第1章：现代英语词汇学概论【A general servey of English vocabulary】汇总
1英语词汇概说
借义词（semantic-loans）是指在其它语
言的影响下，一个词获得了新的含义。如 在古英语中单词gift意思是“妻子的价格 （the price of a wife）”，而斯堪的纳维 亚词语gift意思是“礼物（gift, present）”。 gift这个词在斯堪的纳维亚语言的影响下 获得了新的含义，它是个语义借词。 Semantic borrowings: Words which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of other languages are called semantic borrowings.
(四)根据构词法，英语词汇可以分为简单
词(simple word)、派生词(derivative)、合 成词(compound)。 简单词，又叫“单词素词”（morpheme word），是由单一自由词素构成，多半是 一些短小的词，如up, down, far, near, in, at,on, give, do,head,can等。简单词在英语 词汇中虽占少数，但有较高的出现率和较 强的派生能力，因而构成英语基本词汇的 主体。
基本词汇是经过数万年积累而形成的词汇的基
本部分，是某种语言的核心。它的数量在英语 词汇中占有很小的比例，但却是英语词汇中最 重要的组成部分，基本词汇的特点是： （1）全民性（all national character）；（2） 稳 定 性 （ stability ） ； （ 3 ） 派 生 性 （productivity）；（4）多义polysemy）；（5） 可搭配性（collocability）。 基本词汇包括七个部分：（1）术语 （terminology）；（2）行话（jargon）；（3） 俚语（slang）；（4）隐语或黑话（argot）； （5）方言（dialectal words）；（6）古语 （archaisms）和 （7）新语（neologism）
词汇学读书报告
英语词汇学读书报告一：书名《现代英语词汇学》二：作者：陆国强三：出版社：上海外国语教育出版社五：页数：405 六：内容大意《现代英语词汇学》共有12章第一章：词的概述1：词的定义语言学家对词下定义时说法不一措词不同，但是涉及的不外乎是音和义的问题。
有的人认为。
词是语音和意义的统一体，语音是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。
另外也有人认为，词具有固定的语音形式，代表一定的意义，属于一定的语法范畴，体现一定的句法功能。
概括起来说，词是语音、语法和意义特点三点统一的整体。
词又是语句的基本结构单位，因为通常说一句句话总是运用一个个的词构成。
2：词的词汇意义和语法意义：大量的语言事实证明语音和意义之间没有必然的联系，然而词的词汇意义和语法意义有着十分密切的联系，语法意义的不同会引起词汇意义的某些改变。
3：词的意义与概念词义和概念有密切的联系，概念是词义的基础，词义是概念在语言中的表现形式，两者是互为依存的。
词是通过概念来反映客观事物或现象的。
但是，概念和词义并不是一个东西，而是有明显的区别的。
词义属于语言范畴，概念是属于思维范畴。
4：词与词项词是构成词汇的基本要素，词项是词典的组成单位，词用word 表示，而词项用lexical item来表示。
词典中每个词包含读音、词性、词义等内容。
第二章：词的结构和词的构成方式1：实义形位、语法形位和形位变体词是由形位构成的。
有的词只有一个形位。
形位可分为实义形位和语法形位。
实义形位是构成词的语义基础，有的时候可以形成一个词单独使用。
语法形位和实义形位不同，只表示附加意义和语法意义，且只能依附其它形位与之结合成为词才可使用。
因此有的语言学家称之为粘附形位（bound morpheme）2:词的构成方式词缀法（affixation）：词缀法是派生词的一种，它借助于语法形位，即词缀构成新词。
由词缀构成的词又称派生词。
英语词缀分为前缀和后缀两种。
一般来说，前缀只是改变词的词义，但不改变其词类。
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter1
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English VocabularyThe Definition of the term “word” 词的定义The Development of English Vocabulary英语词汇的发展史Classification of English Words词的分类The Definition of the term “word”Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.a minimum free formsoundlexical and grammatical meaningsyntactic functionBound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences.Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms.It’s not a phrase，is a word.The Development of English VocabularyNative: Celtic1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS)Celtic →Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME)French (the Norman Conquest in 1066)Latin3rd period (1500-present): Modern English PeriodEarly stages of Modern English (1500-1700)Latin (Renaissance)Greek (Renaissance)Contemporary English (1700-present):Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, ItalianOther European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch …Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade)The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.Marked progress of science and technology.Socio-economic，political and cultural changes.The influence of other cultures and languages.Classification of English WordsThree main criteria:By origin: 1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词By level of usage: 1. common words 普通词2. literary words 书面词3. colloquial words 口头词4. slang words 俚语5. technical words 术语By notion: 1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词By origin:1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词Native words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old EnglishFeatures of native words:Most are monosyllabicforming the great majority of the basic word stockLoan / borrowed words: those borrowed from other languagesBasic word stock:auxiliary, modal verbs, numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, the most frequently used words (essential to life)National characterStabilityWord-forming abilityAbility to form collocationsBy level of usage:1. Common words 普通词2. Literary words 书面词3. Colloquial words 口头词4. Slang words 俚语5. Technical words 术语*There are no clear-cut boundaries between the various classes of words.Common words普通词:connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday lifeThe core of the common words is the basic word stock.Stylistically neutralLiterary words书面词:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.Most are of French, Latin or Greek origin.Among the literary word, two categories are noteworthy:archaic words . obsolete words)poetical wordsSlang俚语:Language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabularyNot generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate termsEmbracing those daring and new expression that have not been accepted as standard EnglishThe chief reason for use of slang: secure freshness and noveltyTechnical words术语:used in various fields: science, profession or trade, art, sportincreasing precision in nomenclatureone specific meaningLatin or Greek in originBy notion:1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词Function words:determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliariesnot having much lexical meaningserving grammatically:Behaving like grammatical signals or functional markers,Expressing the kinds of connection between content wordsConstructing acceptable English sentencessmall in number and stable:In relatively closed listsBelonging to a relatively small and permanent set of words)high frequency。
语言学第三章
affixation
1. a-in the state of / in the process of E.g. New York City, already aclutter with
candidates for mayor, got one with a difference last week. ---the corridor outside the Congressman’s office was asquish with trod-upon fruit.
free morpheme( lexical free morpheme/ functional free morpheme)
functional morpheme( derivational morpheme/ flectional morpheme)
2. identification of words 3. classification of words
synonyms and antonyms, etc.
Learning objectives: 1. the definition of word 2. the formation of word ( The form) 3. Word meaning
P. 55
1. What is word? Hard to define scientifically. Three senses of Word
But sometimes being face is too much. I see a friend and her ringing laughter is intolerable---the noise of conversation in the restaurant, unbearable. I make my excuses and flee. I re-enter my apartment and run to the computer as though it were a place of safety.
词汇学问题
英语词汇学问题库（一）C1 A General Survey to English V ocabulary1。
What is lexicology？2。
What is the nature and scope of English Lexicology？3。
What subjects is English Lexicology correlated with？And to what extent?4。
Why should a student of English study English Lexicology？5. What is a word?6. What are the reasons of more and more inconsistances between sound and form..7. What is vocabulary？8。
What are the three stages of development of the English vocabulary?9. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples。
10。
What are the three main criteria for the classification of English words？11。
What is a common word（通用词, literary word(文学词）colloquial word（口语词）,slang word（俚语词）jargon（行话）, argot（黑话）, neologism（新词语)? Give examples。
12。
What is hybrid（混种词）？13. How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to loan—words?14。
英语词汇学chapter1
The Old English (449-1100)
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The vocabulary of Old English was chiefly AngloSaxon with a small mixture of Old Norse words as a result of the Scandinavian or the Danish conquests of England in the ninth century, such as, cake, call, egg, knife, take, give, etc. The English continued to adopt words from Latin during the Old English period due to the Angles and Saxons’ various contacts with the Romans, such as, candle, kettle, mountain, school, cup, etc.
The Middle English (1100-1500)
The Middle English (1100-1500)
The Norman Conquest: William, the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the AngloSaxons in 1066 AD.
Influences
Celts (the earliest inhabitants) 450 790 1066 The conquest and settlement of the Angles, Saxons, and the Jutes the Scandinavian or the Danish conquests The Norman Conquest
词汇学简介第一讲
formation in English) • 英语单词的意义和意义变化 (meaning of modern English
words and their changes in English) • 英语单词,词组和成语的用法 (the use of English words,
主要参考书目 (Reference books)
• <现代英语词汇学> (新版) • 陆国强 编著 上海外语教育出版社
• <英语词汇学教程> 张维友 编著 华中师范大学出版社
• <现代英语词汇学概论> 张韵斐 周锡卿 编著 北京师范大学出版社
英语词汇概说
Warm-up Activities Questቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱons: 1. What do you know about this course?
词汇 vocabulary
一个人的词汇量可分为四个层次,掌握的数量依次递增: • 能说的词汇Speaking vocabulary (积极词汇active vocabulary) • 能写的词汇Writing vocabulary (积极词汇active vocabulary) • 能读的词汇Reading vocabulary (消极词汇 passive vocabulary) • 能猜的词汇Guess vocabulary (消极词汇 passive vocabulary)
• 词库 Lexicon / lexis :语言学家把英语里所有 的单词,也就是英语的整个词汇叫做英语的 “词库” . 英国语言学家威尔金斯 (D. Wilkins) 说过: “没有语法,人们可以表达的事 物寥寥无几; 而没有词汇,人们则无法表达任何 事物.”
词汇学1-现代英语词汇学概述
பைடு நூலகம்
attaché charge ,
d’affaires, café concert, duet, piano, soprano, solo, tenor, model, bust, studio, dome, balcony, piazza armada, cargo, vanilla, cocoa, cigar
Modern English (1776-) English borrowed words form an increasing number of languages, the major ones being the three Romance languages: French: attaché charge d’affaires, café ,
chemist, function, scientific, vacuum; area, irony, theory, education, adapt, exist, appropriate, precise
Greek loan words: mostly literary, technical and scientific
astronaut and cosmonaut, blast off, countdown, capsule, launching pad, space suit, spacemen, space platform, space shuttle
computer science:
software, hardware, input, output, memory, monitor, process, programming, data base, internet, log on (off), etc.
现代英语词汇学概论第一章汉语版
现代英语词汇学概论第一章汉语版
《现代英语词汇学概论》是英国语言学家约翰·西诺特（John Sinclair）所著，于1966年出版的一本关于英语词汇学的经典著作。
该
书第一章的主要内容涉及了词汇学研究的背景和目标。
第一章的汉语版主要包括以下内容：
1.引言：介绍了词汇学研究的重要性和目的，以及该书的结构和内容。
2.词汇学的起源和发展：回顾了词汇学研究的历史背景和不同阶段的
发展，包括传统历史语言学和现代语言学的贡献。
3.词汇研究的方法和工具：介绍了进行词汇学研究所需的方法和工具，包括词汇统计、语料库、词典和计算机技术的运用等。
4.词汇学的理论框架：探讨了几种主要的词汇学理论，包括认知语义学、联想语义学和构式语法等，并解释了它们在研究词汇结构、意义和使
用方面的作用。
5.词汇学的研究领域：概述了词汇学研究的不同领域，包括词汇结构、词汇意义、词汇使用和词汇变化等，并举例说明了不同领域的研究方法和
发现。
总之，第一章的汉语版主要介绍了词汇学研究的基本概念、方法和理
论框架，为后续章节的词汇学内容打下基础。
现代词汇学 答案及英文课本
现代词汇学答案及英文课本第一章词的概述Exercises answer Chapter 1Ⅵ.All the words belong to the native stock. Ⅴ1. from Danish2. from French3. from German4. from Latin5. from Italian6. from Spanish7. from Arabic8. from Chinese9. from Russian10. from Greek 英语参考资料 Chapter 1A General Survey of a Word Ⅰ. Definition of a wordAristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme. Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form. Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning. Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form(phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence. Ⅱ. Sound and meaningThe Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite. Ⅲ. Meaning and conceptMeaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows: word - concept - referent The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.When someone says \to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:...some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.The word \general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one. There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called \For example, the denotation of \is \quadruped\The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionarydefinition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of \include \ Ⅳ. Lexical item and vocabularyA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item. A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that \ The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the mostindispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another.The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop, candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon...), warfare (conquer, victory, archer...), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice...), architecture (castle, pillar, tower...), finance (pay, rent, ransom...), rank (baron, master, prince...), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment...), food (dinner, feast, sauce...) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting propernames, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others.From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth ofinternational trade and the urge to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk,bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze, judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian). Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology,dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope... Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.第二章词的结构和词的构成方式练习答案Chapter 2Ⅲ:astir = in motion; in excited activity awhir = whirringanti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Marketanti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatredeplane = get out of an airplane after it landsdenationalize = deprive...of national rights or status disambiguate = rid...of ambiguity disadapt = make...unable to adaptecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutantsecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutants。
现代英语词汇学概论chapter1
– By the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back into the schools, the law courts, and government and regained social status thanks to Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer.
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• In fact English has adopted words from almost every known language in the course of its historical development.
• As summed up in The Encyclopedia Americana: “…The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed” English is supposed to have the most copious vocabulary of all the language in the world, estimated at more than a million words.
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1.2.2 The growth of present-day English vocabulary
一单元
11
In
word
lexis
(when we look up words in a dictionary we are looking up lexemes rather than words.)
5
Ran,
run, runs and running
are variations of the English lexeme
run
words reflect one’s thinking)
20
3.
4.
Some
linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception on things, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.
Sapir-Whorf theory, named after the American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, is a very influential but controversial theory concerning the relationship between language, thought and culture.
现代英语词汇学 18
1.2 What is vocabulary?
1.
The total number of the words in a language. All the words used in a particular historical period.
英语词汇学
Chapter OneA general survey of vocabularyI．Definition of word:“A free form which is not a phrase, is a word. A word , then, is a free form which does not consist entirely of (two or more) lesser free forms; in brief, a word is a minimum free form.”---Bloomfield,1933:177-178“A word is defined by the association of a given sense with a given group of sounds capable of a given grammatical use.”---French linguist, Antonine Meillet Q: Any disadvantages in the above definitions?A word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.---Zhang Yun-fei, An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology, 1990, P2“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。
”---《辞海》上海辞书出版社1984 （上）375页“词是代表一定意义、具有固定的语音形式、可以独立运用的最小结构单位。
现代英语词汇学概论1解析
1.1 The Development of English Vocabulary
Questions: 1. How many stages does English vocabulary develop?
2. At each stage, there are how many origins English words come from?
back
1.2 Classification of English Words
Questions: 1. The main criteria by which we can classify English words?
2. According to different criteria, how can we classify English words?
2. How can we define the term “word”? Can you give an example to illustrate it?
Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.
Review
Word: a minimum free form sound lexical and grammatical meaning syntactic function
英语词汇学-1
I International English Who are using English?
The countries that take E as a FL include China, Korea, Japan---
II Standard English
the variety of the EL which is normally employed in writing and normally spoken by ‘educated’ speakers, which students of English as a FL/SL are taught when they receive formal instruction — — Peter Trudgill, Jean Hannah The term Standard English refers to grammar and vocabulary (dialect) but not to pronunciation (accent).
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.
《现代英语词汇学概论》----解析(张韵斐)
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。
然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。
首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。
另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。
随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。
“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。
”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。
纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。
特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。
现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。
一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。
英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。
根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。
口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。
基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。
第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。
词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。
单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。
如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。
第1章：现代英语词汇学概论【A general servey of English vocabulary】
没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核 心。它们包括下面：
1.术语Terminology: technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语，例如在医学 上：光扫描，肝炎，消化不良，青霉素；在数学上：代数，三角学，微积 分；音乐上，交响乐，管弦乐队，奏鸣曲，协奏曲，教育上：视听教学， 自休大学，微型教学等等。 2.行话。Jargon（行话）: the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科 学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流。
1.1一个词是什么？
词语是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已 经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的 定义上达成一致。 当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度， 一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当 根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的 发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单 位。
——自然现象：雨雪火，水，太阳月亮春夏风山 ——人的身体和亲属：头足手脸父母兄弟姐妹儿子女儿 ——动植物：橡树松树草梨苹果树马牛羊猫狗小鸡 ——动作，尺寸，范围，状态：来去吃听打带好邪恶老年轻 热冷重白黑 ——数词代词介词连接词：一十百我你你的，谁，在里，在 外，在下 等，和但直到如同 这些词不能被英语会话者回避。不能不考虑词源教育专业 地区文化等等。
《现代英语词汇学概论》----解析
张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapｔer Ⅰ英语词汇得概论(Ａｇenｅrａｌsurvey ofＥｎglｉｓh vocａbu ｌａry）Bloｏmfieｌd193３中对词得定义就是,每个单词都就是最小得自由词.然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。
首先，不就是所有得单词都可以独立出现，如ｔhe ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义.另外,Bｌoomfield得定义侧重在于语法（ｓyntax)却没有涉及到词得意义。
随着词汇学得发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整得定义.“词，今指语言组织中得基础单位,能独立运用,具有声音、意义与语法功能。
”(《辞海》1984(上）3７5页，上海辞书出版社)一种语言中所有得单词汇集起来便构成了该语言得词库。
纵观英语得发展历史,我们可以知道,大多数得英语词汇都就是外来词，它从拉丁语,法语与希腊语等语言中汲取词汇,不断得扩充自己，为己所用.特别就是第二次世界大战之后,英语词汇得到了空前得发展。
现代英语词汇快速发展得原因主要有四方面。
一就是科学技术得快速发展，二就是社会经济得全球化,三就是英语国家得政治与文化变化,最后就是其她文化与语言对英语得强烈影响。
英语词汇就是由各种不同类型得单词组成,而这些单词有着不同得分类标准。
根据词得起源可以分为本族语与外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。
口头词汇,俚语以及科学术语.基础语库得基本特征就是具有民族特征，稳定性,构词得能力与搭配能力。
第二部分Cｈaｐter Ⅱ到Ｃhａpter Ⅳ英语词汇得形态结构与词得构词(Morｐhｏｌogicaｌsｔｒucture of Eｎgli ｓｈｗoｒds ａnd wｏｒd—ｆormａtioｎ)(一)词素（Mｏrｐhｅmeｓ)单词就是有词素(mｏrphemes)构成得。
词素即英语语言中有意义得最小单位,同时具有声音与意义.单词可以有一个或一个以上得词素组成。
如:ｎaｔｉon就是一个词素，ｎatｉonal有nation+al 两个词素。
第1 词汇概说：什么是词
Discussion
1) 什么是词？ 2) 什么是词汇学 ( lexicology)？ 3) What is the basic features of a word （词）? 4) What is the classfication of words?Classification of Wordsassification of 启： 谓开其意；发： Words
谓达其辞。
What is a word?
Discussion: sound , meaning, conventional, in the same speech community
( some answers from the students )
1. Definition of a word
4.3 Modern English : With printing press, standardization of English came into being in late 15th centuries, based on the dialect of London. Renaissance brought a lot of Latin and Greek, thus the increase of English. eg. Oxygen, protein, vaccine are such examples.
A learner with 1000 words can understand 80.5% of a standard text. A learner with 2,000 words can understand 89% of a text; A learner with 3000 words can understand 93% of a text. A learner with 4000 words can understand 95% of the text, which is the requirement of America of a foreigner student.
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1.5词类
英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标准或者不同的 目的进行分类。根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以 根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。
基础词和非基础词 基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英 语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。这些词有明显的特征。
上面所述都是“Non-basic words”
1.6本地词和外来词
直到词源被关注，英语单词可以划分为本地词和外来词。本地词在五 世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认 为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在 50000到60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语 言的核心。因此，真正的基础词储也是真正的本地词。和基本词储的 特征相分离，和外来词相对比，本地词还有两个其他特征：
2.行话。Jargon（行话）: the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科 学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流。
从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”英语是 沉重的借贷者，已经采用了来自世界上其他主要语言的词。据估计， 英语借词组成了现代英语词汇的百分之八十。正如“百科全书美国历 史”中所说，英语有沉重的借贷。在任何词典中百分之八十的词条是 借词。英语以明显的词汇复杂和异类著称，因为它广泛的借词。 Baugh把英国词汇比作“世界性的词汇”，揭示了英语词汇的本质。 根据同化程度和借词的风格，我们可以把借词分成四类。
没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核 心。它们包括下面：
1.术语Terminology: technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语，例如在医学 上：光扫描，肝炎，消化不良，青霉素；在数学上：代数，三角学，微积 分；音乐上，交响乐，管弦乐队，奏鸣曲，协奏曲，教育上：视听教学， 自休大学，微型教学等等。
（1）民族特征
基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那 种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词：
——自然现象：雨雪火，水，太阳月亮春夏风山
——人的身体和亲属：头足手脸父母兄弟姐妹儿子女儿
——动植物：橡树松树草梨苹果树马牛羊猫狗小鸡
——动作，尺寸，范围，状态：来去吃听打带好邪恶老年轻 热冷重白黑
在不同的语言中相同的概念可以用不同的声音表达。Woman，在德
语中是frau，在法语中是femme。在中国话中是funu。
1.3读音和形式
通常认为，自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。自然书写形 式应该和口语形式相一致。换而言之，发音应该和形式相一致。这在 英语中是相当正确的在早期也就是古代英语中。那时候的口语比今天 更忠实的代表书面语。随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语 和书面语之间。内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有 独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一 起发音。
语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式等等。
总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点： （1）一个最小的自由形态The minimum free form （2）一个发音的集合体 The aggregation of pronunciation
（3）一个意义单位unit of meaning
meaning
2、声音和形式之间的关系，Sound and form 3、词语和词汇之间的关系。Phrases and vocabulary
另外，我们将注意一些关于词汇分类的共识的规则，并且在本章一定 程度上研究每类词语。
1.1一个词是什么？
词语是什么？多年来已经引起了语言学家的关注。争议较大。尽管已 经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。学者们仍然没有在词语的 定义上达成一致。
1.风格中性。由于本地词表示人类社会中最常见事物，他们被所有人 使用，在所有地方使用，在所有场合使用，在任何时候使用。因此， 他们没有独特的特点。这可以在同义词之间的比较中看出 。
2. 使用频繁
在日常听说中本地词最常使用。关于借词的使用比例或许正好相反。 正在使用的本地词大约占百分之七十到九十 。
1.1 The Development of English Vocabulary 英语词汇的发展史
1.2 Classification of English Words 词的分类
1.The Definition of the term “word” 词的定义
词语word是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。 1、发音和意义之间的关系(Relation between Pronunciation and
现代英语词汇学概论 Introduction to Modern English Lexicology
Designed by Pro.Chengshuhua
Chapter 1
A General Survey of English Vocabulary
( 现代英语词汇学概述）
1.0 The Definition of the term “word” 词的定义
6.新词Neologisms是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。这里是 从12000词中找到的例子：
“微电子学“：电子学分支处理综合管路问题。 “未来学”：在现代趋势上针对未来可能性进行的研究 “aids”：获得免疫缺乏综合征 “电子邮件”：电子邮件，通过计算机系统进行的信息传送。 “internet”：连接商业和私人用户的国际计算机网络。
（4）能独自影响句子的形式 can influence the form of the sentence 因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义 以及句法作用。”
词语可以是简单词或者合成词，然而全部必须服从这些标准。 Man和fine是简单词，但是他们都有读音，意义和句法意义。每个都 能单独出现在句子中。自然他们都是词。也有像是misfortune和 management这样的复合词，他们都是多音节词，可以用来作主语， 宾语和预示性词语。尽管misfortune可以被进一步分为mis和 fortune，前者不能作为词单独使用。相似的，management可以被 分成manage和ment，但是后者不能自由使用。
（3）.搭配能力
基础词中许多在一些设定表达，习惯用法，谚语和类似的东西中出现。例子 是很多的。
以心为例，变心，不在心上，金子的心，在心上。伤害心，穿过心，呼喊心 声，吃掉心，心在嗓子眼，心和手，心和灵魂，心上下浮动，挂心，把心挂 在袖子上，全心全意等等。当然，不是所有的基础词都有这些特点。代词和 数词有全国使用范围和稳定性，但是无歧义
2. 非同化词Aliens（非同化词）are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. eg: bazzar (per) intermesso( IT)
3.俚语Slang、Argot（黑话/粗话）属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言， （包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行 话)，所有这些词汇都和特定的人群联系或者大部分能被特定人群使用。通 常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他。 例如“罐头起子”（万能钥匙）蘸（偷钱包）说服者（匕首）。
当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。在这个角度， 一个词可以被定义为平印在或者写在纸上的字母的有意义的集合。当 根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的 发音器官自由的发出的。根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单 位。
Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function)
5.古语Archaisms是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他
们主要出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中。这里有例子：thou（你） ye（复数你们）thee（宾格你）wilt（will）brethren（兄弟）troth（宣誓） quoth（说）aught（任何事）hereof（于此，不是至此）从此（从那）其 中（in what）。
1. 同化词Denizens（同化词）are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. eg: pork----porc(F) cup---cuppa(L) 居民词是过去早期借词，现在很好的溶入和英语。换句话说他们遵 守英语的发音和拼写方法。其中一些如此成功的同化以至于只有经 过训练的专业人士才能晓得他们的源头。这样的词是从拉丁语希腊 语法语和斯堪的纳维亚语中来的早期借词。例如“港口”从portus 来，cup从cuppa来，shift从skipta来（古代诺思语）shirt从 skyrta来，change从changier来，pork从porc来。
海狸（女孩），吸烟的，熊（警察），捉住（谈话），叫喊（呼叫）收到 （理解），x光（雷达）都是俚语。
4.方言词Dialectal words 是争论中的方言者所用的词。例如来自“美丽”（澳大利亚英语：很好的）