财务会计专业中英文对照外文翻译文献
财务管理财务分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
覆盖大量的可供选择的债券工具。由于债券市场的改革，出现了由企业发行的可供选择形式的债券工具。在第15章中，向你介绍了三种工具。我们然后致力于第一章提出的由企业负债发行的最具流动性的可供选择企业债券，企业首次发行的资产有价证券。
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
附录A
财务管理和财务分析作为财务学科中应用工具。本书的写作目的在于交流基本的财务管理和财务分析。本书用于那些有能力的财务初学者了解财务决策和企业如何做出财务决策。
通过对本书的学习，你将了解我们是如何理解财务的。我们所说的财务决策作为公司所做决策的一部分，不是一个被分离出来的功能。财务决策的做出协调了企业会计部、市场部和生产部。
1财务管理与分析的介绍
财务是经济学原理的应用的概念，用于商业决策和问题的解决。财务被认为有三部分组成：财务管理，投资，和金融机构：
■财务管理有时被称为公司理财或者企业理财。财务的范围就企业单位的财务决策的重要性划分的。财务管理决策包括保持现金流平衡，延长信用，获得其他公司借款，银行的借款和发行股票和基金。
覆盖项目租赁和项目资金融资。我们提供深度的项目租赁的内容在本书的第27章，阐明项目租赁的利弊，你在本书中会频繁的看到和专业的项目资金融资。项目融资的增长十分重要不仅对企业而言，对为了追求发展基础设施的国家也十分的重要。在第28章，本书提供了便于理解项目融资的基本原理。
早期介绍衍生工具。衍生工具（期货、交换物、期权）在理财中发挥着重要作用。在第4章向你介绍这些工具。而衍生工具被看作是复杂的工具，通过介绍将让你明确它们的基础投资工具特征。在早期介绍的衍生工具时，你可以接受那些评估隐含期权带来的困难（第9章）那些在资本预算中隐含的期权（第14章），以及如何运用隐含期权来减少成本及负债（第15章）。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSWe need to use financial ratios in analyzing financial statements.—— The analysis of comparative financial statements cannot be made really effective unless it takes the form of a study of relationships between items in the statements. It is of little value, for example, to know that, on a given date, the Smith Company has a cash balance of $1oooo. But suppose we know that this balance is only -IV per cent of all current liabilities whereas a year ago cash was 25 per cent of all current liabilities. Since the bankers for the company usually require a cash balance against bank lines, used or unused, of 20 per cent, we can see at once that the firm's cash condition is exhibiting a questionable tendency.We may make comparisons between items in the comparative financial statements as follows:1. Between items in the comparative balance sheeta) Between items in the balance sheet for one date, e.g., cash may be compared with current liabilitiesb) Between an item in the balance sheet for one date and the same item in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., cash today may be compared with cash a year agoc) Of ratios, or mathematical proportions, between two items in the balance sheet for one date and a like ratio in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., the ratio of cash to current liabilities today may be compared with a like ratio a year ago and the trend of cash condition noted2. Between items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in the statement for a given periodb) Between one item in this period's statement and the same item in last period's statementc) Of ratios between items in this period's statement and similar ratios in last period's statement3. Between items in the comparative balance sheet and items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in these statements for a given period, e.g., net profit for this year may be calculated as a percentage of net worth for this yearb) Of ratios between items in the two statements for a period of years, e.g., the ratio of net profit to net worth this year may-be compared with like ratios for last year, and for the years preceding thatOur comparative analysis will gain in significance if we take the foregoing comparisons or ratios and; in turn, compare them with:I. Such data as are absent from the comparative statements but are of importance in judging a concern's financial history and condition, for example, the stage of the business cycle2. Similar ratios derived from analysis of the comparative statements of competing concerns or of concerns in similar lines of business What financialratios are used in analyzing financial statements.- Comparative analysis of comparative financial statements may be expressed by mathematical ratios between the items compared, for example, a concern's cash position may be tested by dividing the item of cash by the total of current liability items and using the quotient to express the result of the test. Each ratio may be expressed in two ways, for example, the ratio of sales to fixed assets may be expressed as the ratio of fixed assets to sales. We shall express each ratio in such a way that increases from period to period will be favorable and decreases unfavorable to financial condition.We shall use the following financial ratios in analyzing comparative financial statements:I. Working-capital ratios1. The ratio of current assets to current liabilities2. The ratio of cash to total current liabilities3. The ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable to total current liabilities4. The ratio of sales to receivables, i.e., the turnover of receivables5. The ratio of cost of goods sold to merchandise inventory, i.e., the turnover of inventory6. The ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable7. The ratio of receivables to inventory8. The ratio of net working capital to inventory9. The ratio of notes payable to accounts payableIO. The ratio of inventory to accounts payableII. Fixed and intangible capital ratios1. The ratio of sales to fixed assets, i.e., the turnover of fixed capital2. The ratio of sales to intangible assets, i.e., the turnover of intangibles3. The ratio of annual depreciation and obsolescence charges to the assetsagainst which depreciation is written off4. The ratio of net worth to fixed assetsIII. Capitalization ratios1. The ratio of net worth to debt.2. The ratio of capital stock to total capitalization .3. The ratio of fixed assets to funded debtIV. Income and expense ratios1. The ratio of net operating profit to sales2. The ratio of net operating profit to total capital3. The ratio of sales to operating costs and expenses4. The ratio of net profit to sales5. The ratio of net profit to net worth6. The ratio of sales to financial expenses7. The ratio of borrowed capital to capital costs8. The ratio of income on investments to investments9. The ratio of non-operating income to net operating profit10. The ratio of net operating profit to non-operating expense11. The ratio of net profit to capital stock12. The ratio of net profit reinvested to total net profit available for dividends on common stock13. The ratio of profit available for interest to interest expensesThis classification of financial ratios is permanent not exhaustive. -Other ratios may be used for purposes later indicated. Furthermore, some of the ratios reflect the efficiency with which a business has used its capital while others reflect efficiency in financing capital needs. The ratios of sales to receivables, inventory, fixed and intangible capital; the ratios of net operating profit to total capital and to sales; and the ratios of sales to operating costs and expenses reflect efficiency in the use of capital.' Most of the other ratios reflect financial efficiency.B. Technique of Financial Statement AnalysisAre the statements adequate in general?-Before attempting comparative analysis of given financial statements we wish to be sure that the statements are reasonably adequate for the purpose. They should, of course, be as complete as possible. They should also be of recent date. If not, their use must be limited to the period which they cover. Conclusions concerning 1923 conditions cannot safely be based upon 1921 statements.Does the comparative balance sheet reflect a seasonable situation? If so, it is important to know financial conditions at both the high and low points of the season. We must avoid unduly favorable judgment of the business at the low point when assets are very liquid and debt is low, and unduly unfavorable judgment at the high point when assets are less liquid and debt likely to be relatively high.Does the balance sheet for any date reflect the estimated financial condition after the sale of a proposed new issue of securities? If so, in order to ascertain the actual financial condition at that date it is necessary to subtract the amount of the security issue from net worth, if the. issue is of stock, or from liabilities, if bonds are to be sold. A like amount must also be subtracted from assets or liabilities depending upon how the estimated proceeds of the issue are reflected in the statement.Are the statements audited or unaudited? It is often said that audited statements, that is, complete audits rather than statements "rubber stamped" by certified public accountants, are desirable when they can be obtained. This is true, but the statement analyst should be certain that the given auditing film's reputation is beyond reproach.Is working-capital situation favorable ?-If the comparative statements to be analyzed are reasonably adequate for the purpose, the next step is to analyze the concern's working-capital trend and position. We may begin by ascertaining the ratio of current assets to current liabilities. This ratioaffords-a test of the concern's probable ability to pay current obligations without impairing its net working capital. It is, in part, a measure of ability to borrow additional working capital or to renew short-term loans without difficulty. The larger the excess of current assets over current liabilities the smaller the risk of loss to short-term creditors and the better the credit of the business, other things being equal. A ratio of two dollars of current assets to one dollar of current liabilities is the "rule-of-thumb" ratio generally considered satisfactory, assuming all current assets are conservatively valued and all current liabilities revealed.The rule-of-thumb current ratio is not a satisfactory test ofworking-capital position and trend. A current ratio of less than two dollars for one dollar may be adequate, or a current ratio of more than two dollars for one dollar may be inadequate. It depends, for one thing, upon the liquidity of the current assets.The liquidity of current assets varies with cash position.-The larger the proportion of current assets in the form of cash the more liquid are the current assets as a whole. Generally speaking, cash should equal at least 20 per cent of total current liabilities (divide cash by total current liabilities). Bankers typically require a concern to maintain bank balances equal to 20 per cent of credit lines whether used or unused. Open-credit lines are not shown on the balance sheet, hence the total of current liabilities (instead of notes payable to banks) is used in testing cash position. Like the two-for-one current ratio, the 20 per cent cash ratio is more or less a rule-of-thumb standard.The cash balance that will be satisfactory depends upon terms of sale, terms of purchase, and upon inventory turnover. A firm selling goods for cash will find cash inflow more nearly meeting cash outflow than will a firm selling goods on credit. A business which pays cash for all purchases will need more ready money than one which buys on long terms of credit. The more rapidly the inventory is sold the more nearly will cash inflow equal cash outflow, other things equal.Needs for cash balances will be affected by the stage of the business cycle. Heavy cash balances help to sustain bank credit and pay expenses when a period of liquidation and depression depletes working capital and brings a slump in sales. The greater the effects of changes in the cycle upon a given concern the more thought the financial executive will need to give to the size of his cash balances.Differences in financial policies between different concerns will affect the size of cash balances carried. One concern may deem it good policy to carry as many open-bank lines as it can get, while another may carry only enough lines to meet reasonably certain needs for loans. The cash balance of the first firm is likely to be much larger than that of the second firm.The liquidity of current assets varies with ability to meet "acid test."- Liquidity of current assets varies with the ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable (less adequate reserves for bad debts), to total current liabilities (divide the total of the first four items by total current liabilities). This is the so-called "acid test" of the liquidity of current condition. A ratio of I: I is considered satisfactory since current liabilities can readily be paid and creditors risk nothing on the uncertain values of merchandise inventory. A less than 1:1 ratio may be adequate if receivables are quickly collected and if inventory is readily and quickly sold, that is, if its turnover is rapid andif the risks of changes in price are small.The liquidity of current assets varies with liquidity of receivables. This may be ascertained by dividing annual sales by average receivables or by receivables at the close of the year unless at that date receivables do not represent the normal amount of credit extended to customers. Terms of sale must be considered in judging the turnover of receivables. For example, if sales for the year are $1,200,000 and average receivables amount to $100,000, the turnover of receivables is $1,200,000/$100,000=12. Now, if credit terms to customers are net in thirty days we can see that receivables are paid promptly.Consideration should also be given market conditions and the stage of the business cycle. Terms of credit are usually longer in farming sections than in industrial centers. Collections are good in prosperous times but slow in periods of crisis and liquidation.Trends in the liquidity of receivables will also be reflected in the ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable, in cases where goods are typically sold on open account. A decline in this ratio may indicate a lowering of credit standards since notes receivable are usually given to close overdue open accounts. If possible, a schedule of receivables should be obtained showing those not due, due, and past due thirty, sixty, and ninety days. Such a, schedule is of value in showing the efficiency of credits and collections and in explaining the trend in turnover of receivables. The more rapid the turnover of receivables the smaller the risk of loss from bad debts; the greater the savings of interest on the capital invested in receivables, and the higher the profit on total capital, other things being equal.Author(s): C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech译文：财务报表分析A.财务比率我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。
财务会计论文英文参考文献_论文格式_
财务会计论文英文参考文献下面是小编为你精心编辑整理的财务会计论文英文参考文献，希望对你有所帮助，更多精彩内容，请点击上方相关栏目查看，谢谢!⑴aicpa,1994,"improving business reporting:a customs focus".⑵fasb,,"improving business reporting:insights into enhancing voluntary disclosures".⑶storey and teague,1995,"foundation of accounting theory and policy",the dryden press.⑷previts and merino,1979,"a history of accounting in american",john wilet&son press.⑸scott,1997,"financial accounting theory",prentice-hall publishing company..⑺upton,,"business and financial reporting,challenges from the new economy",fasb.⑻zeff and dharan,1994,"readings and notes on financial accounting:issues and controversies", mcgraw-hill company.外文经典文献：watts , ross , and jerold l. zimmerman. toward a positive theory of determination of accounting standards .the accounting review (jan 1978)watts , ross , and jerold l. zimmerman. positive accounting theory: a ten year perspective. the accounting review (jan 1990) sorter , george h. an event approach to basic accounting theory . the accounting review (jan 1969)wallman,1995.9,1996.6,1996.12,1997.6,"the future of accounting and financial reporting " (i ,ii,iii,iv),accounting horizon.jenson ,m.c. , and w.h. meckling . theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure .journal of financial economics (oct .1976)robert sprouse “developing a concept framework for financial reporting” accounting review, 1988(12) schuetze ,,walter p.”what is an asset ?” account ing horizons,1993(9)samuelson ,richard a. ,”the concept of assets in accounting theory” accounting horizons,1996(9)aaa ,”american accounting association on accounting and auditing measurement:1989-1990” accounting horizons 1991(9) l.todd johnson and kimberley r.petrone “is goodwill an asset?” accounting horizons1998(9)linsmeier, thomas j. and boatsman ,james r. ,”aaa’s financial accounting standard response to iasc ed60 intangible assets” accounting horizons 1998(9)linsmeier, thomas j. and boatsman,jamesr.”response to iasc exposure draft ,’provisions,contingent liabilities and contingent assets’ ” accounting horizons1998(6)l.todd johnson and robert. swieringa “derivatives, hedging and comprehensive income” accounting horizons 1996(11) stephen a. .ze ff ,”the rise of economics concequences”, the journal of accountancy 1978(12)david solomons “the fasb’s conceptual framework:an evaluation ” the journal of accountancy 1986(6)paul miller , “conceptual framework:myths or realities” the journal of accountancy 1985(3)part i financial accounting theorysuggested bedtime readings:1. c.j. lee, lecture note on accounting and capital market2. r. watts and j. zimmerman: positive accounting theory3. w. beaver: revolution of financial reportingalthough these three books are relatively "low-tech" in comparison with the reading assignments, but they provide much useful institutional background to the course. moreover, these books give a good survey of accounting literature, especially in the empirical area.1. financial information and asset market equilibrium*grossman, s. and j. stiglitz, "on the impossibility of informationally efficient markets," american economic review (1980), 393-408.*diamond, d. and r. verrecchia, "information aggregation in a noisy rational expectations economy," journal of financial economics, (1981), 221-35.*milgrom, p. "good news and bad news: representation theorems and applications," bell journal of economics, (1981): 380-91.grinblatt, m. and s. ross, "market power in a securities market with endogenous information," quarterly journal of economics, (1985), 1143-67.2. financial disclosure* verrecchia, r. "discretionary disclosure," journal of accounting and economics (1983),179-94.2dye, r., "proprietary and nonproprietary disclosure," journal of business, 59 (1986), 331-66.dye, r., "mandatory versus voluntary disclosures: the cases of financial and real externalities," accounting review, (1990), 1-24.bhushan, r., "collection of information about public traded firms: theory and evidence," journal of economics and accounting, (1989), 183-206.diamond, d. "optimal release of information by firms," journal of economic theory (1985), 1071-94.。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
文献信息文献标题: The Need Of Financial Statement Analysis In A Firm or0 rgnization(企业或机构财务报表分析的必要性)国外作者: Suneetha G 文献出处:《International Journal of Science Engineering and Advancel Technology (.JSEAT)) 2017, 5(6): 731-735字数统计:2541单词,15110字符;中文4377汉字外文文献:The Need Of Financial Statement AnalysisIn A Firm Or An Orgnization Abstract Financial statement analysis play a dominate role in setting the frame watt of managerial decisions through analysis and interpretation of financial statement This paper discusses about financial , strength and weakness of the company by properly establishing relationship between the items of balance shed and profit and loss account. In order to judge the profitability and financial soundness of the company horizontal, and vertical analyze or done. The various technique used in analyzing financial statement included 'comparative statement, common size statement, trend analysis and ratio analysis. The results suggest that the ratio approach is a highly useful tool in financial statement analysis, especially when a set of ratios is used to evaluate a firm's performanceKey words: Financial statement analysis, to evaluate a firm's performance Comparative statement. Common size statement, trend analysis and ratio analysis1 Introductionhe basis for financial analysis planning and decision making is financiainformation/a business firm has to prepares its financial accounts viz.. balance sheet profit and loss account which provides useful financial information for the purpose of decision making Financial information is needed to predict. Compare and evaluate the fin's earnings ability. The formers statements viz. profit and loss account shows that operating activities of the concern and the later balance sheet depicts the balance value of the acquired assets and of liabilities at a particular point of time. However these statements don't disclose all of the necessary for ascertaining the financial strengths and weaknesses of an enterprise. it is necessary to analyze the data depicted n the financial statements. The finance manager has certain analytical tools which helps is financial analysis and planning. [Doron nissim, stephen h. Penman, (2003) Financialstatement Analysis of Leverage and How it Informs About Profitability and Price-to-book Ratios. Survey of Accounting Studies. Kluwer Academic PublishersAs per examine by Dissim. StephePenman' on Financia proclamation investigation of Leverage and how it illuminates about gainfulness and cost to book proportions, money related explanation examination that recognizes use that emerges in financing exercises from use that emerges in operations. The examination yields two utilizing conditions. one for getting to back operations and one for obtaining over the span of operations. This examination demonstrates that the budgetary explanation investigation clarifies cross-sectional contrasts in present and future rates of return and additionally cost to-snare proportions, which depend onexpected rates of profit for value. This investigation helps in understandorkins influence contrasts in productivity in the cross-areas. changes in future productivity from current benefit and legally binding working liabilities from evaluated liabilities Yating Van, HW. Chuang, (2010) Financial Ratio Adjustment Process: Evidence from Taiwan and North America, ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 43 (2010)0 Euro Journa Publishing Inc. 20102. Financial statements analysisprocess of identifying the financial strengths and weaknesses of a firm from the available accounting data and financial statements. The analysis is done by properly establishing the relationship between the items of balance sheet and profitnd loss account. The first task of the financial analyst is to determine the information relevant the decision under consideration from the total information contained in financial statement. The second step is to arrange information in a way to highlightsignificant relationships. The final step is interpretation and drawing of infed conclusions. Thus financial analysis is the process of selection, relating and evaluation of the accounting data or informationPurpose of financial statements analysis Financial statements analysis is the meaningful interpretation of 'financial statements for panics demanding financial information. It is not necessary for the proprietors alone. In general, the purpose of financial statements analysis is to aidmaking between the users of accounts To evaluate past performance and financial position To predict future performance Tools and techniques of financial analysis Comparative balance sheet common size balance shee Trend analysis Ratio analysis Comparative balance sheet Comparative financial statements is a statement of the financial position of a business so designed as to facilitate comparison of different accounting variables for drawing useful inferences. Financial statements of two or more business enter prices may be compared over period of years. This is known as inter firm comparison Financial statements of the particular business enter pries may be compared over two periods of years. This is known inter period comparisonCommon size statements It facilities the comparison of two or more business entities with a commonbase .in case of balance sheet, total assets or liabilities or capital can be taken ascommon base. These statements are called common measurements or components percentage or 100 percent statements. Since each statement is representated as a %ofthe total of 100 which in variably serves as the baseIn this manner the announcements arranged to draw out the proportion of every benefit of risk to the aggregate of the monetary record and the proportion of every thing of cost or incomes to net deals known as the basic size articulationsPattern investigation Even examination of money related explanations can likewise be completed by figuring pattern rates. Pattern rate expresses quite a long while's budgetary formation as far as a base year. The base year rises to 100 % with every single other year expressed in some rate of this baseProportion investigation Proportion investigation is the technique or process by which the relationship of things or gatherings of things in the budgetary proclamations are registered. decided and introduced. Proportion investigation is an endeavor to determine quantitative measures or aides concerning the money related wellbeing and benefit of the business nture. Proportion investigation can be utilized both in pattern and static examinationhere are a few proportions at the examiner yet the gathering of proportions he wouincline toward relies upon the reason and the destinations of the investigationBookkeeping proportions are viable apparatuses of examination; they are pointers of administrative and over all operational productivity. Proportions, when appropriately utilized are fit for giving valuable data. proportion examination characterized as the deliberate utilization of proportions to decipher the money related explanations with the goal that the qualities and shortcomings of a firm and in addition its chronicled execution and current monetary condition can be resolved the term proportion alludes to the numerical or quantitative connection between things factors this relationship can be communicated as (Fraction (2)Percentages (3)Proportion of numbers These option strategies for communicating things which are identified with eacstigation,examination. It ought to be seen that processing the proportion does not include data in the figures of benefit or deals. What the proportions do is that they uncover the relationship in a more important manner in order to empower us to reach inferences from th As indicated by look into by the Yating yang and 11. W. Chuang. on 'Monetary Ratio Adjustment Process: Evidence from Taiwan and North America. measurable legitimacy of the proportion strategy in monetary articulation examination is researched. The outcomes hence recommend that the proportion approach is a valuable instrument in monetary explanation investigation, particularly when an arrangement of proportions is utilized to assess an association's execution. The straightforwardness of this strategy additionally underpins the utilization of proportions in money related basic leadership3.Money related proportions in perspective of GAAGAAP is the arrangement of standard systems for recording business exchanges and detailing accounting report passages. The components of GAAP incorporatethings onetaryd. and how to ascertain exceptional offer estimations. The models fused into (MAP give general consistency in assumes that are thusly used to ascertain imperative money related proportions that financial specialists and investigators use to assess the organization. Indeed, even agreeable monetary records can be trying to unravel, yet without a framework characterizing every class of section, corporate money related articulations would be basically dark and uselessThere are seven fundamental rule that guide the foundation of the Generall Accepted Accounting Principles. The standards of normality, consistency, perpetuality and genuineness go towardsurging organizations to utilize the legitimate bookkeeping hones quarter after quarter in a decent confidence push to demonstrate the genuine money related state of the organization. None remuneration judiciousness and progression build up rules for how to set up a monetary record, by and large to report the budgetary status of the organization as it is without treatin resources in irregular ways that distort the operations of the organization just to balance different sections. The rule of periodicity basic implies that salary to be gotten extra time ought to be recorded as it is booked to be gotten, not in a singular amountThe brought together arrangement of bookkeeping in this manner has various advantages. Not exclusively does it give a specific level of straightforwardness into an organization's funds. it likewise makes for generally simple examinations between organizations. Subsequently, GAAPempowers venture by helping financial specialists pick shrewdly. GAAP gives America organizations preference over remote ones where financial specialists, unless they have a cozy comprehension of the business may have a great deal more trouble figuring the potential dangers and prizes of a venture. GAAP applies to U.S.-based enterprises just, however every other real nation has bookkeeping measures set up for their local organizations. Now and again remote bookkeeping is genuinely like U.S. GAAP, changing in just minor and fectively represented ways. In different cases, the models change fundamentally aking direct examinations questionable, best case scenarioAdvantages and Limitations of Financial Ratio Analysis Financial ratio analysis is a useful tool for users of financial statement. It hasFocal pointselated proclamations It helps in contrasting organizations of various size and each other. It helps in drift examination which includes looking at a solitary organization over a period It highlights imperative data in basic frame rapidly. A client can judge an organization by simply taking a gander at few number as opposed to perusing of the entire monetary explanationsRestrictions Regardless of convenience, finance.ial proportion examination has a few burdens Some key faults of budgetary proportion examination areDifferent organizations work in various enterprises each having distinctive natural conditions, for example, control, showcase structure, and so on. Such factors curve so huge that a correlation of two organizations from various ventures may beecelvilFinancial bookkeeping data is influenced by assessments and presumptions Bookkeeping principles permit diverse bookkeeping arrangements, which disables likeness and subsequently proportion examination is less helpful in suchcircumstancesRatio investigation clarifies connections between past data while clients are more worried about present and future datThe investigation helps for breaking down the alteration procedure of moneelated proportionsmodel states three impacts which circular segment an association's interior impact, expansive impact, and key administration. It encourages(That a company's budgetary proportions reflect unforeseen changes in the business(2)Active endeavors to accomplish the coveted focus by administration and (3)An individual association's money related proportion developmentMonetary proclamations investigation is the way toward looking at connections among components of the organization's "bookkeeping articulations" or money related explanations (accounting report, salary articulation. proclamation of income and the announcement of held profit) and making correlations with pertinent data. It is a significant instrument utilized by financial specialists. leasers, monetary investigators proprietors. administrators and others in their basic leadership handle The most well known sorts of money related explanations examination curveHorizontal Analysis: monetary data are thought about for at least two years for a solitary organizationVertical anaery thing on a solitary monetary explanation is figured as a rate of an aggregate for a solitary organizationRatio Analysis: analyze things on a solitary budgetary articulation or look at the connections between things on two monetary proclamationsMoney related proportions examination is the most widely recognized type o budgetary explanations investigation. Monetary proportions delineate connections between various parts of an organization's operations and give relative measures of the company's conditions and execution. Monetary proportions may give intimationsand side effects of the money related condition and signs of potential issue regionsby and large holds no importance unless they are looked at against something else, as past execution, another organization/contender or industry normal. In this way, the proportions of firms in various enterprises, which confront distinctive conditions, are generally difficult to analyzeMoney related proportions can be a critical instrument for entrepreneurs and dministrators to gauge their advance toward achieving organization objectives, an toward contending with bigger organizations inside an industry; likewise, followin different proportions after some time is an intense approach to recognize patterns Proportion examination, when performed routinely after some time, can likewise give assistance independent ventures perceive and adjust to patterns influencing their operationsMoney related proportions are additionally utilized by financiers. Speculators and business experts to survey different traits of an organization's monetary quality or working outcomes, this is another motivation behind why entrepreneurs need to comprehend money related proportions in light of the fact that, all the time, a business' capacity to get financing or value financing will rely upon the organization's budgetary proportions. Money related proportions are ordered by the monetary part of he business which the proportion measures. Liquidity proportions look at the ccessibility of organization's money to pay obligation. Productivity proportions measure the organization's utilization of its benefits and control of its costs to create a satisfactory rate of return. Use proportions look at the organization's techniques for financing and measure its capacity to meet budgetary commitments. Productivity proportions measure how rapidly a firm changes over non-money resources for money resources. Market proportions measure financial specialist reaction to owning an organization's stock and furthermore the cost of issuing stockProportion Analysis is a type of Financial Statement Analysis that is utilized acquire a snappy sign of an association's money related execution in a few key territories. Proportion investigation is utilized to assess connections among money related proclamation things. The proportions are utilized to distinguish inclines after some time for one organization or to look at least two organizations at one point in ime. Money related explanation proportion investigation concentrates on three key parts of a business: liquidity, benefit, and dissolvability The proportions are sorted as Short-term Solvency Ratios, Debt MaRatios and Asset management Ratios. Productivity Ratios, and Market Value ratios Proportion Analysis as an instrument has a few vital elements. The information, which are given by budgetary proclamations. are promptly accessible. The calculation of proportions encourages the examination of firms which contrast in measure oportions can be utilized to contrast anassociation's money related execution and industry midpoints. What's more, proportions can be utilized as a part of a type of ttern investigation to recognize zones where execution has enhanced or crumbled after some time. Since Ratio Analysis depends on bookkeeping data, its adequacy is restricted by the bends which emerge in budgetary explanations because of such things as Historical Cost Accounting and swelling. Thusly, Ratio Analysis should just be utilized as an initial phase in money related examination, to get a snappy sign of an association's execution and to distinguish territories which should be explored further.中文译文:企业或机构财务报表分析的必要性摘要财务报表分析在制定管理决策框架方面起着主导作用,其方法是通过对财务报表进行分析和解释。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
财务报表分析外⽂⽂献及翻译Review of accounting studies,2003,16(8):531-560 Financial Statement Analysis of Leverage and How It Informs About Protability and Price-to-Book RatiosDoron Nissim, Stephen. PenmanAbstractThis paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage that arises in ?nancing activities from leverage that arises in operations. The analysis yields two leveraging equations, one for borrowing to ?nance operations and one for borrowing in the course of operations. These leveraging equations describe how the two types of leverage affect book rates of return on equity. An empirical analysis shows that the ?nancial statement analysis explains cross-sectional differences in current and future rates of return as well as price-to-book ratios, which are based on expected rates of return on equity. The paper therefore concludes that balance sheet line items for operating liabilities are priced differently than those dealing with ? nancing liabilities. Accordingly, ?nancial statement analysis that distinguis hes the two types of liabilities informs on future pro?tability and aids in the evaluation of appropriate price-to-book ratios.Keywords: financing leverage; operating liability leverage; rate of return on equity; price-to-book ratioLeverage is traditiona lly viewed as arising from ?nancing activities: Firms borrow to raise cash for operations. This paper shows that, for the purposes of analyzing pro?tability and valuing ?rms, two types of leverage are relevant, one indeed arising from ?nancing activities b ut another from operating activities. The paper supplies a ?nancial statement analysis of the two types of leveragethat explains differences in shareholder pro?tability and price-to-book ratios.The standard measure of leverage is total liabilities to equity. However, while some liabilities—like bank loans and bonds issued—are due to ?nancing, other liabilities—like trade payables, deferred revenues, and pension liabilities—result from transactions with suppliers, customers and employees in conducting operations. Financing liabilities are typically traded in well-functioning capital markets where issuers are price takers. In contrast, ?rms are able to add value in operations because operations involve trading in input and output markets that are less perfect than capital markets. So, with equity valuation in mind, there are a priori reasons for viewing operating liabilities differently from liabilities that arise in ?nancing.Our research asks whether a dollar of operating liabilities on the balance sheet is priced differently from a dollar of ?nancing liabilities. As operating and ?nancing liabilities are components of the book value of equity, the question is equivalent to asking whether price-to-book ratios depend on the composition of book values. The price-to-book ratio is determined by the expected rate of return on the book value so, if components of book value command different price premiums, they must imply different expected rates of return on book value. Accordingly, the paper also investigates whether the two types of liabilities are associated with differences in future book rates of return.Standard ?nancial statement analysis distinguishes shareholder pro?tability that arises from operations from that which arises from borrowing to ?nance opera tions. So, return on assets is distinguished from return on equity, with the difference attributed to leverage. However, in the standard analysis, operating liabilities are not distinguished from ?nancing liabilities. Therefore, to develop the speci?cation s for the empirical analysis, the paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that identi?es the effects of operating and ?nancing liabilities on rates of return on book value—andso on price-to-book ratios—with explicit leveraging equations that explain when leverage from each type of liability is favorable or unfavorable.The empirical results in the paper show that ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage in operations from leverage in ?nancing also distinguishes differences in contemporaneous and future pro?tability among ?rms. Leverage from operating liabilities typically levers pro?tability more than ?nancing leverage and has a higher frequency of favorable effects.Accordingly, for a given total leverage from both sources, ?rms with hig her leverage from operations have higher price-to-book ratios, on average. Additionally, distinction between contractual and estimated operating liabilities explains further differences in ?rms’ pro?tability and their price-to-book ratios.Our results are of consequence to an analyst who wishes to forecast earnings and book rates of return to value ?rms. Those forecasts—and valuations derived from them—depend, we show, on the composition of liabilities. The ?nancial statement analysis of the paper, supported by the empirical results, shows how to exploit information in the balance sheet for forecasting and valuation.The paper proceeds as follows. Section 1 outlines the ?nancial statements analysis that identi?es the two types of leverage and lays out expres sions that tie leverage measures to pro?tability. Section 2 links leverage to equity value and price-to-bookratios. The empirical analysis is in Section 3, with conclusions summarized in Section 4.1. Financial Statement Analysis of LeverageThe following ?nancial statement analysis separates the effects of ?nancing liabilities and operating liabilities on the pro? tability of shareholders’ equity. The analysis yields explicit leveraging equations from which the speci?cations for the empirical analysis are developed.Shareholder pro?tability, return on common equity, is measured asReturn on common equity (ROCE) = comprehensive net income ÷common equity (1) Leverage affects both the numerator and denominator of this pro?tability measure. Appropriate ?nancial statement analysis disentangles the effects of leverage. The analysis below, which elaborates on parts of Nissim and Penman (2001), begins by identifying components of the balance sheet and income statement that involve operating and ?nancing activities. The pro?tability due to each activity is then calculated and two types of leverage are introduced to explain both operating and ?nancing pro?tability and overall shareholder pro?tability.1.1 Distinguishing the Protability of Operations from the Protability of Financing ActivitiesWith a focus on common equity (so that preferred equity is viewed as a ?nancial liability), the balance sheet equation can be restated as follows:Common equity =operating assets＋financial assets－operating liabilities－Financial liabilities (2)The distinction here between operating assets (like trade receivables, inventory and property,plant and equipment) and ? nancial assets (the deposits and marketable securities that absorb excess cash) is made in other contexts. However, on the liability side, ?nancing liabilities are also distinguished here from operating liabilities. Rather than treating all liabilities as ? nancing debt, only liabilities that raise cash for operations—like bank loans, short-term commercial paper and bonds—are classi?ed as such. Other liabilities—such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, deferred revenue, restructuring liabilities and pension liabilities—arise from operations. The distinction is not as simple as current versus long-term liabilities; pension liabilities, for example, are usually long-term, and short-term borrowing is a current liability.Rearranging terms in equation (2),Common equity = (operating assets－operating liabilities)－(financial liabilities－financial assets)Or,Common equity = net operating assets－net financing debt (3) This equation regroups assets and liabilities into operating and nancing activities. Net operating assets are operating assets less operating liabilities. So a rm might invest in inventories, but to the extent to which the suppliers of those inventories grant credit, the net investment in inventories is reduced. Firms pay wages, but to the extent to which the payment of wages is deferred in pension liabilities, the net investment required to run the business is reduced. Net ?nancing debt is ?nancing debt (including preferred stock) minus?nancial assets. So, a ?rm may issue bonds to raise cash for operations but may also buy bonds with excess cash from operations. Its net indebtedness is its net position in bonds. Indeed a ?rm may be a net creditor (with more ?nancial assets than ?nancial liabilities) rather than a net debtor.The income statement can be reformulated to distinguish income that comes from operating and ?nancing activities: Comprehensive net income = operating income－net financing expense (4) Operating income is produced in operations and net ?nancial expense is incurred in the ?nancing of operations. Interest income on ?nancial assets is netted against interest expense on ?nancial liabilities (including preferred dividends) in net ?nancial expense. If interest i ncome is greater than interest expense, ?nancing activities produce net ?nancial income rather than net ?nancial expense. Both operating income and net ?nancial expense (or income) are after tax.3Equations (3) and (4) produce clean measures of after-tax o perating pro?tability and the borrowing rate:Return on net operating assets (RNOA) = operating income ÷net operating assets (5) andNet borrowing rate (NBR) = net financing expense ÷net financing debt (6) RNOA recognizes that pro?tabilit y must be based on the net assets invested in operations. So ?rms can increase their operating pro?tability by convincing suppliers, in the course of business, to grant or extend credit terms; credit reduces the investment that shareholders would otherwise have to put in the business. Correspondingly, the net borrowing rate, by excluding non-interest bearing liabilities from the denominator, gives the appropriate borrowing rate for the ?nancing activities.Note that RNOA differs from the more common return on assets (ROA), usually de?ned as income before after-tax interestexpense to total assets. ROA does not distinguish operating and ?nancing activities appropriately. Unlike ROA, RNOA excludes ?nancial assets in the denominator and subtracts operating liabilities. Nissim and Penman (2001) report a median ROA for NYSE and AMEX ?rms from 1963–1999 of only 6.8%, but a median RNOA of 10.0%—much closer to what one would expect as a return to business operations.1.2 Financial Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityFrom expressions (3) through (6), it is straightforward to demonstrate that ROCE is a weighted average of RNOA and the net borrowing rate, with weights derived from equation (3): ROCE= [net operating assets ÷common equity× RNOA]－[net financ ing debt÷common equity ×net borrowing rate (7) Additional algebra leads to the following leveraging equation:ROCE = RNOA＋[FLEV× ( RNOA－net borrowing rate )] (8) where FLEV, the measure of leverage from ?nancing activities, isFinancing leverage (FLEV) =net financing debt ÷common equity (9) The FLEV measure excludes operating liabilities but includes (as a net against ?nancing debt) ?nancial assets. If ?nancial assets are greater than ?nancial liabilities, FLEV is negative. The leveraging equation (8) works for negative FLEV (in which case the net borrowing rate is the return on net ? nancial assets).This analysis breaks shareholder pro?tability, ROCE, down into that which i s due to operations and that which is due to ? nancing. Financial leverage levers the ROCE over RNOA, with the leverage effect determined by the amount of ?nancial leverage (FLEV) and the spread between RNOA and the borrowing rate. The spread can be positive (favorable) or negative (unfavorable). 1.3 Operating Liability Leverage and its Effect on Operating ProtabilityWhile ?nancing debt levers ROCE, operating liabilities lever the pro?tability of operations, RNOA. RNOA is operating income relative to net operating assets, and net operating assets are operating assets minus operating liabilities. So, the more operating liabilities a ?rm has relative to operating assets, the higher its RNOA, assuming no effect on operating income in the numerator. The intensity of the use of operating liabilities in the investment base is operating liability leverage: Operating liability leverage (OLLEV) =operating liabilities ÷net operating assets (10) Using operating liabilities to lever the rate of return from operations may not come for free, however; there may be a numerator effect on operating income. Suppliers provide what nominally may be interest-free credit, but presumably charge for that credit with higher prices for the goods and services supplied. This is the reason why operating liabilities are inextricably a part of operationsrather than the ?nancing of operations. The amount that suppliers actually charge for this credit is dif?cult to identify. But the market borrowing rate is observable. The amount that suppliers would implicitly charge in prices for the credit at this borrowing rate can be estimated as a benchmark: Market interest on operating liabilities= operating liabilities×market borrowing ratewhere the market borrowing rate, given that most credit is short term, can be approximated by the after-tax short-term borrowing rate. This implicit cost is benchmark, for it is the cost that makes suppliers indifferent in supplying cred suppliers are fully compensated if they charge implicit interest at the cost borrowing to supply the credit. Or, alternatively, the ?rm buying the goods o r services is indifferent between trade credit and ?nancing purchases at the borrowin rate.To analyze the effect of operating liability leverage on operating pro?tability, w e d e?ne:Return on operating assets (ROOA) =(operating income＋market interest on operating liabilities)÷operating assets(11)The numerator of ROOA adjusts operating income for the full implicit cost of trad credit. If suppliers fully charge the implicit cost of credit, ROOA is the return of operating assets that would be earned had the ?rm no operating liability leverage. suppliers do not fully charge for the credit, ROOA measures the return fro operations that includes the favorable implicit credit terms from suppliers.Similar to the leveraging equation (8) for ROCE, RNOA can be expressed as:RNOA = ROOA＋[ OLLEV ×(ROOA－market borrowing rate )] (12) where the borrowing rate is the after-tax short-term interest rate.Given ROOA, the effect ofleverage on pro?tability is determined by the level of operating liability leverage and the spread between ROOA and the short-term after-tax interest rate. Like ?nancing l everage, the effect can be favorable or unfavorable: Firms can reduce their operating pro?tability through operating liability leverage if their ROOA is less than the market borrowing rate. However, ROOA will also be affected if the implicit borrowing cost on operating liabilities is different from the market borrowing rate. 1.4 Total Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityOperating liabilities and net ?nancing debt combine into a total leverage measure:Total leverage (TLEV) = ( net financing debt＋operating liabilities)÷common equityThe borrowing rate for total liabilities is:Total borrowing rate = (net financing expense＋market interest on operating liabilities) ÷net financing debt＋operating liabilitiesROCE equals the weighted average of ROOA and the total borrowing rate, where the weights are proportional to the amount of total operating assets and the sum of net ?nancing debt and operating liabilities (with a negative sign), respectively. So, similar to the leveraging equations (8) and (12):ROCE = ROOA ＋[TLEV×(ROOA －total borrowing rate)](13)In summary, ?nancial statement analysis of operating and ?nancing activities yields three leveraging equations, (8), (12), and (13). These equations are based on ?xed accounting re lations and are therefore deterministic: They must hold for a given ? rm at a given point in time. The only requirement in identifying the sources of pro?tability appropriately is a clean separation betweenoperating and ?nancing components in the ?nancial statements.2. Leverage, Equity Value and Price-to-Book RatiosThe leverage effects above are described as effects on shareholder pro?tability. Our interest is not only in the effects on shareholder pro?tability, ROCE, but also in the effects on shareholder value, which is tied to ROCE in a straightforward way by the residual income valuation model. As a restatement of the dividend discount model, the residual income model expresses the value of equity at date 0 (P0) as:B is the book value of common shar eholders’ equity, X is comprehensive income to common shareholders, and r is the required return for equity investment. The price premium over book value is determined by forecasting residual income, Xt –rBt-1. Residual income is determined in part by income relative to book value, that is, by the forecasted ROCE. Accordingly, leverage effects on forecasted ROCE (net of effects on the required equity return) affect equity value relative to book value: The price paid for the book value depends on the expect ed pro?tability of the book value, and leverage affects pro?tability. So our empirical analysis investigates the effect of leverage on both pro?tability and price-to-book ratios. Or, stated differently, nancing and operating liabilities are distinguishable components of book value, so the question is whether the pricing of book values depends on the composition of book values. If this is the case, the different components of book value must imply different pro?tability. Indeed, the two analyses (of pro?tab ility and price-to-book ratios) are complementary.Financing liabilities are contractual obligations for repayment of funds loaned. Operatingliabilities include contractual obligations (such as accounts payable), but also include accrual liabilities (such as deferred revenues and accrued expenses). Accrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. We consider the real effects of contracting and the effects of accounting estimates in turn. Appendix A provides some examples of contractual and estimated liabilities and their effect on pro?tability and value.2.1 Effects of Contractual liabilitiesThe ex post effects of ?nancing and operating liabilities on pro?tability are clear from leveraging equations (8), (12) and (13). These expressions always hold ex post, so there is no issue regarding ex post effects. But valuation concerns ex ante effects. The extensive research on the effects of ?nancial leverage takes, as its point of departure, the Modigliani and Miller (M&M) (1958) ?nancing irrelevance proposition: With perfect capital markets and no taxes or information asymmetry, debt ?nancing has no effect on value. In terms of the residual income valuation model, an increase in ?nancial leverage due to a substitution of debt for equity may increase expected ROCE according to expression (8), but that increase is offset in the valuation (14) by the reduction in the book value of equity that earns the excess pro?tability and the increase in the required equity return, leaving total value (i.e., the value of equity and debt) unaffected. The required equity return increases because of increased ? nancing risk: Leverage may be expected to be favorable but, the higher the leverage, the greater the loss to shareholders should the leverage turn unfavorable ex post, with RNOA less than the borrowing rate.In the face of the M&M proposition, research on the value effects of ?nancial leverage has proceeded to relax the conditions for the proposition to hold. Modigliani and Miller (1963) hyp othesized that the tax bene?ts of debt increase after-tax returns to equity and so increase equityvalue. Recent empirical evidence provides support for the hypothesis (e.g., Kemsley and Nissim, 2002), although the issue remains controversial. In any case, since the implicit cost of operating liabilities, like interest on ?nancing debt, is tax deductible, the composition of leverage should have no tax implications.Debt has been depicted in many studies as affecting value by reducing transaction and contracting costs. While debt increases expected bankruptcy costs and introduces agency costs between shareholders and debtholders, it reduces the costs that shareholders must bear in monitoring management, and may have lower issuing costs relative to equity. One might expect these considerations to apply to operating debt as well as ?nancing debt, with the effects differing only by degree. Indeed papers have explained the use of trade debt rather than ?nancing debt by transaction costs (Ferris, 1981), differentia l access of suppliers and buyers to ?nancing (Schwartz,1974), and informational advantages and comparative costs of monitoring (Smith, 1987; Mian and Smith, 1992; Biais and Gollier, 1997). Petersen and Rajan (1997) provide some tests of these explanations.In addition to tax, transaction costs and agency costs explanations for leverage, research has also conjectured an informational role. Ross (1977) and Leland and Pyle (1977) characterized ?nancing choice as a signal of pro?tability and value, and subseque nt papers (for example, Myers and Majluf, 1984) have carried the idea further. Other studies have ascribed an informational role also for operating liabilities. Biais and Gollier (1997) and Petersen and Rajan (1997), for example, see suppliers as having mo re information about ?rms than banks and the bond market, so more operating debt might indicate higher value. Alternatively, high trade payables might indicate dif?culti es in paying suppliers and declining fortunes.Additional insights come from further relaxing the perfect frictionless capital markets assumptions underlying the original M&M nancing irrelevance proposition. When it comes to operations, the product and input markets in which rms trade are typically less competitive than capital markets. In deed, ?rms are viewed as adding value primarily in operations rather than in nancing activities because of less than purely competitive product and input markets. So, whereas it is difficult to ‘‘make money off the debtholders,’’ ?rms can be seen as ‘‘mak ing money off the trade creditors.’’ In operations, ?rms can exert monopsony power, extracting value from suppliers and employees. Suppliers may provide cheap implicit ?nancing in exchange for information about products and markets in which the ?rm operates. They may also bene?t from ef?ciencies in the ?rm’s supply and distribution chain, and may grant credit to capture future business.2.2 Effects of Accrual Accounting EstimatesAccrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. Pension liabilities, for example, are based on employment contracts but involve actuarial estimates. Deferred revenues may involve obligations to service customers, but also involve estimates that allocate revenues to periods. While contractual liabilities are typically carried on the balance sheet as an unbiased indication of the cash to be paid, accrual accounting estimates are not necessarily unbiased. Conservative accounting, for example, might overstate pension liabilities or defer more revenue than required by contracts with customers.Such biases presumably do not affect value, but they affect accounting rates of return and the pricing of the liabilities relative to their carrying value (the price-to-book ratio). The effect of accounting estimates on operating liability leverage is clear: Higher carrying values for operatingliabilities result in higher leverage for a given level of operating assets. But the effect on pro?tability is also clear from leveraging equation (12): While conservative accounting for operating assets increases the ROOA, as modeled in Feltham and Ohlson (1995) and Zhang (2000), higher book values of operating liabilities lever up RNOA over ROOA. Indeed, conservative accounting for operating liabilities amounts to leverage of book rates of return. By leveraging equation (13), that leverage effect ?ows through to shareholder pro?tability, ROCE.And higher anticipated ROCE implies a higher price-to-book ratio.The potential bias in estimated operating liabilities has opposite effects on current and future pro?tability. For example, if a ? rm books higher deferred revenues, accrued expenses or other operating liabilities, and so increases its operating liability leverage, it reduces its current pro?tability: Current revenues must be lower or expenses higher. And, if a ?rm reports lower operating assets (by a write down of receivables, inventories or other assets, for example), and so increases operating liability leverage, it also reduces current pro?tability: Current expense s must be higher. But this application of accrual accounting affects future operating income: All else constant, lower current income implies higher future income. Moreover, higher operating liabilities and lower operating assets amount to lower book value of equity. The lower book value is the base for the rate of return for the higher future income. So the analysis of operating liabilities potentially identi?es part of the accrual reversal phenomenon documented by Sloan (1996) and interprets it as affecting leverage, forecasts of pro?tability, and price-to-book ratios.3. Empirical AnalysisThe analysis covers all ?rm-year observations on the combined COMPUSTAT (Industry and Research) ?les for any of the 39 years from 1963 to 2001 that satisfy the following requirements: (1)the company was listed on the NYSE or AMEX; (2) the company was not a ?nancial institution (SIC codes 6000–6999), thereby omitting ?rms where most ?nancial assets and liabilities are used in operations; (3) the book value of common equity is at least $10 million in 2001 dollars; and (4) the averages of the beginning and ending balance of operating assets, net operating assets and common equity are positive (as balance sheet variables are measured in the analysis using annual averages). T hese criteria resulted in a sample of 63,527 ?rm-year observations.Appendix B describes how variables used in the analysis are measured. One measurement issue that deserves discussion is the estimation of the borrowing cost for operating liabilities. As most operating liabilities are short term, we approximate the borrowing rate by the after-tax risk-free one-year interest rate. This measure may understate the borrowing cost if the risk associated with operating liabilities is not trivial. The effect of such measurement error is to induce a negative correlation between ROOA and OLLEV. As we show below, however, even with this potential negative bias we document a strong positive relation between OLLEV and ROOA.4. ConclusionTo ?nance operations, ?rms borrow in the ?nancial markets, creating ?nancing leverage. In running their operations, ?rms also borrow, but from customers, employees and suppliers, creating operating liability leverage. Because they involve trading in different types of markets, the two types of leverage may have different value implications. In particular, operating liabilities may re?ect contractual terms that add value in different ways than ?nancing liabilities, and so they may be priced differently. Operating liabilities also involve accrual accounting estimates that may further affect their pricing. This study has investigated the implications of the two types of leverage for pro?tability and equity value.The paper has laid out explicit leveraging equations that show how shareholder p ro?tability is related to ?nancing leverage and operating liability leverage. For operating liability leverage, the leveraging equation incorporates both real contractual effects and accounting effects. As price-to-book ratios are based on expected pro?tab ility, this analysis also explains how price-to-book ratios are affected by the two types of leverage. The empirical analysis in the paper demonstrates that operating and ?nancing liabilities imply different pro?tability and are priced differently in the stock market.Further analysis shows that operating liability leverage not only explains differences in pro?tability in the cross-section but also informs on changes in future pro?tability from current pro?tability. Operating liability leverage and changes in operating liability leverage are indicators of the quality of current reported pro?tability as a predictor of future pro?tability.Our analysis distinguishes contractual operating liabilities from estimated liabilities, but further research might examine operating liabilities in more detail, focusing on line items such as accrued expenses and deferred revenues. Further research might also investigate the pricing of operating liabilities under differing circumstances; for example, where ?rms have ‘‘market power’’ over their suppliers.会计研究综述，2003,16(8):531-560财务报表分析的杠杆左右以及如何体现盈利性和值⽐率摘要本⽂提供了区分⾦融活动和业务运营中杠杆作⽤的财务报表分析。
关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)
The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。
财务管理或会计专业论文外文文献
原文：Introduction to Financial ManagementSourse:Ryan Allis.Zero to one million.February 2008Business financial management in the small firm is characterized, in many different cases, by the need to confront a somewhat different set of problems and opportunities than those confronted by a large corporation. One immediate and obvious difference is that a majority of smaller firms do not normally have the opportunity to publicly sell issues of stocks or bonds in order to raise funds. The owner-manager of a smaller firm must rely primarily on trade credit, bank financing, lease financing, and personal equity to finance the business. One, therefore faces a much more severely restricted set of financing alternatives than those faced by the financial vice president or treasurer of a large corporation.On the other hand, when small business financial management is concern, many financial problems facing the small firm are very similar to those of larger corporations. For example, the analysis required for a long-term investment decision such as the purchase of heavy machinery or the evaluation of lease-buy alternatives, is essentially the same regardless of the size of the firm. Once the decision is made, the financing alternatives available to the firm may be radically different, but the decision process will be generally similar.One area of particular concern for the smaller business owner lies in the effective management of working capital. Net working capital is defined as the difference between current assets and current liabilities and is often thought of as the "circulating capital" of the business. Lack of control in this crucial area is a primary cause of business failure in both small and large firms.The business manager must continually be alert to changes in working capital accounts, the cause of these changes and the implications of these changes for the financial health of the company. One convenient and effective method to highlight the key managerial requirements in this area is to view working capital in terms of its major components:(1) Cash and EquivalentsThis most liquid form of current assets, cash and cash equivalents (usually marketable securities or short-term certificate of deposit) requires constant supervision. A well planned and maintained cash budgeting system is essential to answer key questions such as: Is the cash level adequate to meet current expenses as they come due? What are the timing relationships between cash inflows and outflows? When will peak cash needs occur? What will be the magnitude of bank borrowing required to meet any cash shortfalls? When will this borrowing be necessary and when may repayment be expected?(2) Accounts ReceivableAlmost all businesses are required to extend credit to their customers. Key issues in this area include: Is the amount of accounts receivable reasonable in relation to sales? On the average, how rapidly are accounts receivable being collected? Which customers are "slow payers?" What action should be taken to speed collections where needed?(3) InventoriesInventories often make up 50 percent or more of a firm's current assets and therefore, are deserving of close scrutiny. Key questions which must be considered in this area include: Is the level of inventory reasonable in relation to sales and the operating characteristics of the business?How rapidly is inventory turned over in relation to other companies in the same industry? Is any capital invested in dead or slow moving stock? Are sales being lost due to inadequate inventory levels? If appropriate, what action should be taken to increase or decrease inventory?(4) Accounts Payable and Trade Notes PayableIn a business, trade credit often provides a major source of financing for the firm. Key issues to investigate in this category include: Is the amount of money owed to suppliers reasonable in relation to purchases? Is the firm's payment policy such that it will enhance or detract from the firm's credit rating? If available, are discounts being taken? What are the timing relationships between payments on accounts payable and collection on accounts receivable?(5) Notes PayableNotes payable to banks or other lenders are a second major source of financing for the business. Important questions in this class include: What is the amount of bank borrowing employed? Is this debt amount reasonable in relation to the equity financing of the firm? When will principal and interest payments fall due? Will funds be available to meet these payments on time?(6) Accrued Expenses and Taxes PayableAccrued expenses and taxes payable represent obligations of the firm as of the date of balance sheet preparation. Accrued expenses represent such items as salaries payable, interest payable on bank notes, insurance premiums payable, and similar items. Of primary concern in this area, particularly with regard to taxes payable, is the magnitude, timing, and availability of funds for payment. Careful planning is required to insure that these obligations are met on time.When small business financial management is concern, many financial problems facing the small firm are very similar to those of larger corporations. For example, the analysis required for a long-term investment decision such as the purchase of heavy machinery or the evaluation of lease-buy alternatives, is essentially the same regardless of the size of the firm. Once the decision is made, the financing alternatives available to the firm may be radically different. Manager must continually be alert to changes in working capital accounts, the cause of these changes and the implications of these changes for the financial health of the company.As a final note, it is important to recognize that although the working capital accounts above are listed separately, they must also be viewed in total and from the point of view of their relationship to one another: What is the overall trend in net working capital? Is this a healthy trend? Which individual accounts are responsible for the trend? How does the firm's working capital position relate to similar sized firms in the industry? What can be done to correct the trend, if necessary?Of course, the questions posed are much easier to ask than to answer and there are few "general" answers to the issues raised. The guides which follow provide suggestions, techniques, and guidelines for successful management which, when tempered with the experience of the individual owner-manager and the unique requirements of the particular industry, may be expected to enhance one's ability to manage effectively the financial resources of a business enterprise.企业财务管理在中小企业的特点是，在许多不同的情况下，需要面对有所不同的一系列问题和机会比那些面临一个大公司。
会计学毕业论文外文文献及翻译
LNTU---Acc附录A国际会计准则第 37 号或有负债和或有资产目的本准则的目的是确保将适当的确认标准和计量基础运用于准备、或有负债和或有资产，并确保在财务报表的附注中披露充分的信息，以使使用者能够理解它们的性质、时间和金额。
范围1．本准则适用于所有企业对以下各项之外的准备、或有负债和或有资产的会计核算：（1）以公允价值计量的金融工具形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产：（2）执行中的合同（除了亏损的执行中的合同）形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（3）保险公司与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（4）由其他国际会计准则规范的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
2．本准则适用于不是以公允价值计量的金融工具（包括担保）。
3．执行中的合同是指双方均未履行任何义务或双方均同等程度地履行了部分义务的合同。
本准则不适用于执行中的合同，除非它是亏损的。
4．本准则适用于保险公司的准备、或有负债和或有资产，但不适用于其与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
5．如果其他国际会计准则规范了特定的准备、或有负债和或有资产，企业应运用该准则而不是本准则，例如，关于以下项目的准则也规范了特定的准备：（1）建造合同（参见《国际会计准则第11号建造合同》）；（2）所得税（参见《国队会计准则第12号所得税》）；（3）租赁（参见《国际会计准则第17 号租赁》），但是，《国际会计准则第17 号》未对已变为亏损的经营租质的核算提出具体要求，因而本准则应适用于这些情况；（4）雇员福利（参见《国际会计准则第19号一雇员福利》）。
6．一些作为准备处理的金额可能与收入的确认有关，例如企业提供担保以收取费用，本准则不涉及收入确认，《国际会计准则第18 号收入》明确了收入确认标准，并就确认标准的应用提供了实务指南，本准则不改变《国际会计准则第18 号》的规定。
7．本准则将准备定义为时间或金额不确定的负债，在某些国家，“准备”也与一些项目相联系使用，例如折旧，资产减值和坏账：这些是对资产账面金额的调整，本准则不涉及。
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：中美财务报表的区别(1)财务报告内容构成上的区别1)美国的财务报告包括三个基本的财务报表，除此之外，典型的美国大公司财务报告还包括以下成分：股东权益、收益与综合收益、管理报告、独立审计报告、选取的5-10年数据的管理讨论与分析以及选取的季度数据。
2)我国财务报告不注重其解释，而美国在财务报告的内容、方法、多样性上都比较充分。
中国的评价部分包括会计报表和财务报表，财务报表是最主要的报表，它包括前述各项与账面不符的描述、财会政策与变化、财会评估的变化、会计差错等问题，资产负债表日期，关联方关系和交易活动等等，揭示方法是注意底部和旁注。
美国的财务范围在内容上比财务报表更加丰富，包括会计政策、技巧、添加特定项目的报告, 报告格式很难反映内容和商业环境等等，对违反一致性、可比性原则问题，评论也需要披露的，但也揭示了许多方面，比如旁注、底注、括号内、补充声明、时间表和信息分析报告。
(2)财务报表格式上的比较1)从资产负债表的格式来看，美国的资产负债表有账户类型和报告样式两项描述，而我国是使用固定的账户类型。
另外，我们的资产负债表在项目的使用上过于标准化，不能够很好的反映出特殊的商业项目或者不适用于特殊类型的企业。
而美国的资产负债表项目是多样化的，除此之外，财务会计准则也是建立在资产负债表中资产所有者投资和支出两项要素基础上的，这一点也是中国的财会准则中没有的。
2)从损益表格式的角度来看，美国采用的是多步式，损益表项目分为两部分，营业利润和非营业利润，但是意义不同。
我国的营业利润在范围上比美国的小，例如投资收益在美国是归类为营业利润的而在我国则不属于营业利润。
另外，我国的损益表项目较美国的更加规范和严格，美国校准损益表仅仅依赖于类别和项目。
报告收可以与销售收入及其他收入相联系，也可以和利息收益、租赁收入和单项投资收益相联系；在成本方面，并不是严格的划分为管理成本、财务成本、和市场成本，并且经常性销售费用、综合管理费用以及利息费用、净利息收益都要分别折旧。
财务会计文献-英译汉
英文翻译题目Determinants and consequences of internal controlin firms: a contingency theory based analysis 学院名称经济管理学院指导教师王龙辉职称讲师班级财务管理 081班学号 20084960137 学生姓名高旭2012年05月25日企业内部控制的影响因素和后果：基于权变理论的分析摘要:为了保证企业需求内部控制活动的有效性和信息的可靠性以及遵守法律的适用性。
因此，COCO,COSO等几个框架显示公司的特这个不同对内部的控制也不同。
每个组织要选择最适合的控制系统时，必须考虑到意外事故的风险是否切合权变理论。
本文研究的是检视这些风险特点的选择是否适应他们公司内部控制结构和它是否会导致一些更加优惠的有效性的评估控制管理。
虽然内部控制的组成部分已进行单独控制，本文尝试阐明内部控制的关键点并将其放到更加广阔的背景中。
结果证明，基于对741芬兰公司WEB调查，表明公司用内部控制结构来应对环境的不确定性，并观测控制的有效性的战略对其内部控制结构有着显著的效果。
关键词：内部控制成效权变理论结构方块建模1 文章概述人们普遍认为，一个内部控制系统可以帮助企业降低风险的财务报表的可靠性保证体系和法律的遵循情况（Spira and page 2003）因此，越来越多的企业倒闭和一些广泛宣传企业舞弊行为导致企业在他们具体的操作环境下更多的关注自己的内部控制。
在巨大的管理压力下，如何提高内部控制的有效性以及有效的与董事会和股东沟通。
由于内部控制可能会影响长期的报告，导致审计人员、供应商、客户都对内部控制感兴趣。
Kinney在2000年指出，尽管内部控制对公司影响很大，但在组织环境中内部控制结构却无法实现。
关于内部控制的抓也文献在国际研究上已取得进展，但迄今为止，内部控制的研究数量有限。
在2004年Selto andWidener出版的专业文章中提出，在管理控制中研究较少的内部控制有着很强的实用性。
财务会计中英文对照(doc 8页)(完美版)
1AAA 美国会计学会2Abacus《算盘》杂志3abacus 算盘考试大论坛4Abandonment废弃,报废;委付5abandonment value 废弃价值6abatement①减免②冲销7ability to service debt 偿债能力8abnormal cost 异常成本9abnormal spoilage 异常损耗10above par 超过票面价值11above the line线上项目12absolute amount 绝对数,绝对金额13absolute endorsement 绝对背书14absolute insolvency 绝对无力偿付15absolute priority 绝对优先求偿权16absolute value 绝对值17absorb 摊配,转并18absorption account 摊配账户,转并账户19absorption costing 摊配成本计算法20abstract 摘要表考试大论坛21abuse 滥用职权22abuse of tax shelter 滥用避税项目23ACCA特许公认会计师公会24accelerated cost recovery system 加速成本收回制度25accelerated depreciation method 加速折旧法,快速折旧法26acceleration clause 加速偿付条款,提前偿付条款27acceptance①承兑②已承兑票据③验收28acceptance bill 承兑票据29acceptance register 承兑票据登记簿30acceptance sampling验收抽样31access time 存取时间32accommodation 融通33accommodation bill 融通票据34accommodation endorsement 融通背书35account①账户,会计科目②账簿,报表③账目,账项④记账36accountability 经营责任,会计责任37accountability unit 责任单位38Accountancy 《会计》杂志39accountancy 会计40accountant 会计员,会计师41accountant general 会计主任,总会计42accounting in charge 主管会计师43accountant,s legal liability 会计师的法律责任44accountant,s report 会计师报告45accountant,s responsibility 会计师职责46account form 账户式,账式47accounting①会计②会计学48accounting assumption 会计假定,会计假设49accounting basis 会计基准,会计基本方法50accounting changes 会计变更51accounting concept 会计概念52accounting control 会计控制53accounting convention 会计常规,会计惯例54accounting corporation 会计公司55accounting cycle 会计循环56accounting data 会计数据57accounting doctrine 会计信条58accounting document 会计凭证59accounting elements 会计要素60accounting entity 会计主体,会计个体61accounting entry 会计分录62accounting equation 会计等式63accounting event 会计事项64accounting exposure 会计暴露,会计暴露风险65accounting firm 会计事务所考试大论坛66Accounting Hall of Fame 会计名人堂67accounting harmonization 会计协调化68accounting identity 会计恒等式69accounting income 会计收益70accounting information 会计信息71accounting information system 会计信息系统72accounting internationalization 会计国际化73accounting journals 会计杂志74accounting legislation 会计法规75accounting manual 会计手册76accounting objective 会计目标77accounting period 会计期78accounting policies 会计政策79accounting postulate 会计假设80accounting practice 会计实务81accounting principle 会计原则82Accounting Principle Board 会计原则委员会83accounting procedures 会计程序84accounting profession 会计职业,会计专业85accounting rate of return 会计收益率86accounting records 会计记录,会计簿籍87Accounting Review 《会计评论》88accounting rules 会计规则89Accounting Series Release 《会计公告文件》90accounting service 会计服务91accounting software 会计软件92accounting standard 会计标准,会计准则93accounting standardization 会计标准化94Accounting Standards Board 会计准则委员会(英)95Accounting Standards Committee 会计准则委员会(英)96accounting system①会计制度②会计系统97accounting technique 会计技术98accounting theory 会计理论99accounting transaction 会计业务,会计账务100Accounting Trend and Techniques 《会计趋势和会计技术》101accounting unit 会计单位102accounting valuation 会计计价103accounting year 会计年度104accounts 会计账簿,会计报表105account sales 承销清单,承销报告单106accounts payable 应付账款107accounts receivable 应收账款108accounts receivable aging schedule 应收账款账龄分析表109accounts receivable assigned 已转让应收账款110accounts receivable collection period应收账款收款期111accounts receivable discounted 已贴现应收账款112accounts receivable financing 应收账款筹资,应收账款融资113accounts receivable management 应收账款管理114accounts receivable turnover 应收账款周转率,应收账款周转次数115accretion 增殖116accrual basis accounting 应计制会计,权责发生制会计117accrued asset 应计资产118accrued expense 应计费用119accrued liability 应计负债120accrued revenue 应计收入121accumulated depreciation 累计折旧122accumulated dividend 累计股利123accumulated earnings tax 累积盈余税,累积收益税124accumulation 累积,累计125acid test ratio 酸性试验比率126acquired company 被盘购公司,被兼并公司127acquisition 购置,盘购128acquisition accounting 盘购会计129acquisition cost 购置成本130acquisition decision 购置决策131acquisition excess 盘购超支132acquisition surplus 盘购盈余133across-the-board 全面调整134ACT 预交公司税135act 法案,法规136action 起诉,诉讼137active account 活动账户138active assets 活动资产139activity 业务活动,作业140activity account 作业账户141activity accounting 作业会计142activity ratio 业务活动比率143activity variance 业务活动量差异144act of bankruptcy 破产法145act of company 公司法146act of God 天灾,不可抗力147actual capital 实际资本148actual value 实际价值149actual wage 实际工资150added value 增值151added value statement 增值表152added value tax 增值税153addition 增置,扩建154additional depreciation 附加折旧,补提折旧155additional paid-in capital 附加实缴资本156additional tax 附加税157adequate disclosure 充分披露158adjunct account 附加账户159adjustable-rate bond 可调整利率债券160adjusted gross income 调整后收益总额,调整后所得总额161adjusted trial balance 调整后试算表162adjusting entry 调整分录163adjustment 调整164adjustment account 调整账户165adjustment bond 调整债券166administrative accounting 行政管理会计167administrative budget 行政管理预算168administrative expense行政管理费用169ADR 资产折旧年限幅度170ad valorem tax 从价税171advance 预付款,垫付款172advance corporation tax 预交公司税173advances from customers 预收客户款174advance to suppliers 预付货款175adventure 投机经营,短期经营176adverse opinion 反面意见,否定意见177adverse variance 不利差异,逆差178advisory services咨询服务179affiliated company 联营公司180affiliation 联营181after closing trial balance 结账后试算表182after cost 售后成本183after date 出票后兑付184after sight 见票后兑付185after-tax 税后186AGA 政府会计师联合会187age 寿命,账龄,资产使用年限188age allowance年龄减免189age analysis 账龄分析190agency 代理,代理关系191agency commission 代理佣金192agency fund 代管基金193agenda 议事日程,备忘录194agent 代理商,代理人195aggregate balance sheet 合并资产负债表196aggregate income statement 合并损益表197AGI 调整后收益总额,调整后所得总额198aging of accounts receivable应收账款账龄分析199aging schedule 账龄表200agio 贴水,折价201agiotage 汇兑业务,兑换业务202AGM 年度股东大会203agreement 协议204agreement of partnership 合伙协议205AICPA 美国注册公共会计师协会206AIS 会计信息系统207all capital earnings rate 资本总额收益率208all-inclusive income concept 总括收益概念209allocation 分摊,分配210allocation criteria分配标准211allotment①分配,拨付②分配数,拨付数212allowance①备抵②折让③津贴213allowance for bad debts 呆账备抵214allowance for depreciation 折旧备抵账户215allowance method 备抵法216all-purpose financial statement 通用财务报表,通用会计报表217alpha risk 阿尔法风险,第一种审计风险218altered check 涂改支票219alternative accounting methods 可选择性会计方法220alternative proposals 替代方案,备选方案221amalgamation 企业合并222American Accounting Association 美国会计学会223American depository receipts 美国银行证券存单,美国银行证券托存收据224American Institute of Certified Public Accountants 美国注册会计师协会,美国注册公共会计师协会225American option 美式期权226American Stock Exchange 美国股票交易所227amortization①摊销②摊还228amortized cost 摊余成本229amount 金额,合计230amount differ 金额不符231amount due 到期金额232amount of 1 dollar 1元的本利和233analysis 分析234analyst分析师235analytical review 分析性检查236annual audit 年度审计237annual closing 年度结账238annual general meeting 年度股东大会239annualize 按年折算240annualized net present value 折算年度净现值241annual report 年度报告242annuity 年金243annuity due期初年金244annuity in advance预付年金245annuity in arrears迟付年金246annuity method of depreciation 年金折旧法247antedate 填早日期248anticipation 预计,预列249anti-dilution clause 防止稀释条款250anti-pollution investment 消除污染投资251anti-profiteering tax 反暴利税252anti-tax avoidance 反避税253anti-trust legislation 反拖拉斯立法254A/P 应付账款255APB 会计原则委员会256APB Opinion 《会计原则委员会意见书》257Application申请,申请书258applied overhead 已分配间接费用259appraisal 估价260appraisal capital 评估资本261appraisal surplus 估价盈余262appraiser 估价员,估价师263appreciation 增值264appropriated retained earnings 已拨定留存收益,已指定用途留存收益265appropriation 拨款,指拨经费266appropriation account ①拨款账户②留存收益分配账户267appropriation budget拨款预算268approval 核定,审批269approved account 核定账户270approved bond 核定债券271A/R 应收账款272arbitrage 套利,套汇273arbitrage transaction 套利业务,套汇业务274arbitration 仲裁,公断275arithmetical error 算术误差276arm,s-length price 正常价格,公正价格277arm,s-length transaction 一臂之隔交易,正常交易278ARR 会计收益率279arrears①拖欠,欠款②迟付280arrestment 财产扣押281Authur Anderson & Co. 约瑟?安德森会计师事务所,安达信会计师事务所282article 文件条文,合同条款283articles of incorporation公司章程284articles of partnership 合伙契约285articulate 环接286articulated concept 环接观念287artificial intelligence 人工智能288ASB 审计准则委员会289ASE美国股票交易所290Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行291Asian dollar 亚洲美元292asking price 索价,卖方报价293assessed value 估定价值294assessment①估定,查定②特别税捐,特别摊派税捐295asset 资产296asset cover 资产担保,资产保证297asset depreciation range 资产折旧年限幅度298asset-liability view 资产—负债观念299asset quality 资产质量300asset retirement 资产退役,资产报废。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSWe need to use financial ratios in analyzing financial statements.—— The analysis of comparative financial statements cannot be made really effective unless it takes the form of a study of relationships between items in the statements. It is of little value, for example, to know that, on a given date, the Smith Company has a cash balance of $1oooo. But suppose we know that this balance is only -IV per cent of all current liabilities whereas a year ago cash was 25 per cent of all current liabilities. Since the bankers for the company usually require a cash balance against bank lines, used or unused, of 20 per cent, we can see at once that the firm's cash condition is exhibiting a questionable tendency.We may make comparisons between items in the comparative financial statements as follows:1. Between items in the comparative balance sheeta) Between items in the balance sheet for one date, e.g., cash may be compared with current liabilitiesb) Between an item in the balance sheet for one date and the same item in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., cash today may be compared with cash a year agoc) Of ratios, or mathematical proportions, between two items in the balance sheet for one date and a like ratio in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., the ratio of cash to current liabilities today may be compared with a like ratio a year ago and the trend of cash condition noted2. Between items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in the statement for a given periodb) Between one item in this period's statement and the same item in last period's statementc) Of ratios between items in this period's statement and similar ratios in last period's statement3. Between items in the comparative balance sheet and items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in these statements for a given period, e.g., net profit for this year may be calculated as a percentage of net worth for this yearb) Of ratios between items in the two statements for a period of years, e.g., the ratio of net profit to net worth this year may-be compared with like ratios for last year, and for the years preceding thatOur comparative analysis will gain in significance if we take the foregoing comparisons or ratios and; in turn, compare them with:I. Such data as are absent from the comparative statements but are of importance in judging a concern's financial history and condition, for example, the stage of the business cycle2. Similar ratios derived from analysis of the comparative statements of competing concerns or of concerns in similar lines of business What financialratios are used in analyzing financial statements.- Comparative analysis of comparative financial statements may be expressed by mathematical ratios between the items compared, for example, a concern's cash position may be tested by dividing the item of cash by the total of current liability items and using the quotient to express the result of the test. Each ratio may be expressed in two ways, for example, the ratio of sales to fixed assets may be expressed as the ratio of fixed assets to sales. We shall express each ratio in such a way that increases from period to period will be favorable and decreases unfavorable to financial condition.We shall use the following financial ratios in analyzing comparative financial statements:I. Working-capital ratios1. The ratio of current assets to current liabilities2. The ratio of cash to total current liabilities3. The ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable to total current liabilities4. The ratio of sales to receivables, i.e., the turnover of receivables5. The ratio of cost of goods sold to merchandise inventory, i.e., the turnover of inventory6. The ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable7. The ratio of receivables to inventory8. The ratio of net working capital to inventory9. The ratio of notes payable to accounts payableIO. The ratio of inventory to accounts payableII. Fixed and intangible capital ratios1. The ratio of sales to fixed assets, i.e., the turnover of fixed capital2. The ratio of sales to intangible assets, i.e., the turnover of intangibles3. The ratio of annual depreciation and obsolescence charges to the assetsagainst which depreciation is written off4. The ratio of net worth to fixed assetsIII. Capitalization ratios1. The ratio of net worth to debt.2. The ratio of capital stock to total capitalization .3. The ratio of fixed assets to funded debtIV. Income and expense ratios1. The ratio of net operating profit to sales2. The ratio of net operating profit to total capital3. The ratio of sales to operating costs and expenses4. The ratio of net profit to sales5. The ratio of net profit to net worth6. The ratio of sales to financial expenses7. The ratio of borrowed capital to capital costs8. The ratio of income on investments to investments9. The ratio of non-operating income to net operating profit10. The ratio of net operating profit to non-operating expense11. The ratio of net profit to capital stock12. The ratio of net profit reinvested to total net profit available for dividends on common stock13. The ratio of profit available for interest to interest expensesThis classification of financial ratios is permanent not exhaustive. -Other ratios may be used for purposes later indicated. Furthermore, some of the ratios reflect the efficiency with which a business has used its capital while others reflect efficiency in financing capital needs. The ratios of sales to receivables, inventory, fixed and intangible capital; the ratios of net operating profit to total capital and to sales; and the ratios of sales to operating costs and expenses reflect efficiency in the use of capital.' Most of the other ratios reflect financial efficiency.B. Technique of Financial Statement AnalysisAre the statements adequate in general?-Before attempting comparative analysis of given financial statements we wish to be sure that the statements are reasonably adequate for the purpose. They should, of course, be as complete as possible. They should also be of recent date. If not, their use must be limited to the period which they cover. Conclusions concerning 1923 conditions cannot safely be based upon 1921 statements.Does the comparative balance sheet reflect a seasonable situation? If so, it is important to know financial conditions at both the high and low points of the season. We must avoid unduly favorable judgment of the business at the low point when assets are very liquid and debt is low, and unduly unfavorable judgment at the high point when assets are less liquid and debt likely to be relatively high.Does the balance sheet for any date reflect the estimated financial condition after the sale of a proposed new issue of securities? If so, in order to ascertain the actual financial condition at that date it is necessary to subtract the amount of the security issue from net worth, if the. issue is of stock, or from liabilities, if bonds are to be sold. A like amount must also be subtracted from assets or liabilities depending upon how the estimated proceeds of the issue are reflected in the statement.Are the statements audited or unaudited? It is often said that audited statements, that is, complete audits rather than statements "rubber stamped" by certified public accountants, are desirable when they can be obtained. This is true, but the statement analyst should be certain that the given auditing film's reputation is beyond reproach.Is working-capital situation favorable ?-If the comparative statements to be analyzed are reasonably adequate for the purpose, the next step is to analyze the concern's working-capital trend and position. We may begin by ascertaining the ratio of current assets to current liabilities. This ratioaffords-a test of the concern's probable ability to pay current obligations without impairing its net working capital. It is, in part, a measure of ability to borrow additional working capital or to renew short-term loans without difficulty. The larger the excess of current assets over current liabilities the smaller the risk of loss to short-term creditors and the better the credit of the business, other things being equal. A ratio of two dollars of current assets to one dollar of current liabilities is the "rule-of-thumb" ratio generally considered satisfactory, assuming all current assets are conservatively valued and all current liabilities revealed.The rule-of-thumb current ratio is not a satisfactory test ofworking-capital position and trend. A current ratio of less than two dollars for one dollar may be adequate, or a current ratio of more than two dollars for one dollar may be inadequate. It depends, for one thing, upon the liquidity of the current assets.The liquidity of current assets varies with cash position.-The larger the proportion of current assets in the form of cash the more liquid are the current assets as a whole. Generally speaking, cash should equal at least 20 per cent of total current liabilities (divide cash by total current liabilities). Bankers typically require a concern to maintain bank balances equal to 20 per cent of credit lines whether used or unused. Open-credit lines are not shown on the balance sheet, hence the total of current liabilities (instead of notes payable to banks) is used in testing cash position. Like the two-for-one current ratio, the 20 per cent cash ratio is more or less a rule-of-thumb standard.The cash balance that will be satisfactory depends upon terms of sale, terms of purchase, and upon inventory turnover. A firm selling goods for cash will find cash inflow more nearly meeting cash outflow than will a firm selling goods on credit. A business which pays cash for all purchases will need more ready money than one which buys on long terms of credit. The more rapidly the inventory is sold the more nearly will cash inflow equal cash outflow, other things equal.Needs for cash balances will be affected by the stage of the business cycle. Heavy cash balances help to sustain bank credit and pay expenses when a period of liquidation and depression depletes working capital and brings a slump in sales. The greater the effects of changes in the cycle upon a given concern the more thought the financial executive will need to give to the size of his cash balances.Differences in financial policies between different concerns will affect the size of cash balances carried. One concern may deem it good policy to carry as many open-bank lines as it can get, while another may carry only enough lines to meet reasonably certain needs for loans. The cash balance of the first firm is likely to be much larger than that of the second firm.The liquidity of current assets varies with ability to meet "acid test."- Liquidity of current assets varies with the ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable (less adequate reserves for bad debts), to total current liabilities (divide the total of the first four items by total current liabilities). This is the so-called "acid test" of the liquidity of current condition. A ratio of I: I is considered satisfactory since current liabilities can readily be paid and creditors risk nothing on the uncertain values of merchandise inventory. A less than 1:1 ratio may be adequate if receivables are quickly collected and if inventory is readily and quickly sold, that is, if its turnover is rapid andif the risks of changes in price are small.The liquidity of current assets varies with liquidity of receivables. This may be ascertained by dividing annual sales by average receivables or by receivables at the close of the year unless at that date receivables do not represent the normal amount of credit extended to customers. Terms of sale must be considered in judging the turnover of receivables. For example, if sales for the year are $1,200,000 and average receivables amount to $100,000, the turnover of receivables is $1,200,000/$100,000=12. Now, if credit terms to customers are net in thirty days we can see that receivables are paid promptly.Consideration should also be given market conditions and the stage of the business cycle. Terms of credit are usually longer in farming sections than in industrial centers. Collections are good in prosperous times but slow in periods of crisis and liquidation.Trends in the liquidity of receivables will also be reflected in the ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable, in cases where goods are typically sold on open account. A decline in this ratio may indicate a lowering of credit standards since notes receivable are usually given to close overdue open accounts. If possible, a schedule of receivables should be obtained showing those not due, due, and past due thirty, sixty, and ninety days. Such a, schedule is of value in showing the efficiency of credits and collections and in explaining the trend in turnover of receivables. The more rapid the turnover of receivables the smaller the risk of loss from bad debts; the greater the savings of interest on the capital invested in receivables, and the higher the profit on total capital, other things being equal.Author(s): C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech译文：财务报表分析A.财务比率我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译LNTU---Acc附录A财务报表分析的杠杆左右以及如何体现盈利性和值比率摘要关键词:财政杠杆;运营债务杠杆;股本回报率;值比率传统观点认为，杠杆效应是从金融活动中产生的:公司通过借贷来增加运营的资金。
杠杆作用的衡量标准是负债总额与股东权益。
然而，一些负债——如银行贷款和发行的债券，是由于资金筹措，其他一些负债——如贸易应付账款，预收收入和退休金负债，是由于在运营过程中与供应商的贸易，与顾客和雇佣者在结算过程中产生的负债。
融资负债通常交易运作良好的资本市场其中的发行者是随行就市的商人。
与此相反，在运营中公司能够实现高增值。
因为业务涉及的是与资本市场相比，不太完善的贸易的输入和输出的市场。
因此，考虑到股票估值，运营负债和融资负债的区别的产生有一些先验的原因。
我们研究在资产负债表上，运营负债中的一美元是否与融资中的一美元等值这个问题。
因为运营负债和融资负债是股票价值的组成部分，这个问题就相当于问是否股价与账面价值比率是否取决于账面净值的组成。
价格与账面比率是由预期回报率的账面价值决定的。
所以，如果部分的账面价值要求不同的溢价，他们必须显示出不同的账面价值的预期回报率。
因此，标准的财务报表分析的能够区分股东从运营中和借贷的融资业务中产生的利润。
因此，资产回报有别于股本回报率，这种差异是由于杠杆作用。
然而，在标准的分析中，经营负债不区别于融资负债。
因此，为了制定用于实证分析的规范，我们的研究结果是用于愿意分析预期公司的收益和账面收益率。
这些预测和估值依赖于负债的组成。
这篇文章结构如下。
第一部分概述并指出了了能够判别两种杠杆作用类型，连接杠杆作用和盈利的财务报表分析第二节将杠杆作用，股票价值和价格与账面比率联系在一起。
第三节中进行实证分析，第四节进行了概述与结论。
1 杠杆作用的财务报表分析以下财务报表分析将融资债务和运营债务对股东权益的影响区别开。
这个分析从实证的详细分析中得出了精确的杠杆效应等式普通股产权资本收益率=综合所得?普通股本(1) 杠杆影响到这个盈利等式的分子和分母。
会计专业毕业论文外文文献翻译.
密级：绝密外文翻译THESIS OF BACHELOR题目：浅析商业银行会计风险控制存在的问题及对策英文题目: Analysis of Commercial Bank Accounting Risk Control Problems and Countermeasures 学院: 系别:专业:班级:学生姓名:学号：指导老师:起讫日期:我国商业银行会计风险成因及防范对策历史资料表明:导致许多国家20世纪以来先后爆发银行危机的主要原因是未能妥善解决银行风险问题。
长期以来,这一问题也困扰着我国，成为威胁我国国民经济持续、健康发展的重大隐患。
几年来国家采取了一系列必要措施：从1994至1995年给银行业立法，1996年后加强金融审慎性监管，1998年为四大银行补充2700亿元资本金,1999年成立资产管理公司并剥离五大行的1。
4万亿元不良资产，2000年以后国务院严令各行降低不良资产率，等等。
但这些措施均没有触及体制不合理这个根本问题，因而无法从根本上控制银行风险增量,提高银行经营绩效。
目前，我国银行潜伏的高风险日益暴露出来.面临2006年银行业全面开放后外资金融机构进入所带来的竞争和挑战,本届政府下决心彻底改革国有银行的体制,去年末央行动用外汇储备向中国银行、中国建设银行注资450亿美元，充实其资本金，使之达到《巴塞尔协议》规定的8%的资本充足率,推动国有银行股份制改革和最终上市，从根本上解决国有银行风险的增量问题。
因此，研究中国银行风险的特点、特殊的制度成因，股份制改革和公司治理结构建立这些被称为治本措施的一系列政策问题，具有重要的理论和现实意义。
本文第一章首先阐述了我国银行风险的表现形式.其中银行信用风险特别是国有商业银行资产信贷质量问题，成为当前最为突出的金融风险；国有商业银行的流动性风险虽未显现（暂时被居民的高储蓄率所掩盖），但潜在的支付困难因素日益增多；财务风险主要表现在国有商业银行资本金严重不足和经营利润虚盈实亏两方面；此外我国银行还存在着较为严重的利率汇率风险、市场风险、犯罪风险。
会计专业外文文献翻译原文及译文
企业的社会责任：一种趋势和运动，但社会责任是什么，是为了什么？1企业社会责任（CSR ）已成为一个全球趋势，涉及企业，国家，国际组织和民间社会组织。
但这远远不能清楚CSR的主张，有什么真正的趋势，是从哪里开始，在哪里发展，谁是项目的主要行动者。
如果把它作为一种社会运动，我们必须要问：什么运动和谁执行？讨论有助于我们反思形成的趋势和如何管理某些特点来迅速和广泛地在全球各地进行扩展，并增加了以下体制变革,特别是对变化中国家之间、企业法人和民间社会组织关系之间的界限的作用。
企业社会责任的趋势在三个方面：作为一个管理框架，新的要求，地方企业;作为动员企业行为，以协助国家的发展援助;和作为管理趋势。
每一个这些画像表明，中心的某些行为，关系，驾驭团队和利益。
我的例子表明，没有人对这些意见似乎比别人更准确，而是，活动包括规范的不同利益、作用因素、起源和轨迹。
这些多重身份的趋势可以部分描述其成功以及它的争论，脆弱性和流动性。
许多公司现在有具体的计划和小节在其网站上处理企业社会责任。
在过去，软条例和指导网络，国际公认的规则一直是一种重要机制，作用在公司、国家和国家间组织的需求，例如，发布指导方针和条例的公司。
在这背景下，国际组织仍然是重要的行动者，他们正在寻求与跨国公司进行对话，而不是试图通过国家控制企业社会责任。
各国际组织不是对企业的社会责任监管机构;而他们却是监管和自我约束的倡议之间的经纪人的最合适人选。
对社会负责行为和监测这些行为的需求越来越多地以国家以外的这些组织为渠道，并强调赞成高比例的自律。
因此，我们看到了软法律(Morth, 2004)的出现，或者是Knill 和Lehmkuhl (2002) 所说的“被规管的自律”，和Moran (2002)所归纳的“精细”或“非正式”规章。
我更喜欢“软法律”和“软规章”的说法，因为他们并不总是非正式的。
软规章常常包括正式报告和统筹程序。
还有，从统筹和行政的观点来看，那些规章和精细还是相去甚远的。
会计财务管理类中英文翻译、外文翻译、外文文献翻译
外文翻译译文1并购的收益来源资本市场领域研究的另一个课题是收入的一般来源。
当收入只是别人非盈利成果时，资本市场领域的研究人员还不能确认资产已被重新分配，使之创造财富的盈利回升。
虽然金融经济学家不能合理解释为什么并购是别人的非盈利目标的成果，但是，研究人员推断，这些合乎逻辑的假设值的目标收益不仅是重新通过并购得到的，也是分配产生的结果。
一些研究者认为，股东的利益是从债券持有人处得来的。
丹尼斯和麦康奈尔（1986）不支持这个意见。
另外一个观点是，利润是从目标公司的资源税操作衍生而来的。
从学术上讲这个证据是存在的，但不明确。
奥尔巴赫和雷苏斯（1987）推测，在可能情况下税款这个因素占好处的20%，说明是足够重要的，它将影响并购的决策。
吉尔森（1988）等人却发现，众多有关税收优惠的定义问题，交易成本和信息费复杂化的说法，以及税前利润方面肯定是并购活动产生的原因，或者说并购是公司实现税收优惠的最合适方法。
在一个几项研究中，贾雷尔（1988）等人发现，大部分的并购活动也不能归因于税收方面的原因。
施莱弗和萨默斯（1988）声称，利润从并购产生，因为新的董事会违反嵌入。
施莱弗和萨默斯（1988）声称，利润从并购产生，原因是新的董事会，违反了公司与利益相关者群体的嵌入式就业条件。
链接并购目标公司管理不佳的表现研究是由施莱佛和维什尼（1988）审查的。
他们的研究表明公司还没有建立完善的管理机制来制止执行者开展的活动，这个活动是不会为股东创造价值的。
此外，莫克（1988）等分析这种敌意收购时声称，收购发生的过快，或者下属企业和管理当局不能尽快地减少相关程序或其他相匹配模型。
结果验证了这一事实有代理成本，新股东们认为，这一成本将能够被减少。
收购公司的负面影响提出为什么并购活动能够开始进行的问题。
鲁巴特肯（1983）提供了对这种有明显难度问题的一个可能解释。
他认为与并购有关的行政上的困难会消除潜在的利润。
他还断言，在使用该方法可能不足以发现利润，这与詹森（1986）并购投标人利润公司量化复杂性的观点一致。
会计学毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
会计学中英文资料外文翻译文献外文资料原文Title:Future of SME finance（Background–the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts,T rades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs mak e a major contribution t o growth and employment in th e EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy,whose main objective is to turn Europe into the mos t competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world.However,the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential t o invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification.All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this back gr ound the consistently r epea t ed complaint of SMEs a bo u t their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts,T rades and SMEs.R ecent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add t o the concerns of SMEs and will further en dan ge r their access to finance.The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes(burst of the ITC bubble,insolvencies)str engthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises,were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules(Basel II)will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees;many of the effected banks arevery active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility o f SMEst o finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector,a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs t o finance.The mo s t important changes are:•In order t o mak e the higher risk awareness operational,the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises t o pr esent mo r e and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass thr ough their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations(Basel II)t o their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates,the bank sector demands mo r e and higher fees for its services(administration of accounts,payments systems, etc.),which are no t only additional costs for SMEs bu t also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches–the credit application process will become mo r e formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its“public function”to provi de access to finance for a wide range of economic actors,which it has in a n u mbe r of countries,in order to support and facilitate economic growth;the profitability of lending be co mes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will mak e access to finance for SMEs even mo r e difficult and/or will increase the cost of external finance.Business start-ups and SMEs,which want t o enter new markets,may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance.A European Code of Conduct betw een Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least mo r e transparency in the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able t o agr ee on such a commitment.T owards an encompassing policy appr o ach t o improve the access of Crafts, T rades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance forthe SME sector in Europe.Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, bu t the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor,which hinders economic recovery in Europe.Many SMEs are no t able t o finance their ne eds for investment.Therefore,UEAPME expects t he new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance.Europe’s Crafts,Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach,which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’access to lending,but will also str engthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing betw een private investors,financial institutes,SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the back gr ound of the changing environment for SME finance,UEAPME pr oposes policy measur es in the following areas:1.New Capital Requirement Directive:SME friendly implementation o f Basel IIDue t o intensive lobbying activities,UEAPME,together with other Business Associations in Europe,has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital(Basel II).The final a gr ee ment from the Basel Committee contains a much mo r e realistic appr o ach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations,which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However,the new regulatory system will influence the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law,whether Basel II be co mes bu r dens ome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial marketauthorities and herewith the European Institutions,a lot of flexibility.In a bo u t70 areas they have room to ad a pt the Accord to their specific n e eds when implementing it into EU law.Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital R equirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector(up t o30Billion Euro till2006)and its clients will have t o pay for it.Therefore,the implementation–especially for smaller banks,which are o ften very active in SME finance–has to be carried o ut with as little administrative bu r de ns o me as possible(reporting obligations,statistics,etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals(guarantees,etc.)as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member S tates should take over the r ecommendations from the European Parliament with regar d t o granularity,access t o retail portfolio,maturity,partial use,adaptation of thresholds,etc.,which will ease the bur den on SME finance.2.SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the need s of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks.The bank will require mo r e and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way.Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty a mo n gs t SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment,UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures–rating procedures may not become a“Black Box”for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs abo u t its assessment in order t o allow SMEs t o improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct betw een Banks and SMEs, which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks,failed.Therefore,UEAPME expects from the new European Commission andthe new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order t o improve the relations betw een Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3.SMEs need an extension o f credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups,the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support t o get access t o finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of S tate Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now,there are credit guarant ee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money,spent for supporting credit guarantees systems,is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments.One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate30 Euro investments in SMEs(for venture capital funds the relation is only1:2).Therefore,UEAPME expects t he new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Pr ogra mme d for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments,because of national differences in th e situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States t o close the equity gap(0.2–2.5Mio Euro,according t o the expert meeting on PACE on April27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs(currently there is no scheme available at EU level:termination of JOP,fading ou t of JEV).4.SMEs need company and income taxation systems,which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have comp any and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits.This is especially true for companies,which have t o pay income taxes. Already in the p ast tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending.In future,the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company;the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending.This is a vicious cycle,which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States,UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament t o publicly support tax-reforms,which will str engthen the capacity of Crafts,T rades and SME for self-financing.Thereby,a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5.Risk Capital–equity financingExternal equity financing do es not have a real tradition in the SME sector.On the one hand,small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally no t been very open towards external equity financing and are no t used to informing transparently abo u t their business.On the other hand,many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies,which is mo r e costly than investing bigger a moun ts in larger companies.Furthermore it is much mo r e difficult t o set ou t of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs,it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore t o be further developed.UEAPME sees three pillars for such an appr o ach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Me mber S tates should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments inSMEs should be supported.•Accounting S tandards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information betw een investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become mo r e aware a bo u t the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have t o realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending)will depend much mo r e on a transparent and open exchange of information a bo u t the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order t o fulfil the new n ee ds for transparency,SMEs will have t o use new information instruments(business plans,financial reporting,etc.)and new management instruments(risk-management,financial management,etc.).外文资料翻译题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
财务管理相关专业外文文献翻译-财会财务外文翻译-中英文对照翻译
第一部分外文翻译中文对照部分企业购买和支付的内部会计控制系统设计Lars Ny bergSpeech by Mr Lars Ny berg, Deputy Governor of the Severs Risks bank, at HQ Bank, 15October 2008.From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia摘要本文讨论了采购和付款的基本系统的内部会计控制，并根据其业务流程，详细说明了实施相关的控制点控制措施。
关键词：采购和付款；会计控制采购和付款业务是一个企业支付的钱，获取货物或服务的过程是生产和运营管理是一个主要组件是企业生存和发展。
因此，企业应该树立采购和支付业务的内部会计控制制度，健全的业务记录控制系统，加强其控制业务流程的关键，实现采购决策领域的相互约束和监督。
第一、购买和支付内部会计控制的定义。
采购和付款的内部会计控制是指企业购买和支付行为规范，采购和付款过程来防止错误和欺诈，确保采购，以满足生产和销售的前提下降低采购成本，并采取一系列的控制措施。
第二、采购和支付交易的基本系统的内部会计控制为了充分发挥采购和付款业务角色的内。
部会计控制的内容的采购和支付服务应设计遵循采购和支付交易的基本系统的内部会计控制。
一、购买和支付内部会计控制的定义1、采购和付款的内部会计控制是指规范企业采购和支付行为。
(1)是否符合官方职位分工体系1.请购买和批准。
企业采购项目所需的用户部门根据他们的应用程序和批准的负责人负责采购批准； 2.查询和确定供应商。
公司采购部门和有关主管部门应当参与调查过程和确定供应商； 3.采购合同和审计。
公司采购部门应该准备下订单或合同和授权的部门或官审查、批准或适当的审计； 4.采购、验收。
采购人员不能工作的同时承运货物；5.采购、检验和相关的会计记录。
企业采购、检验和会计记录功能应该被分离，以确保真实性的数量的采购和采购价格、质量、合规、采购记录和会计精度； 6.执行支付处理和支付。
财会专业英语中英文对照
AAbsorption costing 完全本钱法Accelerated Depreciation Method 加速折旧法Account 科目，账户Account form 账户式Account payable 应付账款Account receivable 应收账款Accounting 会计Accounting cycle 会计循环Accounting equation 会计等式资产Assets= 欠债Liabilities + 所有者权益Owner’s EquityAccounting period concept 会计期间Accounting system 会计制度Account payable subsidiary ledger 应付款明细分类账Accounts receivable analysis 应收账款分析Accounts receivable subsidiary ledger 应收账款明细分类账Accounts receivable turnover 应收账款周转率Accrual basis accounting 应记制，债权发生制Accrued expenses 应记费用Accrued revenues 应记收入Accumulated depreciation 累计折旧Accumulated other comprehensive income 累计其他综合收入Activity base drive 作业基础/动因Activity-based costing ABC 作业本钱计算法Adjusted trial balance调整后试算平衡表Adjusting entries调整分录Adjusting process调整进程Administrative expenses general expenses管理费用一般费用Aging the receivables应收账款账龄分析Allowance for doubtful accounts 坏账准备Allowance method备抵法Amortization摊销Annuity年金Assets资产Available-for-sale securities可供出售证券Average inventory cost flow method 平均库存本钱流法Average cost method平均本钱法Average rate of return平均回报率BBad debt expense 坏账费用Balance of the account账户余额Balance sheet资产欠债表Balanced scorecard平衡记分卡Bank reconciliation银行存款余额调节表Bank statement 银行报表Bond债券Bond indenture债券契约Book value账面价值Book value of the asset资产的账面价值Boot补价Break-even point盈亏临界点Budget预算Budget performance report预算业绩报告Budgetary slack预算松弛Budgeted variable factory overhead 预算变量工厂开销Business企业Business combination 企业归并Business entity concept企业主体概念Business stakeholder企业利益相关者Business strategy企业战略Business transaction经济业务CCapital account 资本性账户Capital expenditures资本性支出Capital expenditures budget资本支出预算Capital investment analysis资本投资分析Capital leases资本性租赁Capital rationing资本分派Carrying amount账面金额Cash现金Cash basis of accounting现金制；收付实现制Cash budget现金预算Cash dividend现金股利Cash equivalents现金等价物Cash flow per share 每股现金流量Cash flows from financing activities筹资活动现金流量Cash flows from investing activities投资活动现金流量Cash flows from operating activities经营活动现金流量Cash payback period现金回收期Cash payments journal现金付款日记账Cash receipts journal现金收款日记账Cash short and over account现金余缺账户Certified public accountant CPA注册会计师Chart of accounts会计科目表Clearing account 清理账户Closing entries结账分录Closing process结账程序Closing the books 结账Common stock普通股Common-size statement通用报表Compensating balance 补偿性余额Comprehensive income全面收益Consigned inventory 寄售库存Consignee 收货人承销人Consignor 发货人寄件人Consolidated financial statements归并财务报表Contingent liabilities 不肯定债务Continuous budgeting转动预算Continuous process improvement 持续进程改良Contra accountor contra asset account抵减账户Contract rate约定利率Contribution margin 贡献毛益Contribution margin ratio贡献毛益率Contribution margin ratio 边际贡献率Controllable expenses可控费用Controllable revenues 可控收入Controllable variance可控不同Controller主计长Controlling 管理控制Controlling account控制账户Conversion costs加工本钱Copyright版权Corporation公司Correcting journal entry 调整分录Cost本钱Cost accounting system本钱会计系统Cost allocation本钱分派Cost behavior本钱性态Cost center本钱中心Cost concept 本钱概念Cost method 本钱法Cost object 本钱对象Cost of finished goods available 已完工产品的本钱Cost of goods manufactured 产品本钱Cost of goods sold产品销售本钱Cost of goods sold budget产品销售本钱预算Cost of merchandise sold商品销售本钱：商业企业所销售商品的本钱。
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中英文对照外文翻译变化中的会计师审计独立性——与当前环境与时俱进，理查德·贝克2005年8月——具《注册会计师专刊》的主编罗伯特科尔森在他2004年3月的专栏里的研究表明，“会计师审计的独立性”的概念，在过去的150多年中，是不断变化的。
从一般意义上说，会计师审计的独立性与当前的商业环境是存在着密切的关联的。
但是，不同的“会计师审计的独立性”的概念之间，并没有明显的过渡。
通常情况下，许多审计的独立性的不同概念的提出，都是围绕着专业的会计师、审计师、监管机构和一般公众之间的独立性，所展开讨论的。
会计师审计的独立性的最初概念，出现在19世纪。
它的出现，是基于这样一个前提的，即主要是英国本土的专业会计师和审计师，对整个大英帝国以前的和现有的殖民资本承担监督的责任。
在此期间，数量上相对来说较少的会计师事务所，却要对相对来说大数量的群体执行审计的任务。
这些专业的会计师和审计师就有可能同时对不同的实体出具财务报告、为不同的投资群体工作。
在这个时代，会计师审计独立性的概念，并没有把审计设想为一个独立存在的审计实体;英国投资者明确禁止审计者在其审计的企业工作或参与投资。
与此同时，只要会计师保持对主要投资者的审计服务，他们的专业会计服务的范围，是可以合理地扩大的。
例如，审计师被允许可以帮他们所审计的企业编制财务报表。
会计师审计的独立性这一初步的概念在19世纪末到20世纪初发生了改变。
在这段时期，经济上有了一个大的变化，那就是资本的主要来源由国内市场转向到外国资本市场。
这一变化的出现是与美国的大型工业公司，如采矿，铁路，能源，电力和电信，的出现相关联的。
伴随着这些美国大公司的出现的，也包括着对公司商业性的理解的改变。
在上世纪30年代，经济学家阿道夫贝尔和伽尔迪纳指出，推进对这一变化的理解的，是大型企业所有权的分离，以及会计和审计对于公司的财产权益的重要性。
在这一新思路下，审计的主要职责，就是为集体的所有权益的需要而服务，而不是某个具体的无所有权的利益。
这种集体的所有权益，基本上是由国内的股东组成，通常往往是大银行或非常富有的投资者。
联邦证券法在新政时代的通过，以及美国证券交易委员会的成立，使会计师审计的独立性的概念，有了再一次的转变。
美国证券交易委员会的成立，对建立出具财务报告和审计法规的标准，有着最重要的影响。
通过这种努力，公共的会计师和审计师不再认为他们的主要职责，是为那些特定的物主，或某些集体的所有权益；而是按照一套既定的专业标准，来编制财务报表，和进行财务决算的审计工作。
会计师审计的独立性的概念，转向为在财务状况和经营业绩的报告中保持客观性和中立性，而不是忠于某一政党。
这一观点，由西澳佩顿教授，在理论上和书面上被阐述出来，他着重强调了公司财务报表的重要性。
会计师审计独立性的客观和中立的概念，一直趋于上风，成为主流。
直到20世纪70年代，当财务会计准则委员会成立，成为独立的、权威的会计标准制定者。
大约从那个时候开始，公共的会计公司开始改变其客观和中立的原则，并开始对他们的审计客户宣传和提供关于会计和审计的事项。
同时，在全球范围内，企业的快速增长，为公共的会计师事务所提供了大量的机会去获得收入，而这些收入，远远超过了传统的审计服务所能取得的收入。
虽然，美国注册会计师协会的审计准则委员会（ASB），发布的审计标准，一直继续强调着与客户保持独立性，但是日益激烈的审计服务市场的竞争，以及错综复杂的国际商业惯例，导致一些审计者不得不违反会计准则的客观性和中立性的，因为这更有利于赢得客户的信赖。
继2000年初的会计和审计丑闻之后，以及2002年沙宾法案的通过，审计者被认为是值得信赖的顾问的这种想法，似乎已经越来越难以让人信服。
一个潜在的会计师审计的独立性的新概念，仍然未能演变出来，但上市公司会计监督委员会（PCAOB ）对这种独立性的概念上，似乎更强调要在更大程度上区分注册审计师和客户管理的独立性。
会计师审计独立性的早期争议在20世纪的下半叶，学术界和出现了关于会计师审计独立性的各种争论和专业文献。
有一些关于会计师审计独立性的观点，是从包括英国和美国两者的会计职业相关的历史性观点中理想化、发展和演变出来的。
例如，托马斯李，在《公司审计》第3版（范诺斯得莱因霍尔德，1986年，页89）中提到的：一个诚实的审计者应该是完全独立的，用独立的意志和态度思考，绝不允许的其观点和结论，受到利益冲突所带来的压力所影响或对其有所依赖。
不幸的是，虽然这种对于会计师审计独立性的表达，是令人钦佩和向往的，但是这种对于会计师审计独立性的表达，在一定程度上，是有不确定性的，因此，判断一个会计师的审计是否是独立的，根据托马斯李的定义要得出结论，是不可能的。
皮莫扎尔，在“独立性”（在《当前审计的问题》，由木雪纳尔和斯特利编辑，保罗查普曼公司出版，1991年）中，主张会计师审计独立的经济逻辑的辩论，是这样归纳的：人们期望会计师进行了审计后，可以把不能诉讼成功的概率和审计风险降低到一个可以接受的水平。
用经济学的语言来说，审计员执行审计工作的费用，应该是和工作量平等的，换句话说，是会计师执行审计任务时所产生的费用，和其所能减少的风险，是成正比的。
然而，所有的审计者都是单独的个体，他们都对风险和回报，持有着各自不同的态度，因此会计师审计工作的最低标准并不一定必须是相同的。
用这种经济上的理论来解释会计师审计的独立性，似乎是合乎逻辑的。
但是，如果某些审计者采纳了关于会计师审计的独立性的一般概念，是为了可以获得好处，从中谋利，以便获得更多的市场占有率和市场份额，那么这种观点就不能成立了。
换言之，虽然这种立足于经济上论证是有效的，但是会计师审计的独立性，还是需要一个可以去完全遵守的原则。
正与此相反，相对于这种经过专业的和经济论证的会计师审计独立性的概念，巴特利特在“审计独立性的挑战”（会计地平线，第二卷，第五刊，第一期，1991年）中所提出的则大相径庭。
巴特利特认为，关于会计师审计的独立性，有四种不同的比喻。
1、“冒烟的枪口”，这个论点是说只有少数几个事例表明会计师审计的独立性被认为是和审计失败有所牵连的。
大多数诉讼和被起诉的审计者，都是基于对其不称职或不尽职调查的说法上的，而不是缺乏独立性。
然而，因为无法获得有关的审计失败的详细的记录和其他的诉讼证据，使这种观点很难被证明。
2、“我们这样做很好。
”这一论点中，根据民意调查，公众会计界普遍已经得到了高度的关注。
民意调查结果显示，民众所关心的，往往是会计师对于职业本身的尊重、对问题的客观性的处理、可靠性和诚实，而不是独立性本身。
虽然，客观性、可靠性和诚实，在一定程度上可能和独立性有所重叠，什么是所谓的“独立性”，实际上一般公众并没有一个清楚的概念。
通常情况下，并没有人告诉公众，会计师的审计到底是在做些什么。
3、“公共利益。
”这个是要表明，如果在公共会计的专业服务的范围内有了太多的限制，会计师事务所将无法正确的为客户提供服务，而白白的耗费了大数额的费用。
一些公共的会计公司认为，提供审计以外的服务，让他们能更好地履行审计义务，因为它们可以更好地去了解他们的客户。
4、“信任我们。
”独立性往往是说一个专业的会计师所拥有的精神状态，因此这是不能被实证、以实验来观察，或被量化的。
这种说法是基于审计者自身的经济利益出发的，即审计者被假定为可以、会保持他的独立性和客观性，以便不损害其自身的长期的经济利益。
虽然这种假设可能是备受争议的，因为这样做是为了产生最大的、长期的经济利益。
某个会计师在执行审计时可能会因为个人的经济利益而去权衡，从而保留某一个重要客户，而不是去保持客观性和独立性，这实际上也破坏了“信任我们”的这一论调。
市场变化对会计师审计独立性的影响乔纳森•威尔，在“企业不为人知的欺骗：如何变更审计工作”（华尔街日报，2004年3月25日）指出，在20世纪的70年代和80年代的审计服务市场，会计师进行审计的方式是有所改变的，在一定程度上对于会计师审计的独立性是有所减弱的。
这种变化的开始的第一个组成部分，是价格竞争。
在20世纪70年代以前，美国注册会计师协会的行为守则中是禁止会计师、审计者公开的为他们的审计服务做广告的，或者为了赢得公司的客户而相互竞争的，甚至是去参加为审计举行的竞争性的投标、竞标。
在受到联邦政府的反垄断诉讼的威胁下，美国注册会计师协会不得不被迫取消了这些对反竞争的做法的禁令。
其结果是，审计的竞争性招标变得司空见惯。
审计变成了商品。
审计实施上的第二个转变，是越来越强调“审计基础风险”。
审计的基础风险的增大与审计任务的数量的增大成正比，这是合理的，这种假设是合乎逻辑的。
但是，审计专家是可以确定一家公司的经营业务中，最危险的那个部分的。
不幸的是，安然公司和其他企业的倒闭，已经表明，一些审计者没有办法充分的确定，公司业务的经营运作中，哪个部分会遭受着最大的风险。
此外，审计者采用基本风险的方法，有可能无法发现欺诈活动。
虽然这一会计师审计独立性的新概念，对于某种环境下的某个审计者，可能是适合的，但往往审计者会努力去用欺骗性的会计数字，帮助隐瞒经营状况，从而隐瞒真实的经济业绩。
在20世纪90年代，似乎有些审计者会忽视他们的最直接的责任，而按照第三方投资者的利益去行动。
加强会计师审计的独立性法律上禁止担任审计工作的会计师与委托人在财务上有经济利益关系，是美国从20世纪30年代直至20世纪90年代期间，会计师审计独立性原则存在的基础。
但这并不代表这在英国或其他一些国家也是同样正确，即使禁止金融利益上的连带关系，通常是实际中按照最基本的会计制度中留心观察，就可以得出的结论性做法。
实际上，目前，禁止担任审计工作的会计师拥有客户的财务利益几乎是一个普遍性的原则。
美国证券交易委员会和公共会计行业都不约而同的把的他们大部分的注意力，重点地放在，会计师审计的独立性概念的界定，和对财政利益的禁令的执行上。
详细的规则和报告结构已制定的出来了，目的是为了要揭露，任何一个会计师事务所的职业雇员，所可能拥有的经济利益，也包括这些职业雇员的配偶，父母，或他们的孩子。
上市公司会计监管委员会采用了这些规则中的一大部分，这在一定程度上缓和了那些制度上有不合理地方的地区的问题。
除此之外，还有轮换任用的审计方法。
在某些国家，如意大利，审计者可以对委托人执行某一个特定年限的审计工作。
这种类型的管理方法，在美国和英国，从来没有被认真的考虑过。
虽然法案要求，个别审计者要定期地轮换委托人客户。
而在法国，会计师审计的轮换概念是颠倒的：即审计者的任期为一段固定的时间，在这段时间里，他们不能被取代。
这种规则的制定，目的是增加会计师审计的独立性，因为由此审计者对于被客户解雇的担忧就减少了。
关于会计师审计独立性的标准，上市公司会计监管委员会通过了临时准则3600T作为其规章制度。