001col max 3222row min B =⎛⎜⎝3110012010213122⎞⎟⎠0001col max 3122In matrix A ,no row minimum is equal to any column maximum,so there is no saddle point.However,if the 2in position a 12were changed to a 1,then we have matrix B .Here,the minimum of the fourth row is equal to the maximum of the second column;so b 42is a saddle point.2.2Solution of All 2by 2Matrix Games.Consider the general 2×2game matrix A = a b d c.To solve this game (i.e.to find the value and at least one optimal strategy for each player)we proceed as follows.1.Test for a saddle point.2.If there is no saddle point,solve by finding equalizing strategies.We now prove the method of finding equalizing strategies of Section 1.2works when-ever there is no saddle point by deriving the value and the optimal strategies.Assume there is no saddle point.If a ≥b ,then b <c ,as otherwise b is a saddle point.Since b <c ,we must have c >d ,as otherwise c is a saddle point.Continuing thus,we see that d <a and a >b .In other words,if a ≥b ,then a >b <c >d <a .By symmetry,if a ≤b ,then a <b >c <d >a .This shows thatIf there is no saddle point,then either a >b ,b <c ,c >d and d <a ,or a <b ,b >c ,c <d and d >a .In equations (1),(2)and (3)below,we develop formulas for the optimal strategies and value of the general 2×2game.If I chooses the first row with probability p (es the mixed strategy (p,1−p )),we equate his average return when II uses columns 1and 2.ap +d (1−p )=bp +c (1−p ).Solving for p ,we findp =c −d (a −b )+(c −d ).(1)Since there is no saddle point,(a−b)and(c−d)are either both positive or both negative; hence,0<p<1.Player I’s average return using this strategy isv=ap+d(1−p)=ac−bda−b+c−d.If II chooses thefirst column with probability q(es the strategy(q,1−q)),we equate his average losses when I uses rows1and2.aq+b(1−q)=dq+c(1−q)Hence,q=c−ba−b+c−d.(2)Again,since there is no saddle point,0<q<1.Player II’s average loss using this strategyisaq+b(1−q)=ac−bda−b+c−d=v,(3)the same value achievable by I.This shows that the game has a value,and that the players have optimal strategies.(something the minimax theorem says holds for allfinite games). Example2.A=−233−4p=−4−3−2−3−4−3=7/12q=samev=8−9−2−3−4−3=1/12Example3.A=0−1012p=2−10+10+2−1=1/11q=2+100+10+2−1=12/11.But q must be between zero and one.What happened?The trouble is we“forgot to test this matrix for a saddle point,so of course it has one”.(J.D.Williams The Compleat Strategyst Revised Edition,1966,McGraw-Hill,page56.)The lower left corner is a saddle point.So p=0and q=1are optimal strategies,and the value is v=1.2.3Removing Dominated Strategies.Sometimes,large matrix games may be reduced in size(hopefully to the2×2case)by deleting rows and columns that are obviously bad for the player who uses them.Definition.We say the i th row of a matrix A=(a ij)dominates the k th row if a ij≥a kj for all j.We say the i th row of A strictly dominates the k th row if a ij>a kj for all j.Similarly,the j th column of A dominates(strictly dominates)the k th column if a ij≤a ik(resp.a ij<a ik)for all i.Anything Player I can achieve using a dominated row can be achieved at least as well using the row that dominates it.Hence dominated rows may be deleted from the matrix.A similar argument shows that dominated columns may be removed.To be more precise,removal of a dominated row or column does not change the value of a game .However,there may exist an optimal strategy that uses a dominated row or column (see Exercise 9).If so,removal of that row or column will also remove the use of that optimal strategy (although there will still be at least one optimal strategy left).However,in the case of removal of a strictly dominated row or column,the set of optimal strategies does not change.We may iterate this procedure and successively remove several rows and columns.As an example,consider the matrix,A .The last column is dominated by the middle column.Deleting the last column we obtain:A =⎛⎝204123412⎞⎠Now the top row is dominated by the bottomrow.(Note this is not the case in the original matrix).Deleting the top row we obtain:⎛⎝201241⎞⎠This 2×2matrix does not have a saddle point,so p =3/4,q =1/4and v =7/4.I’s optimal strategy in the original game is(0,3/4,1/4);II’s is (1/4,3/4,0).1241 A row (column)may also be removed if it is dominated by a probability combination of other rows (columns).If for some 0<p <1,pa i 1j +(1−p )a i 2j ≥a kj for all j ,then the k th row is dominated by the mixed strategy that chooses row i 1with probability p and row i 2with probability 1−p .Player I can do at least as well using this mixed strategy instead of choosing row k .(In addition,any mixed strategy choosing row k with probability p k may be replaced by the one in which k ’s probability is split between i 1and i 2.That is,i 1’s probability is increased by pp k and i 2’s probability is increased by (1−p )p k .)A similar argument may be used for columns.Consider the matrix A =⎛⎝046574963⎞⎠.The middle column is dominated by the outside columns taken with probability 1/2each.With the central column deleted,the middle row is dominated by the combination of the top row with probability 1/3and the bottom row with probability 2/3.The reducedmatrix, 0693,is easily solved.The value is V =54/12=9/2.Of course,mixtures of more than two rows (columns)may be used to dominate and remove other rows (columns).For example,the mixture of columns one two and threewith probabilities 1/3each in matrix B =⎛⎝135340223735⎞⎠dominates the last column,and so the last column may be removed.Not all games may be reduced by dominance.In fact,even if the matrix has a saddle point,there may not be any dominated rows or columns.The 3×3game with a saddle point found in Example 1demonstrates this.2.4Solving 2×n and m ×2games.Games with matrices of size 2×n or m ×2may be solved with the aid of a graphical interpretation.Take the following example.p 1−p 23154160Suppose Player I chooses the first row with probability p and the second row with proba-bility 1−p .If II chooses Column 1,I’s average payoffis 2p +4(1−p ).Similarly,choices of Columns 2,3and 4result in average payoffs of 3p +(1−p ),p +6(1−p ),and 5p respectively.We graph these four linear functions of p for 0≤p ≤1.For a fixed value of p ,Player I can be sure that his average winnings is at least the minimum of these four functions evaluated at p .This is known as the lower envelope of these functions.Since I wants to maximize his guaranteed average winnings,he wants to find p that achieves the maximum of this lower envelope.According to the drawing,this should occur at the intersection of the lines for Columns 2and 3.This essentially,involves solving the game in which II is restrictedto Columns 2and 3.The value of the game 3116is v =17/7,I’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7),and II’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7).Subject to the accuracy of the drawing,we conclude therefore that in the original game I’s optimal strategy is (5/7,2/7),II’s is (0,5/7,2/7,0)and the value is 17/7.Fig 2.10123456col.3col.1col.2col.4015/7pThe accuracy of the drawing may be checked:Given any guess at a solution to a game,there is a sure-fire test to see if the guess is correct ,as follows.If I uses the strategy (5/7,2/7),his average payoffif II uses Columns 1,2,3and 4,is 18/7,17/7,17/7,and 25/7respectively.Thus his average payoffis at least17/7no matter what II does.Similarly, if II uses(0,5/7,2/7,0),her average loss is(at most)17/7.Thus,17/7is the value,and these strategies are optimal.We note that the line for Column1plays no role in the lower envelope(that is,the lower envelope would be unchanged if the line for Column1were removed from the graph). This is a test for domination.Column1is,in fact,dominated by Columns2and3taken with probability1/2each.The line for Column4does appear in the lower envelope,and hence Column4cannot be dominated.As an example of a m×2game,consider the matrix associated with Figure2.2.If q is the probability that II chooses Column1,then II’s average loss for I’s three possible choices of rows is given in the accompanying graph.Here,Player II looks at the largest of her average losses for a given q.This is the upper envelope of the function.II wants tofind q that minimizes this upper envelope.From the graph,we see that any value of q between1/4and1/3inclusive achieves this minimum.The value of the game is4,and I has an optimal pure strategy:row2.Fig2.2⎛⎝q1−q154462⎞⎠123456row1row2row3011/41/2qThese techniques work just as well for2×∞and∞×2games.2.5Latin Square Games.A Latin square is an n×n array of n different letters such that each letter occurs once and only once in each row and each column.The5×5 array at the right is an example.If in a Latin square each letter is assigned a numerical value,the resulting matrix is the matrix of a Latin square game.Such games have simple solutions.The value is the average of the numbers in a row,and the strategy that chooses each pure strategy with equal probability1/n is optimal for both players.The reason is not very deep.The conditions for optimality are satisfied.⎛⎜⎜⎜⎝a b c d eb e acd c a de b d c e b ae d b a c ⎞⎟⎟⎟⎠a =1,b =2,c =d =3,e =6⎛⎜⎜⎜⎝1233626133313623362163213⎞⎟⎟⎟⎠In the example above,the value is V =(1+2+3+3+6)/5=3,and the mixed strategy p =q =(1/5,1/5,1/5,1/5,1/5)is optimal for both players.The game of matching pennies is a Latin square game.Its value is zero and (1/2,1/2)is optimal for both players.2.6Exercises.1.Solve the game with matrix−1−3−22 ,that is find the value and an optimal (mixed)strategy for both players.2.Solve the game with matrix 02t 1for an arbitrary real number t .(Don’t forget to check for a saddle point!)Draw the graph of v (t ),the value of the game,as a function of t ,for −∞<t <∞.3.Show that if a game with m ×n matrix has two saddle points,then they have equal values.4.Reduce by dominance to 2×2games and solve.(a)⎛⎜⎝5410432−10−1431−212⎞⎟⎠(b)⎛⎝1007126476335⎞⎠.5.(a)Solve the game with matrix 3240−21−45 .(b)Reduce by dominance to a 3×2matrix game and solve:⎛⎝08584612−43⎞⎠.6.Players I and II choose integers i and j respectively from the set {1,2,...,n }for some n ≥2.Player I wins 1if |i −j |=1.Otherwise there is no payoff.If n =7,for example,the game matrix is⎛⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝0100000101000001010000010100000101000001010000010⎞⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠。
理工科学术英语摘要(完整版)
Text1 How do computer hackers “get inside”a computerAbstract：Computer vulnerabilities are often utilized by hackers or crackers. The security of each computer is challenging. This paper firstly redefines the term “hacker”, “cracker” and “getting inside” the computers and describes the procedure in detail. The term “unauthorized user” (UU) will be a better choice for defining the insider group. The known and unknown vulnerabilities will be taken advantage of by UUs ranging from poor password protection to leaving a computer turned on and physically accessible to visitors in the office. The first step of employing technical exploits will be the determination of the specifications of the target system. There are two ways of attacking including being through capabilities inherent in hypertext transfer protocol (http) and being preprogrammed against specific vulnerabilities and launched without any specific target. The variability of hacking action including the weak system and the strong system warns the users to choose the right way to protect the computer and do not authorize the computer to others easily. Lastly, the solution of avoiding vulnerabilities has been given, including updating patches, making complex passwords, getting information only from the reliable websites or services, updatinganti-virus software and backing up the data to protect the computer not being hacked.摘要：计算机漏洞经常被黑客破解使用。
Homework 2
Econ101-Homework2:Due July29th in classTiago CarusoJuly18,20131Question-Game TheoryConsider the following payoffgame:JohnJuneStadium Ballet Home Stadium5,50,00,0 Ballet0,03,30,0 Home0,00,01,1a)Does any of the players have a dominant strategy,which?Doesany of them have dominated strategies?b)What are the pure strategy Nash Equilibria of this game?c)Find the mixed strategy Nash Equilibrium of this game wherethe players randomize between all the strategies.2Question-Sequential Games in a Legislature Suppose now that there are100legislators in a bargaining situation, splitting a pie of size1.Player1proposes a split between the100 players,including himself(in any continuous amount,he can allocate different shares to different players as long as these shares add up to1).The other99players then vote on whether to split the pie in that way or not.If a majority of them(that is50)vote for the split,1then the split is implemented,each player obtaining the proposed share.If a majority vote against the split,then each player obtains 1percent of the pie.a)What is a subgame-perfect Nash equilibrium proposal of player1,and what is the resulting outcome of the game?b)Suppose now that different players obtain different shares(addingup to1)when the majority vote is not passed.What happens in a SPNE then?(You can describe the solution to this in words,if that is easier).3Question-Industrial OrganizationAssume there is a market for pineapple with the following demand curve:P=200−2Q.Where Q is the total quantity of pineapples produced.Assume thefirms who produces pineapple all have the following cost of production c(q)=4.qa)Assume the market is controlled by a pineapple monopolist.Find the the quantity,the price,ad the profit of the monopoly.b)Assume now there are twofirms in this market A and B,withthe same cost industry and they compete via Bertrand style.In the case they set the same price they split the market equally.Find the prices the constitute the Nash Equilibrium of this game,the quantity produced and the profit each have.c)Assume instead that thefirms have different costs c A(q)=4q aand c B(q)=6q B and they still compete via Bertrand.Find the prices Nash Equilibrium of this game,the quantity produced and the profit each have.d)Now go back to the assumption that A and B have the samecost c(q)=4q,but now they compete via Cournot Style.Find the quantity,the prices and the profit they have in equilibrium.24Question-Repeated DuopolyNow he have exactly the same problem as before,a duopoly with same demand curve,identical cost structure for bothfirm A and B, but now they are going to play the game repeatedly infinitely. Assume they are both have the same discount rate for future payoffs δ.a)Now they decide to collude and to chose in every period thequantity that maximizes the overall profit in one period.Which quantity they will produce,what will be thefinal price and the profit each will get(assume they will split the collusion profit equally).b)If they are competing via Bertrand style and Firm A decidesto break the agreement what profit wouldfirm A get?c)If they are competing via Cournot style and Firm A decides tobreak the agreement what profit wouldfirm A get?d)Assume now they are playing infinitely and eachfirm is usingthe trigger strategy1.What is the minimum discount rate that can sustain the collusion as a SPNE if the are competing via Bertrand?What if the are competing via Cournot?1In class I called this strategy trim strategy.It was a translation mistake.The name in english is trigger strategy.The idea is the same.Start cooperating and keep cooperating while you only observe cooperation from both sides.You observe something different never cooperate anymore.3。
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zero-sum games
In game theory and economic theory, zerosum describes a situation in which a participant's gain or loss is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of the other participant(s).
It attemptslly the actions that “players” should take to secure the best outcomes for themselves in a wide array of “games”.
Game theory was pioneered by Princeton mathematician John von Neumann.
更多具有代表性的例子可能会导致共同得利博弈和共同损 失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。
Princeton
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League and is considered one of the Colonial Colleges.
Examples:赌博
More typical are games with the potential for either mutual gain or mutual harm, as well as some conflict.
更多具有代表性的例子可能会导致共同得利博弈和共 同损失博弈，同样的情况还会发生在另外一些冲突中。
When thinking about how others will respond, one must put oneself in their shoes, and think as they would; one should not impose one’s own reasoning on them.
在考虑其他博弈者会如何应对时，博弈者必须能设身处 地地换位思考，而不能把自己的主观判断强加于人。
tic-tac-toe 井字棋
Tic-tack-toe is a pencil-andpaper game in which two players alternately put crosses(0) and circles(×) in one of the compartments of a square grid of nine spaces. The player who succeeds in placing three respective marks in a horizontal, vertical or diagonal row wins the game.
John von Neumann
A Hungarian-born American mathematics and made contribution to quantum physics, functional analysis, set theory, economics, computer science, topology, numerical analysis, hydrodynamics, statistics and may other mathematical fields as one of word history’s outstanding mathematicians.
Text A
Game Theory
博弈论
Game Theory
Game theory is the mathematical analysis of any situation involving a conflict of interest, with the intent of indicating the optimal choices that, under given conditions, will lead to a desired outcome.
Unit 1 Mathematics
Warming-up
Mathematics has a wide application, such as computer, economy. Now it has been broaden theoretically and applied to many social problems. It has driven a revolution in economic theory. It has also found application in sociology and psychology, and established links with evolution and biology. One significant application is Game Theory which received special attention with the awarding of the Nobel Prize in economics to John Nash.
In contrast to the linear chain of reasoning for sequential games, a game with simultaneous moves involves a logical circle.