大学化工专业英语Lesson 1
化学化工专业英语
The shift of electron density in a covalent bond toward the more electronegative atom or group can be observed in several ways. For bonds to hydrogen, acidity is one criterion. If the bonding electron pair moves away from the hydrogen nucleus the proton will be more easily transfered to a base (it will be more acidic). Methane is almost non-acidic, since the C–H bond is nearly non-polar. The O–H bond of water is polar, and it is at least 25 powers of ten more acidic than methane. H–F is over 12 powers of ten more acidic than water as a consequence of the greater electronegativity difference in its atoms. Electronegativity differences may be transmitted through connecting covalent bonds by an inductive effect. This inductive transfer of polarity tapers off as the number of transmitting bonds increases, and the presence of more than one highly electronegative atom has a cumulative effect. For example, trifluoro ethanol, CF3CH2– O–H is about ten thousand times more acidic than ethanol, CH3CH2–O–H.
化学化工专业英语课件
deci-分 decigram 分克(1/10克)；decimeter 分米
centi- 厘 centimeter 厘米；centigram厘克
nano- 纳
nanometer纳米；
nanosecond十亿分之一秒（10-9秒）
milli-毫 millimeter毫米；millilitre毫升； milligram毫克
需要注意的是，表中物质的数目词头除前四个另 有名称外，其它均为表上的数目词头。
数字 拉丁或希 烷烃-ane 烷基-yl 烯烃-ene 腊前缀 alkane alkyl Alkene
炔烃-yne 醇-ol alkyne alcohol
醛-al aldehyde
one mono- methane methyl
4.名词+动名词（n.+v.ing）
paper-making 造纸 ship-building 造船 Machine-shaping ？
5.其他构成方式
By-product 副产品（介词+名词） Make-up 化妆品（动词+副词） Out-of-door 户外 （副词+介词+名词） Pick-me-up 兴奋剂 （动词+代词+副词）
2.形容词+名词（adj.+n.）
其意义关系是前者修饰后者 Blueprint periodic table mixed-powder atomic weight
3.动名词+名词（v.ing+n.）
动名词所表示的是与被修饰词有关的 动作，而名词所表示的是可用的场所或物 品。 Launching site 发射场 flying-suit 飞行衣 navigating instrument ？
化工专业英语翻译
元素是单纯的物质，不能通过一般的化学变化分解成为更简单的物质。目前已知有109个元素。一些你熟悉的常见元素是碳、氧、铝、铁、氮和金。元素是组成物质的基本单元，就象0到9的数字是组成数的基本单元一样。就我们所知，已经在地球上发现的元素也是组成整个宇宙的元素。
About 85% of (85 percent of) the elements can be found in nature , usually combined with other elements in minerals and vegetable matter or in substances like water and carbon dioxide. Copper, silver, gold, and about 20 other elements can be found in highly pure forms. Sixteen elements are not found in nature; they
Lesson one Elements and Compounds
元素与化合物
Elements are pure substances that can not be decomposed(分解) into simpler substances by ordinary chemical changes. At present there are 109 known elements. Some common elements that are familiar to you are carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, nitrogen, and gold. The elements are the building blocks of matter just as the numerals 0 through 9 are the building blocks for numbers. To the best of1 our knowledge, the elements that have been found on the earth also comprise(包含) the entire universe.
化工专业英语Unit1
=Result from difficulty comes in deciding at是 particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere
Department oInf ACuhguesmt 20ic09al Engineering
Guiding questions
When did the modern chemical industry start ?
Can you give a definition for the chemical industry ?
vt．碳化，使化合成碳酸盐(脂) Inorganic a无机的，无机物的 Dyestuff n 染料，颜料，
a 染色剂 Mauve n 苯胺紫〔染料)
a 紫红色的，谈紫色的 Sulphuric a[含)硫的 Ammonia n 氨（水）
Stand……in good stead 对……很 有用（帮助）
What are the contributions which the chemical industry had made to meet and satisfy our needs?
Is the chemical industry capital- or labor-intensive? Why?
要注意的是，值得一提的是
无机的，无机物的
glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals.
有机化学工业
开发，开采， 剥削，利用
The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with exploitation
大学化工专业英语Lesson-1
Chemical EngineeringChemical engineering is the development of processes and the design and operation of plants in which materials undergo changes in physical or chemical state on a technical scale.化学工程是过程的开发和工厂的设计与操作，在工厂中材料以某种技术规模进行的物理或化学状态的变化。
Applied throughout the process industries, it is founded on the principles of chemical, physics, and mathematics.它建立在化学、物理和数学的原则上，适用于整个流程工业。
The laws of physical chemistry and physics govern the practicability and efficiency of chemical engineering operations.物理化学和物理定律支配着化工业务的实用性和效率。
Energy changes, deriving from thermodynamic considerations, are particularly important.能量的变化，从热力学考虑派生，显得尤其重要。
Mathematics is a basic tool in optimization and modeling.数学是一个优化和建模的基本工具。
Optimization means arranging materials, facilities, and energy to yield as productive and economical an operation as possible.优化意味着合理安排材料、设备和能源，尽可能生产经济多产的操作。
化工专业英语 李文玲版
Unit 1.Industrial Chemical1.Translate the following into Chinese(1)commodity chemicals 日用化学品(2)Specialty chemicals 专用化学品(3)Fine chemicals 精细化学品(4)Raw material 原材料(5)Sodium chlride 氯化钠(6)Unit operation 单元操作(7)Flow sheet 流程图(8) Chemical processes 化工操作(9)Size reduction2.Translate the following into English(1)氢氧化钠sodium hydroxide(2)硫酸sulfuric acid(3)有机合成organic synthesis(4)表面活性剂surface active agent(5)离子交换ion exchange(6)热传递heat transfer(7)工艺流程图process flow chart(8)副产物by-product3.Translate the following sentences into Chinese(1)we define industrial chemistry as the branch of chemistry which applies physical and chemical procedures towards the transformation of natural raw materials and their derivatives to products that are of benefit to humanity.我们定义工业化学是化学的一个分支，它是用物理或者化学的方法把天然原材料或它们的衍生物转变为对人类有用的产品。
(2)the chemical industry can also be classified according to the type of main raw materials used and or type of principal products made.化学行业也可以根据所使用的原材料类型和主要产品的类型分类。
《化工专业英语第一》PPT课件演示教学
only for small shells.
• （3）运用图表、公式、符号、缩写词语等来替代和简化文字描述， 使论述和说明更为直观和简洁。如：LAS, e.g..
• (4).使用各类复合词较多，如chlor-alkali，by-products。
• 4.化学化工专业英语语法特点：
•
专业英语着重讲述客观现象和科学真理，要求行文简洁、表达客
问才能学好专业英语。广泛进行化学专业英语阅读，阅读过程中，有
意识地对反复出现的化学专业词汇进行观察、分析、归纳，发现化合
物命名中词头和词尾变化的规律。可以通过汉译英、英译汉、用英语 回答问题及写课文或某一段落摘要的练习，提高英语书面表达能力； 在具有较高基础英语听说能力后，不断积累并掌握简单、常用专业英 语词汇的听说技巧，能提高用英语进行专业技术交流的能力。
Oxys(酸)，后缀-gen 。 • 氟，F(Fluorum, [En]Fluorine)，得名于萤石(拉丁语 Fluor，原意是熔
剂)，化学成分是 氟化钙。 • 钠，Na(Natrium)，英语为 Sodium，因电解苏打(Soda，化学成分是
碳酸钠)制得而得 名。拉丁语 Natrium 意思也是苏打。 • 镁，Mg(Magnesium)，得名于苦土(Magnesia，希腊一个盛产苦土的
• 专业英语是大学课程体系的一个重要组成部分，是保证学 生能够真正掌握英语并能够实用英语的一个重要环节。
• 专业英语有着自身的特点，表现在语句结构、构词、写作 等方面，学生只有掌握了这些特点才能更好地学习并运用 专业英语。
• 本教材的内容包括：
• 按照化学基础知识如有机物和无机物、化学反应内容；化 工操作单元和化工设备如转热、反应器、喷雾干燥设备和 膜技术等内容；无机化工如盐酸和硝酸、纯碱、烧碱等内 容，有机化工、精细化工、高分子材料、化工产品说明书 和设备说明书、煤化工、环境保护和清洁生产、计算机辅 助设计、生物技术、锂离子电池等内容，使教材体现新技 术新材料技术的发展和应用。使本教材有简单到复杂、由 化学到化工、有设备到工艺、由基础到前沿的顺序安排学 习。同时让学生掌握化学化工词汇的构词规律，掌握专业 英语的特点和学习方法，掌握专业英语的翻译和写作。使 学生在今后的生产实践中能够借助词典阅读专业的先进技
化学化工专业英语电子版课本.
ContentPART 1 Introduction to Materials Science &Engineering 1 Unit 1 Materials Science and Engineering 1 Unit 2 Classification of Materials 9 Unit 3 Properties of Materials 17 Unit 4 Materials Science and Engineering: What does the Future Hold? 25 PartⅡMETALLIC MATERLALS AND ALLOYS 33 Unit 5 An Introduction to Metallic Materials 33 Unit 6 Metal Manufacturing Methods 47 Unit 7 Structure of Metallic Materials 57 Unit 8 Metal-Matrix Composites 68 PartⅢCeramics 81 Unit 9 Introduction to Ceramics 81 Unit 10 Ceramic Structures —Crystalline and Noncrystalline 88 Unit 11 Ceramic Processing Methods 97 Unit 12 Advanced ceramic materials –Functional Ceramics 105 PARTⅣNANOMATERIALS 112 Unit 13 Introduction to Nanostructured Materials 112 Unit14 Preparation of Nanomaterials 117 Unit 15 Recent Scientific Advances 126 Unit 16 The Future of Nanostructure Science and Technology 130 PartⅤPOLYMERS 136 Unit17 A Brief Review in the Development of Synthetic Polymers 136 Unit18 Polymer synthesis: Polyethylene synthesis 146 Unit19 Polymer synthesis:Nylon synthesis 154 Unit 20 Processing and Properties Polymer Materials 165 PART VI POLYMERIC COMPOSITES 172 Unit21 Introduction to Polymeric Composite Materials 172 Unit22 Composition, Structure and Morphology of Polymeric Composites 178Unit23 Manufacture of Polymer Composites 185 Unit24 Epoxy Resin Composites 191 Part 7 Biomaterial 196 Unit 25 Introduction to Biomaterials 196 Unit 26 Biocompatibility 205 Unit 27 Polymers as Biomaterials 213 Unit 28 Future of Biomaterials 224 PARTⅧMaterials and Environment 237 Unit29 Environmental Pollution & Control Related Materials 237 Unit30 Bio-degradable Polymer Materials 241 Unit 31 Environmental Friendly Inorganic Materials 248 Unit 32 A Perspective on the Future: Challenges and Opportunities 256 附录一科技英语构词法263 附录二科技英语语法及翻译简介269附录三:聚合物英缩写、全名、中文名对照表280 附录四:练习题参考答案284 PART 1 Introduction to Materials Science &EngineeringUnit 1Materials Science and Engineering Historical PerspectiveMaterials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production —virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials. Historically, the development and advancement of societies ha ve been intimately tied to the members‘ ability to produce and manipulate materi- als to fill their needs. In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age.The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics.①It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized charac- teristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers. deep-seated根深蒂固的, 深层的pottery / ☐☯❑♓陶器structural elements结构成分;property / ☐❑☐☜♦♓/⏹.性能The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example, automobiles would not havebeen possibl- e without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute. In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials. Materials Science and EngineeringThe discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.―Structure‘‘ is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed‗‗microscopic,‘‘ meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed ‗‗macroscopic.‘‘The notion of ‗‗property‘‘ deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, aspecimen subjected to forces will experience deformation; or a polished metal surface will reflect light. Property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size.Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and stepwise /♦♦♏☐♦♋♓/ ♎逐步的sophisticated/♦☯♐♓♦♦♓♏♓♦♓♎/ ♎精制的,复杂的; semiconducting materials 半导体材料nebulous/ ⏹♏♌✞●☯♦/♎含糊的,有歧义的subatomic/ ♦✈♌☯❍♎亚原子的microscopic/❍♓❑☯☐♓♎微观的❍♋♍❑☐♦♍☐☐♓♍/❍✌❑☯✞☐♓♎宏观的deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provokingdifferent responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermalconductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electro- magnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics indicate the chemical reactivity of materials.In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and engineering of materials, viz. ‗‗processing‘‘ and‗‗performance.‘‘ With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material‘s perf ormance will be a function of its properties.Fig. 1.1 Photograph showing the light transmittance of three aluminum oxide specimens. From left to right: single crystal material (sapphire, which is transparent;a polycrystalline and fully dense (nonporous material, which is translucent; and a polycrystalline material that contains approximately 5% porosity, which is opaque. (Specimen preparation, P. A. Lessing; photography by J. Telford.We now present an example of these processing-structure-properties-perfor- mance principles with Figure 1.1, a photograph showing three thin disk specimens placed over some printed matter. It is obvious that the optical properties (i.e., the deformation/♎♓♐❍♏♓☞☯变形deteriorative/♎♓♓☯❑♓☯❑♏♓♦♓破坏(老化的elastic modulus 弹性模量strength /♦♦❑♏⏹♑强度;dielectric constant介电常数;heat capacity 热容量refraction/❑♓♐❑✌☞☯折射率; reflectivity/ ❑♓♐●♏♓♓♦♓/ 反射率processing/☐❑☯◆♏♦♓☠加工light transmittance of each of the three materials are different; the one on the left is transparent (i.e., virtually all of the reflected light passes through it, whereas the disks in the center and on the right are, respectively, translucent and opaque.All of these specimens are of the same material, aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is what we call a single crystal—that is, it is highly perfect—which gives rise to its transparency. The center one is composed of numerous and verysmall single crystals that are all connected; the boundaries between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the printed page, which makes this material optically translucent.②And finally, the specimen on the right is composed not only of many small, interconnected crystals, but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces. These pores also effectively scatter the reflected light and render this material opaque.Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each material was produced using a different processing technique. And, of course, if optical transmittance is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-service application, the performance of each material will be different.Why Study Materials science and Engineering?Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Ofcourse, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials.Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be charac- terized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. transmittance/♦❑✌❍♓♦☜⏹♦/ ⏹. 透射性sapphire /♦✌♐♓☯蓝宝石transparent/♦❑✌☐☪☯❑☯⏹♦/ ♎透明的;polycrystalline/ ☐♓❑♓♦♦☯♓多晶体; translucent/♦❑✌✞♎半透明的; opaque☯✞☐♏♓♎不透明的single crystal 单晶体Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mecha- nical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive envir- onments.Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of proper- ties but is prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable.The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape. The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices based on these criteria.③Reference:William D. Callister, Materials science and engineering : anintroduction, Press:John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,2007;2-5 transmission gear传动齿轮dictate/♎♓♏♓决定trade off 权衡;折衷ductility♎✈♓●♓♦♓延展性/ ☯✞☯❑♋♓♎♓☠/♎最主要的judicious/♎✞✞♎♓☞☯♦/♎明智的Notes1.At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding froma given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of itscharacteristics由此看来,材料的使用完全就是一个选择过程,且此过程又是根据材料的性质从许多的而不是非有限的材料中选择一种最适于某种用途的材料。
化工专业英语翻译全
Unit 1 Chemical Industry化学工业1．化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。
比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。
有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。
20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。
这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。
而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。
这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。
特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。
这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。
1940年以来，化学工业一直以引人注目的速度飞速发展。
尽管这种发展的速度近年来已大大减慢。
化学工业的发展由于1950年以来石油化学领域的研究和开发大部分在有机化学方面取得。
石油化工在60年代和70年代的迅猛发展主要是由于人们对于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龙、聚脂和环氧树脂的需求巨大增加。
今天的化学工业已经是制造业中有着许多分支的部门，并且在制造业中起着核心的作用。
它生产了数千种不同的化学产品，而人们通常只接触到终端产品或消费品。
这些产品被购买是因为他们具有某些性质适合（人们）的一些特别的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂层或一种杀虫剂。
这些化学产品归根到底是由于它们能产生的作用而被购买的。
2．化学工业的定义在本世纪初，要定义什么是化学工业是不太困难的，因为那时所生产的化学品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化学品，例如，烧碱，硫酸。
化工专业英语第一片翻译
Elements and Compounds元素与化合物Elements are pure substances that can not be decomposed(分解) into simpler substances by ordinary chemical changes. At present there are 109 known elements. Some common elements that are familiar to you are carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, nitrogen, and gold. The elements are the building blocks of matter just as the numerals 0 through 9 are the building blocks for numbers. To the best of1 our knowledge, the elements that have been found on the earth also comprise(包含) the entire universe.元素是单纯的物质，不能通过一般的化学变化分解成为更简单的物质。
目前已知有109个元素。
一些你熟悉的常见元素是碳、氧、铝、铁、氮和金。
元素是组成物质的基本单元，就象0到9的数字是组成数的基本单元一样。
就我们所知，已经在地球上发现的元素也是组成整个宇宙的元素。
About 85% of (85 percent of) the elements can be found in nature , usually combined with other elements in minerals and vegetable matter or in substances like water and carbon dioxide. Copper, silver, gold, and about 20 other elements can be found in highly pure forms. Sixteen elements are not found in nature; theyhave been produced in generally small amounts in nuclear explosions (爆炸)and nuclear research. They are man-made elements.大约有85%的元素可以在大自然的矿物或者植物中，以及如水和二氧化碳这样的物质中找到，通常与别的元素结合。
化工专业英语全解
5
Bulk chemical industry: 大化工
Unit 6 Chlor-Alkali and Related Processes
The segment is normally taken to include~~~~.
9
These are used by industries that need the liquid sodium, mainly in the production of tetra-alkyl lead petroleum additives, though the petroleum additive companies are diversifying and other uses may appear.
The industry will move more to serving the rest of the chemical industry and less to serving the farming industry.
工业将趋向于效劳化学工业的其余局部，而不是农业。
Another threat is the perceived environmental messiness of many large-scale
Extent of branching: 支链长度 Crossing-linking: 交联
Random copolymer: 无规共聚物 Alternating copolymer:交替共聚物 Block copolymer: 嵌段共聚物
Multiply: 增加
同一聚合物根据最终的应用有许多不同级别，例如说，不同的分子量、分子量分布、 支链长度、交联等等，当考虑到共聚物时〔无规共聚物，交替共聚物，嵌段共聚物〕， 这些级别还会增加。
化学专业英语第一章
9
decompose vt.& vi. 分解； （使）腐烂
You can apply heat to decompose organic compounds. 你可以依靠加热来分解有机化合物.
apply to 适用于； 运用； 致力于；
10
gravitational inertia adj. 万有引力的，重力的； 地心吸力的 n. <物>惯性，惰性； 迟钝； 不活动
复合物；混合物 成分；组成的； 构成的；
化学的； 铁制的，含铁的
种类，类别 [化]氢 原子的； 重力的； 惯 分性解； （使）转变；
24
• mixture • nitrogen • oxygen • property • reactant • sodium • substance • be classified as • be subdivided into • boiling point • be referred to as
[atomic energy]: 原子能
The use of atomic energy will revolutionize the lives of coming generations.
原子能的使用将使人类未来的生活有巨大 改变.
revolutionize
vt. 发动革命； 彻底改革； 使革命化 vi. 革命化； 引起革命
centigrade. 水的沸点是摄氏100度。
melting point n. 熔点 Lead has a lower melting-point than iron. 铅的熔点比铁低。
22
be subdivided into 被再分成 ；被划分为 Atoms can be subdivided into neutrons,
化工专业英语复习资料
Lesson 1Chemical Engineering1、What is chemical engineering and its content?The Institution of Chemical Engineers defines chemical engineering as “that branch of engineering which is concerned with processes in which materials undergo a required change in composition, energy content or physical state: with the means of processing; with the resulting products, and with their application to useful ends”.2、What concept is the landmark in the development of chemical engineering?Unit operations3、What are the basic laws of chemical engineering science?The principles of chemistry, physics, and mathematics.The laws of physical chemical and physics govern the practicability and efficiency of chemical engineering operations. Energy changes, deriving from thermodynamics consideration, are particularly important. Mathematics is a basic tool in optimization and modeling.4、Name the functions and branches of chemical engineering you know.Chemical Engineering Functions: The design and development of both processes and plant items.Branches of Chemical Engineering: Plastics, polymers, synthetic fibers, dyeing, pulp and paper manufactures, pharmaceutical industry, and separation of rare metals.Lesson 2 Chemical Equilibrium and Kinetics1、Which factors influence the reaction rates?a)Temperatureb)concentrations of reactants (or partial pressure of gaseous reactants)c)presence of a catalyst.2、How to determine the reaction equilibrium constants?For a reversible reaction：aA + bB = cC +dDthe equilibrium constant expression is written as follows:K = C c D d / A a B bLesson 3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics1、What are the applications of chemical thermodynamics?There is two major applications of thermodynamics:( i ) The calculation of heat and work effect associated with processes as well as the calculation of the maximum work obtainable from a process or the minimum work required to drive a process.( ii ) The establishment of relationship among the variables describing systems at equilibrium.Lesson 4 Chemical Reaction Engineering1、Homogeneous Reactions vs. Heterogeneous ReactionsHomogeneous reactions are those in which the reactants, products, and any catalyst used form one continuous phase; gaseous and liquid.Heterogeneous reactions are those in which two or more phases exist, and the overriding problem in the reactor design is to promote mass transfer between the phases. The possible combinations of phase are:( i ) Liquid-liquid ( ii ) Liquid-solid ( iii ) Liquid-solid-gas( iv ) Gas-solid ( v ) Gas-liquid2、Reactor Geometry(type)Stirred Tank ReactorsTubular ReactorsPacked Bed ReactorsFluidized Bed ReactorsLesson 5 Chlor-Alkali and Related Processes1、What are the mechanisms of chlor-alkali process?The reaction are based on the idea of using electrons as a reagent in chemical reactions. The basic reactions of brine electrolysis can be written as follows:Anode 2Cl- - 2e-—> Cl2Cathode 2H2O + 2e-—> H2 + 2OH-The overall reaction is: 2Na+ + 2Cl- + 2H2O —> NaOH + Cl2 + H2Lesson 7 Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer1、In some cases, momentum , heat and mass transfer all occurs simultaneously, explain with examples.In a water-cooling tower, where transfer of sensible heat (heat transfer) and evaporation (mass transfer) both take place from the surface of the water droplets. Momentum transfer take place between the water droplets and air.2、What will happen for two adjacent layers of fluid with different moving velocities?There will be a tendency for the faster moving layer to be retarded and the slower moving layer to be accelerated by virtue of the continuous passage of molecules in each direction. There will be a net transfer of momentum from the fast to the slow moving stream.Lesson 10 Gas Absorption1、There are three ways in which a large contact area can be established:1. The liquid is brought in contact with the gas in the form of thin films ( film scrubbers).2. The liquid is dispersed in the gas in the form of minute drops (spray scrubbers).3. The gas is dispersed in the liquid in the form of small bubbles (bubble scrubbers). All apparatus applied in gas absorption practice is based on one of these three principles or on a combination of them.Lesson 13 Filtration1、Which factors should be considered in the operation of filtration?a)The properties of the liquid , particularly its viscosity, density and corrosive properties.b)The nature of the solid - its particle size and shape, size distribution, and packing characteristics.c)The concentration of solids in suspension.d)The quality of material to be handled, and its value.e)Whether the valuable product is the solid, the fluid, or both.f)Whether it is necessary to wash the filtered solids.g)Whether very slight contamination caused by contact of the suspension or filtrate with the various components of the equipment is detrimental to the product.h)Whether the feed liquor may be heated.i)Whether any form of pretreatment would be helpful.2、Which factors will have a close relation with the rate of filtration?a) The drop in pressure from the feed to the far side of the filter medium.b) The area of the filtering surface.c) The viscosity of the filtrate,d) The resistance of the filter cake.e) The resistance of the filter medium and initial layers of cake.Lesson 15 Computer-Assisted Design of New Process1、Design for new processed proceed through at least three stagesConceptual Design: the generation of ideas for new processes (processed synthesis) and their translation into an initial design. This stage includes preliminary cost estimates to asses the potential profitability of the process, as well as analyses of process safety andenvironmental considerations.Final Design: a rigorous set of design calculations to specify all the significance details of a process,Detailed Design: preparation of engineering drawing and equipment lists needed for construction.TBC ...Lesson 16 Catalysis1、Catalytic reactions can be classified into three types:The most common is heterogeneous catalysis, in which the catalyst is a solid and the reactants and products are either gases or liquids. The second type is homogeneous catalysis, in which the reactants, products and catalyst are molecularly dispersed in a single phase, usually the liquid phase. The third type is enzyme catalysis.Lesson 18 Polymers and Polymerization Techniques1、There are five general methods of polymerization:( i ) Bulk (or mass) ( ii ) Solution ( iii ) Slurry (or precipitation)( iv ) Suspension(or dispersion) ( v) EmulsionFurther lesser-used methods include:( vi ) Interfacial ( vii ) Reaction injection moulding (RIM)( viii ) Reactive processing of molten polymers2、A polymerization process consists of three stages:( i ) Monomer preparation ( ii ) Polymerization ( iii ) Polymer recover。
大学化工专业英语Lesson-1
大学化工专业英语Lesson-1Chemical EngineeringChemical engineering is the development of processes and the design and operation of plants in which materials undergo changes in physical or chemical state on a technical scale.化学工程是过程的开发和工厂的设计与操作，在工厂中材料以某种技术规模进行的物理或化学状态的变化。
Applied throughout the process industries, it is founded on the principles of chemical, physics, and mathematics.它建立在化学、物理和数学的原则上，适用于整个流程工业。
The laws of physical chemistry and physics govern the practicability and efficiency of chemical engineering operations.物理化学和物理定律支配着化工业务的实用性和效率。
Energy changes, deriving from thermodynamic considerations, are particularly important.能量的变化，从热力学考虑派生，显得尤其重要。
Mathematics is a basic tool in optimization and modeling.数学是一个优化和建模的基本工具。
Optimization means arranging materials, facilities, and energy to yield as productive and economical an operation as possible.优化意味着合理安排材料、设备和能源，尽可能生产经济多产的操作。
化学专业英语
unite 1. Inorganic chemistry1。
1 what is chemistry（1). 重点专业词汇讲解:Chemical: adj . 化学的、化学药品Transformation: 变化，化学转变，转化Dye: n。
染料染色，或者vt。
染Charcoal: [’tʃɑkəʊl] 木炭Cellulose ：纤维素细胞的［’seljʊləʊz；］Fat：n. 脂肪肥肉adj 。
肥大的alkalis：碱adj 。
碱性的glycerin：甘油丙三醇alkalis: n。
碱金属alloy: 合金使成合金bronze：青铜色的n. 青铜(铜和锡的合金）brass：[brɑs］n。
黄铜(铜和锌）要求学生会区别黄铜及青铜的不同翻译Poison:毒物毒药t. 毒害放毒下毒Proton：n。
质子Nulei: n。
核（nucleus的复数形式）［’njuklɪəs］Identical : adj . 同一的Chirality n. 手性手征和Handeness的区别Amino acid ：n。
氨基酸Alanine: n.丙氨酸2。
课文中重点词组（phrase）Chemical change: 化学变化physical change：物理变化Explore: 探险研究research investigate studyIsolate：分离chemical bonds 化学键chemical reaction：化学反应Natural substance 天然物质Coke :焦炭carbon monoxide 一氧化碳Carbon Dioxide 二氧化碳Chemical bond 化学键fundamental principle 基本原理The periodic table of elements ：元素周期表numbers of protons 质子数atomic number 原子序数covalent bonds 共价键positive 正阳性negative 负阴性3. 课文中重点句子The first and most important principle is that chemical substances are made up of molecules in which atoms of various elements are linked in well-defined ways。
Lesson 1 Introduction to Chemistry The Central, Useful, and Creative Science
※ Thus we see chemistry as “central” to the human effort to move above the brutish existence of our caveman ancestors into a world where we can exist not only in harmony with nature, but also in harmony with our own aspirations.
• 化学是最古老的科学之一，它无疑是改善人类生活的最有成效的科学之 一。使用化学制造产品的工业-化学加工工业-是先进社会中最大的制造 业部门。例如，在美国，它们占所有制造业的30%以上。
• This statistic does not include the output of related industries, such as electronics, automobiles, or agriculture, that use the products of the chemical process industries.
它涉及到自然的变化 - 被闪电击中的树的燃烧，生命的中心 化学变化-也与化学家发明和创造的新转变有关。
【第二段】Chemistry has a very long history. In fact, human activity in chemistry goes back to prerecorded times.
※ 因此，我们认为化学是人类努力的“中心”，目的是超越我们的穴居人祖 先的野蛮存在，进入一个我们不仅可以与自然和谐相处，而且也可以与我 们自己的愿望和谐相处的世界。ancestor [ˈænsestə(r)] 、[ˌæspəˈreɪʃn]
化工专业英语课件
• Manufacture of chemicals in the mid-19th century consisted of modest craft operations. • Craft 工艺；手艺；技巧；技能
• Increase in demand,public concern at the emission of noxious effluents,and competition between rival processes provided the incentives for greater
• The laws of physical chemistry and physics govern
the practicability and efficiency of chemical engineering operations. • Practicability 实用性
• Energy changes,deriving from thermodynamic considerations, are particulary important.
• The number of unit operation-the building blocks of a chemical plant-is not large.
• The complexity arises from the variety of conditions under which the unit operations are conducted.
Specialized English for chemistry
Chemical Enineering and Technology
化学化工专业英语
1 CHEMISTRY AND CHEMISTWithout chemistry our lives would beunrecognisable, for chemistry is at work all aroundus. Think what life would be like without chemistry- there would be no plastics, no electricity and noprotective paints for our homes. There would be no synthetic fibres to clothe us and no fertilisers to help us produce enough food. We wouldn‟t be able to travel because there would be no metal, rubber or fuel for cars, ships and aeroplane. Our lives would be changed considerably without telephones, radio, television or computers, all of which depend on chemistry for the manufacture of their parts. Life expectancy would be much lower, too, as there would be no drugs to fight disease.Chemistry is at the forefront of scientific adventure, and you could make your own contribution to the rapidly expanding technology we are enjoying. Take some of the recent academic research: computer graphics allow us to predict whether small molecules will fit into or react with larger ones - this could lead to a whole new generation of drugs to control disease; chemists are also studying the use of chemicals to trap the sun‟s energy and to purify sea water; they are also investigating the possibility of using new ceramic materials to replace metals which can corrode.Biotechnology is helping us to develop new sources of food and new ways of producing fuel, as well as producing new remedies for the sick. As the computer helps us to predict and interpret results from the test tube, the speed, accuracy and quality of results is rapidly increasing - all to the benefit of product development.It is the job of chemists to provide us with new materials to take us into the next century, and by pursuing the subject, you could make your positive contribution to society.Here are some good reasons for choosing chemistry as a career.Firstly, if you have an interest in the chemical sciences, you can probably imagine taking some responsibility for the development of new technology. New ideas and materials are constantly being used in technology to improve the society in which we live. You could work in a field where research and innovation are of primary importance to standards of living, so you could see the practical results of your work in every day use.Secondly, chemistry offers many career opportunities, whether working in a public service such as a water treatment plant, or high level research and development in industry. Your chemistry-based skills and experience can be used, not only in many different areas within the chemical industry, but also as the basis for a more general career in business.1 As a qualification, chemistry is highly regarded as a sound basis for employment.You should remember that, as the society we live in becomes more technically advanced, the need for suitably qualified chemists will also increase. Although chemistry stands as a subject in its own right, it acts as the bond between physics and biology. Thus, by entering the world of chemistry you will be equipping yourself to play a leading role in the complex world of tomorrow.Chemistry gives you an excellent training for many jobs, both scientific and non-scientific. To be successful in the subject you need to be able to think logically, and be creative, numerate, and analytical. These skills are much sought after in many walks of life, and would enable you to pursue a career in, say, computing and finance, as well as careers which use your chemistry directly.Here is a brief outline of some of the fields chemists work in:Many are employed in the wealth-creating manufacturing industries - not just oil, chemical and mining companies, but also in ceramics, electronics and fibres. Many others are in consumer based industries such as food, paper and brewing; or in service industriessuch as transport, health and water treatment.In manufacturing and service industries, chemists work in Research and Development to improve and develop new products, or in Quality Control, where they make sure that the public receives products of a consistently high standard.Chemists in the public sector deal with matters of public concern such as food preservation, pollution control, defence, and nuclear energy. The National Health Service also needs chemists, as do the teaching profess ion and the Government‟s research and advisory establishments.Nowadays, chemists are also found in such diverse areas as finance, law and politics, retailing, computing and purchasing. Chemists make good managers, and they can put their specialist knowledge to work as consultants or technical authors. Agricultural scientist, conservationist, doctor, geologist, meteorologist, pharmacist, vet ... the list of jobs where a qualification in chemistry is considered essential is endless. So even if you are unsure about what career you want to follow eventually, you can still study chemistry and know that you‟re keeping your options open.What Do Chemistry Graduates Do?Demand for chemists is high, and over the last decade opportunities for chemistry graduates have been increasing. This is a trend that is likely to continue. Chemistry graduates are increasingly sought after to work in pharmaceutical, oil, chemical, engineering, textile and metal companies, but the range of opportunities also spans the food industry, nuclear fuels, glass and ceramics, optical and photographic industries, hospitals and the automotive industry. Many graduates begin in scientific research, development and design, but over the years, about half change, into fields such as sales, quality control, management, or consultancy. Within the commercial world it is recognised that, because of the general training implicit in a chemistry course, chemistry graduates are particularly adaptable and analytical - making them attractive to a very broad spectrum of employers. There has been a growth of opportunity for good chemistry graduates to move into the financial world, particularly in accountancy, retail stores, and computer software houses.（Summarized from: A brief of the Royal Society of Chemistry,1992）2 NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANICCOMPOUNDSNaming elementsThe term element refers to a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. At present 107 chemical elements are known. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example:oxygen = O nitrogen = N magnesium = MgSome elements, which have been known for a long time, have symbols based on their Latin names, for example:iron = Fe (ferrum) copper = Cu (cuprum) lead = Pb (Plumbum)A few elements have symbols based on the Latin name of one of their compounds, the elements themselves having been discovered only in relatively recent times1, for example: sodium = Na (natrium = sodium carbonate)potassium = K (kalium = potassium carbonate)A listing of some common elements may be found in Table 1.Naming Metal Oxides, Bases and SaltsA compound is a combination of positive and negative ions in the proper ratio to give a balanced charge and the name of the compound follows from names of the ions, for example, NaCl, is sodium chloride; Al(OH)3is aluminium hydroxide; FeBr2is iron (II) bromide or ferrous bromide; Ca(OAc)2is calcium acetate; Cr2(SO4)3is chromium (III) sulphate or chromic sulphate, and so on. Table 3 gives some examples of the naming of metal compounds. The name of the negative ion will need to be obtained from Table 2.Negative ions, anions, may be monatomic or polyatomic. All monatomic anions have names ending with -ide. Two polyatomic anions which also have names ending with -ide are the hydroxide ion, OH-, and the cyanide ion, CN-.Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen in addition to another element. The number of oxygen atoms in such oxyanions is denoted by the use of the suffixes -ite and -ate, meaning fewer and more oxygen atoms, respectively. In cases where it is necessary to denote more than two oxyanions of the same element, the prefixes hypo- and per-, meaning still fewer and still more oxygen atoms, respectively, may be used, for example,hypochlorite ClO-Chlorite ClO2-chlorate ClO3-perchlorate ClO4-Naming Nonmetal OxidesThe older system of naming and one still widely used employs Greek prefixes for both the number of oxygen atoms and that of the other element in the compound 2. The prefixes used are (1) mono-, sometimes reduced to mon-, (2) di-, (3) tri-, (4) tetra-, (5) penta-, (6) hexa-, (7) hepta-, (8) octa-, (9) nona- and (10) deca-. Generally the letter a is omitted from the prefix (from tetra on ) when naming a nonmetal oxide and often mono- is omitted from the name altogether.The Stock system is also used with nonmetal oxides. Here the Roman numeral refers to the oxidation state of the element other than oxygen.In either system, the element other than oxygen is named first, the full name being used, followed by oxide 3. Table 4 shows some examples.Naming AcidsAcid names may be obtained directly from a knowledge of Table 2 by changing the name of the acid ion (the negative ion ) in the Table 2 as follows:The Ion in Table 2Corresponding Acid-ate-ic-ite-ous-ide-icExamples are:Acid Ion Acidacetate acetic acidperchlorate perchloric acidbromide hydrobromic acidcyanide hydrocyanic acidThere are a few cases where the name of the acid is changed slightly from that of the acid radical; for example, H2SO4 is sulphuric acid rather than sulphic acid. Similarly, H3PO4 is phosphoric acid rather than phosphic acid.Naming Acid and Basic Salt and Mixed SaltsA salt containing acidic hydrogen is termed an acid salt.A way of naming these salts is to call Na 2HPO4disodiumhydrogen phosphate and NaH2PO4sodium dihydrogenphosphate. Historically, the prefix bi- has been used innaming some acid salts; in industry, for example, NaHCO3 iscalled sodium bicarbonate and Ca(HSO3)2 calcium bisulphite.Bi(OH)2NO3, a basic salt, would be called bismuthdihydroxynitrate. NaKSO4, a mixed salt, would be calledsodium potassium sulphate.3 NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDSA complete discussion of definitive rules of organic nomenclature would require more space than can be allotted in this text. We will survey some of the more common nomenclature rules, both IUPAC and trivial.AlkanesThe names for the first twenty continuous-chain alkanes are listed in Table 1.Alkenes and AlkynesUnbranched hydrocarbons having one double bond are named in the IUPAC system by replacing the ending -ane of the alkane name with -ene. If there are two or more double bonds, the ending is -adiene, -atriene, etc.Unbranched hydrocarbons having one triple bond are named by replacing the ending -ane of the alkane name with -yne. If there are two or more triple bonds, the ending is -adiyne, -atriyne etc. Table 2 shows names for some alkyl groups, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.The PrefixesIn the IUPAC system, alkyl and aryl substituents and many functional groups are named as prefixes on the parent (for example, iodomethane). Some common functional groups named as prefixes are listed in Table 3.In simple compounds, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, etc. are used to indicate the number of times a substituent is found in the structure: e.g., dimethylamine for (CH3)2NH or dichloromethane for CH2Cl2.In complex structures, the prefixes bis-, tris-, and tetrakis- are used: bis- means two of a kind; tris-, three of a kind; and tetrakis-, four of a kind. [(CH3)2N]2is bis(dimethylamino) and not di(dimethylamino).Nomenclature Priority of Functional GroupsIn naming a compound, the longest chain containing principal functional group is considered the parent. The parent is numbered from the principal functional group to the other end, the direction being chosen to give the lowest numbers to the substituents. The entire name of the structure is then composed of (1) the numbers of the positions of the substituts (and of the principal functional group, if necessary); (2) the names of the substituts;(3) the name of the parent.The various functional groups are ranked in priority as to which receives the suffix name and the lowest position number1.A list of these priorities is given in Table 4.*-CKetonesIn the systematic names for ketones, the -e of the parent alkane name is dropped and -one is added. A prefix number is used if necessary.In a complex structure, a ketone group my be named in IUPAC system with the prefix oxo-. (The prefix keto- is also sometimes encountered.)AlcoholsThe names of alcohols may be: (1) IUPAC; (2) trivial; or, occasionally, (3) conjunctive. IUPAC names are taken from the name of the alkane with the final -e changed to -ol. In the case of polyols, the prefix di-, tri- etc. is placed just before -ol, with the position numbers placed at the start of the name, if possible, such as, 1,4-cyclohexandiol. Names for some alkyl halides, ketones and alcohols are listed in Table 5.EthersEthers are usually named by using the names of attached alkyl or aryl groups followed by the word ether. (These are trivial names.) For example, diethyl ether.In more complex ethers, an alkoxy- prefix may be used. This is the IUPAC preference, such as 3-methoxyhexane. Sometimes the prefix- oxa- is used.AminesAmines are named in two principal ways: with -amine as the ending and with amino- as a prefix. Names for some ethers and amines can be found in Table 6.Carboxylic AcidsThere are four principal types of names for carboxylic acids: (1) IUPAC; (2)trivial;(3)carboxylic acid; and (4)conjunctive. Trivial names are commonly used.AldehydesAldehydes may be named by the IUPAC system or by trivial aldehyde names. In the IUPAC system, the -oic acid ending of the corresponding carboxylic acid is changed to -al, such as hexanal. In trivial names, the -ic or -oic ending is changed to -aldehyde, such as benzaldehyde. Table 7 gives a list of commonly encountered names for carboxylic acids and aldehydes.Esters and Salts of Carboxylic AcidsEsters and salts of carboxylic acids are named as two words in both systematic and trivial names. The first word of the name is the name of the substituent on the oxygen. The second word of the name is derived from the name of the parent carboxylic acid with the ending changed from -ic acid to -ate.AmidesIn both the IUPAC and trivial systems, an amide is named by dropping the -ic or -oic ending of the corresponding acid name and adding -amide, such as hexanamide (IUPAC) and acetamide (trivial).Acid AnhydridesAcid anhydrides are named from the names of the component acid or acids with the word acid dropped and the word anhydride added, such as benzoic anhydride.The names for some esters, amides and anhydrides are shown in Table 8.Acid HalidesAcid halides are named by changing the ending of the carboxylic acid name from -ic acid to -yl plus the name of the halide, such as acetyl chloride.Some names of aryl compounds and aryls are as follows:benzenephenylbenzylarylbenzoic acid4. Introduction to Chemistry Department of FloridaUniversityProgram of StudyThe Department of Chemistry offers programs of study leading to the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. Students may elect studies in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry. Specialty disciplines, such as chemical physics and quantum, bioorganic, polymer, radiation, and nuclear chemistry, are available within the four major areas.The M.S. and Ph.D. degree requirements include a course of study, attendance at and presentation of a series of seminars, and completion and defense of a research topic worthy of publication1. Candidates for the Ph.D. degree must also demonstrate a reading ability of at least one foreign language and show satisfactory performance on a qualifying examination. The M.S. degree is not a prerequisite for the Ph.D. degree. A nonthesisdegree program leading to the M.S.T. degree is offered for teachers.Students are encouraged to begin their research shortly afterselecting a research director, who is the chairman of the supervisorycommittee that guides the student through a graduate career.Research FacilitiesThe chemistry department occupies 111,000 square feet of space in four buildings: Leigh Hall, the Chemical Research Building, Bryant Hall, and the Nuclear Science Building. Plans for a 65,000-square-foot addition to Leigh Hall are being prepared. A new central science library is located near the chemistry facilities. The University library system holds more than 2.2 million volumes.The major instrumentation includes ultraviolet-visible, infrared, fluorescence, Roman, nuclear magnetic resonance, electron spin resonance, X-ray, ESCA, and mass spectrometers. Many are equipped with temperature-control and Fourier-transform attachments, and some have laser sources. Data-storage and data-acquiring minicomputers are interfaced to some of the instruments, such as the recently constructed quadrupole resonance mass spectrometer. The chemistry department has V AX-11/780 and V AX-11/750 computers as well as multiple terminals connected to IBM machines in the main computer centre on campus.The departmental technical services include two well-equipped stockrooms and glassblowing, electronics, and machine shops to assist in equipment design, fabrication, and maintenance.Financial AidMost graduate students are given financial support in the form of teachingand research assistantships. Stipends range from $9400 - 11,000 for the1986-87 calendar year. State residents and assistantship holders pay in-statefees of about $1400 per calendar year. A limited number of full orsupplemental fellowships are available for superior candidates.Cost of StudyIn 1985-86, in-state students paid a registration fee of $48.62, per credit hour for each semester, out-of-state students paid an additional $ 94.50 ($ 143.12 per credit hour each semester). A small increase in fees is expected for 1986-87.5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONWith the coming of the Industrial Revolution the environmentalpollution increased alarmingly. Pollution can be defined as an undesirablechange in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water,or land that can harmfully affect health, survival, or activities of humans orother living organisms. There are four major forms of pollution - waste onland, water pollution (both the sea and inland waters), pollution of the atmosphere and pollution by noise.Land can be polluted by many materials. There are two major types of pollutants: degradable and nondegradable. Examples of degradable pollutantsare DDT and radioactive materials. DDT can decompose slowly buteventually are either broken down completely or reduced to harmless levels. For example, it typically takes about 4 years for DDT in soil to be decomposed to 25 percent of the original level applied. Some radioactive materials that give off harmful radiation, such as iodine-131, decay to harmless pollutants. Others, such as plutonium-239 produced by nuclear power plants, remains at harmful levels for thousands to hundreds of thousands of years.Nondegradable pollutants are not broken down by natural processes. Examples of nondegradable pollutants are mercury, lead and some of their compounds and some plastics. Nondegradable pollutants must be either prevented from entering the air, water, and soil or kept below harmful levels by removal from the environment.Water pollution is found in many forms. It is contamination of water with city sewage and factory wastes; the runoff of fertiliser and manure from farms and feed lots; sudsy streams; sediment washed from the land as a result of storms, farming, construction and mining; radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants; heated water from power and industrial plants; plastic globules floating in the world‟s oceans; and female sex hormones entering water supplies through the urine of women taking birth control pills.Even though scientists have developed highly sensitive measuringinstruments, determining water quality is very difficult. There are a largenumber of interacting chemicals in water, many of them only in trace amounts.About 30,000 chemicals are now in commercial production, and each yearabout 1,000 new chemicals are added. Sooner or later most chemicals end up in rivers, lakes, and oceans. In addition, different organisms have different ranges of tolerance and threshold levels for various pollutants. To complicate matters even further, while some pollutants are either diluted to harmless levels in water or broken down to harmless forms by decomposers and natural processes, others (such as DDT, some radioactive materials, and some mercury compounds) are biologically concentrated in various organisms1.Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough concentrations to harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or materials. There are two major types of air pollutants. A primary air pollutant is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration. It can be a natural air component, such as carbon dioxide, that rises above its normal concentration, or something not usually found in the air,such as a lead compound. A secondary air pollutant is a harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air components.We normally associate air pollution with smokestacks and cars, but volcanoes, forest fires, dust storms, marshes, oceans, and plants also add to the air chemicals we consider pollutants. Since these natural inputs are usually widely dispersed throughout the world, they normally don‟t build up to harmful levels. And when they do, as in the case of volcanic eruptions, they are usually taken care of by natural weather and chemical cycles2.As more people live closer together, and as they use machines to produce leisure, they find that their leisure, and even their working hours, become spoilt by a byproduct of their machines – namely, noise,The technical difficulties to control noise often arise from the subjective-objective nature of the problem. You can define the excessive speed of a motor-car in terms of a pointer reading on a speedometer. But can you define excessive noise in the same way? You find that with any existing simple “noise-meter”, vehicles which are judged to be equally noisy may show considerable difference on the meter.Though the ideal cure for noise is to stop it at its source, thismay in many cases be impossible. The next remedy is to absorb iton its way to the ear. It is true that the overwhelming majority ofnoise problems are best resolved by effecting a reduction in thesound pressure level at the receiver. Soft taped music in restaurantstends to mask the clatter of crockery and the conversation at thenext table. Fan noise has been used in telephone booths to maskspeech interference from adjacent booths. Usually, the problem is how to reduce the sound pressure level, either at source or on the transmission path.6 ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENT MARKETThe market for analytical instruments is showing a strength only dreamed about as little as five years ago. Driven by the need for greater chemicalanalysis coming from quality control and government regulation, arobust export market, and new and increasingly sophisticatedtechniques, sales are increasing rapidly1.The analytical instrument business' worldwides sales arenearly double their value of five years ago, reaching $ 4.1 billion in1987. Such growth is in stark contrast to the doldrums of severalyears ago when economic recession held back sales growth to littleor nothing. In recent years, the instrumentation market hasrecovered, growing at nearly 9% per year, and it‟s expected t o continue at this rate at least until the 1990. With sales increases exceeding inflation, the industry has seen the real growth demonstrating the important role of chemical instrumentation in areas such as research and development, manufacturing, defense, and the environment in a technologically advancingworld2.Chromatography is the fastest-growing area, comprising 40%, or $ 1.5billion, in 1987 world sales. Chromatographic methods are used extensively inindustrial labs, which purchase about 70% of the devices made, for separation,purification, and analysis. One of the biggest words in all forms of chromatography is “biocompatibility.” Biocompatible instruments are designed to have chemically inert, corrosion-resistant surfaces in contact with the biological samples.Gas Chromatography sales are growing at about the same rate as the instrument market.Some of the newest innovations in GC technology are the production of more instruments with high-efficiency, high-resolution capillaries and supercritical fluid capability.Despite having only a 3% share of the GC market, supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) has attracted a great deal of attention since its introduction around 1985 and production of the first commercial instrument around 1986. SFC, which operates using asupercritical fluid as the mobile phase, bridgesthe gap between GC and HPLC. The use ofthese mobile phases allows for higherdiffusion rates and lower viscosities thanliquids, and a greater solvating powerthan gases.Another area showing tremendous growth is ion chromatography (IC). From growth levels of 30% per year in the U.S. and similar levels worldwide, the rate is expected to drop slightly but remain high at 25%. The popularity of IC has been enhanced through extending its applicability from inorganic systems to amino acids and other biological systems by the introduction of biocompatible instruments.Mass spectrometry (MS) sales have been growing about 12% annually. Sales have always been high, especially since MS is the principal detector in a number of hyphenated techniques such as GC-MS, MS-MS, LC-MS, and GC-MS accounts for about 60% of MS sales since it is used widely in drug and environmental testing. Innovations in interface technology such as inductively coupled plasma/MS, SFC/MS, and thermospray or particle beam interfaces for LC-MS have both advanced the technology and expanded the interest in applications. Recent MS instruments with automated sampling and computerized data analysis have added to the attractiveness of the technique for first time users.Spectroscopy accounts for half of all instrument sales and is the largest overall category of instruments, as the Alpert & Suftcliffe study shows. It can be broken down evenly into optical methods and electromagnetic, or nonoptical, spectroscopies. These categories include many individual high-cost items such as MS, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers, X-ray equipment, and electron microscopy and spectroscopy setups. Sales of spectroscopic instruments that are growing at or above the market rate include Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman, plasma emission, and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers. Others have matured and slowed down in growth, but may still hold a large share of the market.The future of analytical instrumentation does not appear to be without its new stars as there continue to be innovations and developments in existing technology. Among these are the introduction of FT Raman, IR dichroism, IR microscopy, and NMR imaging spectrometers. Hyphenated and automated apparatus are also appearing on the market more frequently. New analytical techniques like capillary electrophoresis, gel capillary electrophoresis, scanning tunneling microscopy for the imaging of conducting systems, atomic force microscopy for the imaging of biological systems, and other techniques for surface and materials analysis are already, or may soon be, appearing as commercialized instruments. And, if the chemical industry continues to do well in the next few years, so too will the sales of analytical instrumentation.The effect of alcohol have both medical and medicolegal implications. The estimationof alcohol in the blood or urine is relevant when the physician needs toknow whether it is responsible for the condition of the patient. From themedicolegal standpoint the alcohol level is relevant in cases of suddendeath, accidents while driving, and in cases when drunkenness is thedefense plea. The various factors in determining the time after ingestion showing maximum concentration and the quality of the alcohol are the weight of the subject,。
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Chemical EngineeringChemical engineering is the development of processes and the design and operation of plants in which materials undergo changes in physical or chemical state on a technical scale.化学工程是过程的开发和工厂的设计与操作，在工厂中材料以某种技术规模进行的物理或化学状态的变化。
Applied throughout the process industries, it is founded on the principles of chemical, physics, and mathematics.它建立在化学、物理和数学的原则上，适用于整个流程工业。
The laws of physical chemistry and physics govern the practicability and efficiency of chemical engineering operations.物理化学和物理定律支配着化工业务的实用性和效率。
Energy changes, deriving from thermodynamic considerations, are particularly important.能量的变化，从热力学考虑派生，显得尤其重要。
Mathematics is a basic tool in optimization and modeling.数学是一个优化和建模的基本工具。
Optimization means arranging materials, facilities, and energy to yield as productive and economical an operation as possible.优化意味着合理安排材料、设备和能源，尽可能生产经济多产的操作。
Modeling is the construction of theoretical mathematical prototypes of complex process systems, commonly with the aid of computers.建模是将复杂过程系统建设出其理论数学原型的过程，通常需要借助电脑完成。
Chemical engineering is as old as the process industries.化学工程和过程工业一样古老。
Its heritage dates from the fermentation and evaporation processes operated by early civilizations.其遗产起源于早期文明的发酵和蒸发过程。
Modern chemical engineering emerged with the the development of large-scale, chemical-manufacturing operations in the second half of the 19th century.在19世纪下半叶，随着大规模的化学制造业操作的发展，现代化学工程出现了。
Throughout its development as an independent discipline, chemical engineering has been directed toward solving problems of designing and operating large plants for continuous production.化学工程作为一门独立的学科，纵观其发展过程，它已经朝向解决设计问题和经营连续生产的大型工厂的问题。
Manufacture of chemicals in the mid-19th century consisted of modest craft operations.在19世纪中叶，化工生产由小型的手工操作组成。
Increase in demand, public concern at the emission of noxious effluents, and competition between rival processes provided the incentives for greater efficiency.需求的增加，公众对有害物质排放的关注，和与对手的竞争过程为创造更高效率提供了激励机制。
This led to the emergence of combines with resources for larger operations and caused the transition from a craft to a science-based industry.这导致了更大的操作与资源相结合的联合工厂的出现，引起了从手工业到一个以科学为基础的产业（科技工厂）的过渡。
The result was a demand for chemists with knowledge of manufacturing processes, known as industrial chemists or chemical technologists.其结果是应了具有制作过程知识的化学家的要求，这是为工业化学家或化工技师所知晓的The term chemical engineer was in general use by about 1900.化学工程师一词广泛应用了约1900年。
Despite its emergence in traditional chemicals manufacturing, it was through its role in the development of the petroleum industry that chemical engineering became firmly established as a unique discipline.尽管出现在传统的化学品制造中，但它的价值却是通过其在石油工业——这门由化工工程牢固建立成的独立学科来实现的。
The demand for plants capable of operating physical separation processes continuously at high levels of efficiency was a challenge that could not be met by the traditional chemist or mechanical engineer.工厂的需求是能够高效连续地进行物理分离过程的操作，这是传统的化学家或工程师无法迎接的挑战。
A landmark in the development of chemical engineering was the publication in 1901 of the first textbook on the subject, by George E. Davis, a British chemical consultant. 化学工程发展的一个里程碑是1901年，一个英国化学顾问乔治·E·戴维斯出版的关于此话题的教科书。
This concentrated on the design of plant items for specific operations.这本书集中描述了设计工厂项目的具体操作。
The notion of a processing plant encompassing a number of operations, such as mixing, evaporation, and filtration, and of these operations being essentially similar, whatever the product, led to the concept of unit operations.注意到加工厂包括的一系列操作，如混合、蒸发、过滤，无论产物是什么，这些操作都基本相同，从而导致了单元操作的概念。
This was first enunciated by the American chemical engineer Arthur D. Little in 1915 and formed the basis for a classification of chemical engineering that dominated the subject for the next 40 years.这被美国化学工程师理特于1915年首次解释，形成了化学工程分类的基础，主导了未来40年的主题。
The number of unit operations—the building blocks of a chemical plant—is not large. 单元操作的数目——一个化工厂的建设模块数并不大。
The complexity arises from the variety of conditions under which the unit operations are conducted.复杂性来自于单元操作进行的条件的多样性。
In the same way that a complex plant can be divided into basic unit operations, so chemical reactions involved in the process industries can be classified into certain groups, or unit processes(e.g., polymerizations, esterifications, and nitrations), having common characteristics.同复杂的工厂可划分为基本的单元操作一样，过程工业中涉及到的化学反应也可分成一定的单元过程（如聚合、酯化和硝化），它们具有共同的特性。
This classification into unit processes brought rationalization to the study of process engineering.单元过程的这种分类对于过程工程的研究是合理的。