英语学习 GRE作文Argument模板+错误分类 必备
argument 逻辑错误模板
各个逻辑错误攻击模板1.Survey/Study：(1)ProcedureA. Selective sampleThis survey fails to consider all the possibilities of samples, which results in an inadequate emphasis on ……without recognizing the fact that ……were actually excluded from the survey.B. Quantity of the sampleUnless the survey investigated a sufficient number of interviewees and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not dependable to represent the general population. Therefore the number of respondents/samples in itself does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only , then the results would always suggest . Otherwise, the specimen would account for only a small percentage and would render the result of the survey meaningless.(2)Result of the surveyA. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness?Actually, in the absence of data concerning/regarding the total amount of garbage sites and population in the neighborhood, the argument suffers from an absence of proof that the current system of garbage sites will pose some extent of health hazard as constituting a sufficient evidence that it will not pose any significant health hazard.B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague?①攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (anumber of ) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_____, so this evidence is far too nebulous to be meaningful.②攻击“无绝对数值”The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of ____.C. RespondentsThe respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall population.(3)Who conducted the survey?The surveyor should be nonaligned可以机动使用不必须(4)When was the survey conducted?A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recent the survey was conducted. All we know in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The arguer's inference that ...rests on the luricrous assumption that during the interval of all conditions upon which ...depend have remained constant. However this is not the case. The arguer fails to consider the time span during which all conditions may vary drastically. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels.2.Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition(1)Sufficient Evidencea.The argument assumes too hastily that ____will naturallyresult in the phenomenon predicted by the arguer.However, it is entirely possible that……b.The fact that A is not adequate for the prediction thatB .(2)Necessary ConditionThe editor’s recommendation depends on the unwarranted assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However, commonsense indicates that this assumption is logically erroneous. Numerous other factors, including _C_or _D_, might just as likely be the cause of _B_. To be specific,if C or D then____. Without eliminating other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by ____ can____.3.Cause and Effect Fallacies(1) Non sequiturThe arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the cause-and-effect coherence between these two events. Perhaps, for example, ____results from_____.(2) Post hoc, ergo proper hoc (after this, therefore because of this)Based on the fact that ____ occurred after _____, the editor infers that ____should contribute to _____. However, the sequence of these events does not suffice to prove that earlier happening caused the later one. Many other possibilities may claim responsibility for the happening. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between______ and _______ upon which the editor’s recommendation depends.(3) ConcurrenceThe argument concludes a correlation between A and B , then infers that the former is responsible for the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible factors. For example, _____. Any of these factors might lead to B . Without taking these factors into consideration it is unfair to conclude that A is solely responsible for B.(4) Confuse the cause and effectIt is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that _____ iscompletely unwarranted.4.Changing Scope Fallacies(1)Different conceptsA threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined asB , then howC , is irrelevant to whether____. In short, without a clear definition of A , it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.(2)What is true for a member is also true for the groupThe argument relies on the assumption that a sample represents nationwide population. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that the occurrence will not be the same in another place. Thus, lacking more detailed information about the nationwide factors, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.(3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group memberOne problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to everymember of that group) statistics about _____ applies equally to every individual member. Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ______; or perhaps ______ . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _____.(4)Average5.Incomplete Thought(1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughlyIn addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative impacts brought about by .(2)ProfitThe author’ conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is determined by not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_________ , or other costs associated with ________,will outweigh the revenue. Besides, numerous other possible occurrences, such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent ______ from being as profitable in the foreseeable futures as the argument predicts.6.All things remain unchanged over time(1)Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and futureThe author claims that ______, because _____ . The author unfairly assumes that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of differences between A and B . For example, A_______; however, B______. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that ______(2)Present Conditions will remain unchanged into the future7.Vague evidence8.Analogy and comparison(1)False analogyThe arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that ______ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that great divergence exists between A and B. In short, without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannotreasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____ .(2)Incomplete or selective comparisonThe arguer unfairly employs a selective comparison as specious criteria and draws a conclusion that A surpassesB without comprehensive consideration, whichsignificantly weakens this argument.(3)Comparison and Variation9.False dilemmaEven assuming A is not the reason for the B , the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either-or ” argument is fallacious in that it ignores ot her possible causes of the B . For example, perhaps other possibilities may also account for the occurrence.10.Unwarranted AssumptionThe author falsely depends on gratuitous assumption that ______. However, no evidence is provided in the argument to support this assumption. For example, it is most likely that ______. Therefore, the argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.11. Hasty generalizationIn addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if A , it does not necessarily follow that B . It is highly possible that other factors may have contributed to B. For instance, __________ . Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning B. Without ruling out these and other possible factors that give rise to B, the author cannot confidently conclude that ______.。
GRE argument 逻辑错误
1、Loose generalizations 过于宽泛的概括2、Drawing conclusions about groups of people on the basis of stereotypes.3、在原型的基础上得出关于整个群体的某个结论4、Example: French people are more romantic.5、Hasty generalizations 草率概括6、Arriving at a conclusion without enough evidence.7、没有足够证据得出一个结论8、Example: Asian-American students are better in math.9、Circular Reasoning 循环论证10、Restating in different words what has already been stated.用不同的词重新论证已经论述过的东西Example: Dieting is hard because it requires consuming fewer calories.4、Single cause-effect 单调因果Claiming that only one event caused another when there may be no real connection.声称只有一个事件引起另一个事件，而它们之间可能没有真正的联系Example: When I sat down at the computer it stopped working, so I must have done something wrong.5、Slippery SlopeAssumes a chain of cause-effect relationships with very suspect connections.以非常可疑的联系假定一个因果关系Example: Because I failed my exam, my parents were mad, I lost my wallet, my car wouldn't start, and I got fired.6、Non Sequitur 没有推理The first part of the idea does not relate to the other.观念的第一个部分和其他部分没有关系Example: I did well in school because I always wore nice clothes.7、Either/Or 非此即彼Suggesting only two alternatives when the issue may be much more complex.认为只有两个选择，非此即彼，然而可能复杂得多(有第三、四种可能)Example: America--love it or leave it!8、False Authority 错误的权威Draws attention away from the evidence and leans on the popularity of someone who may have little knowledge of the issue or product.将注意力从证据上引开，而依赖一些在这方面了解很少的流行人物Example: Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be.9、Ad Hominem 从个人偏好出发Attacking the person instead of the ideas.攻击人而非观点Example: Don't vote for Jerry Brown; he's a left-wing fanatic, a throwback to the 60s who meditates and eats health foods.10、Bandwagon ThinkingClaiming that most people agree so it must be right.声称大多数人赞成所以就一定是对的Example: I wouldn't have cheated on my income taxes, but everyone else does, so why shouldn't I11、Stacking the deckGiving a slanted view of the issue by focusing only on one side.仅集中在某一面，而得出一个关于这个问题的歪曲的观点Example: I deserve to get an A in the class because I like the teacher, work hard, and attend class.12、Appeal to Emotion 诉诸情绪Exploiting the audience's feeling in order to get them on your side.激起读者的情绪感受，以使他们站在作者这边Example: I believe I deserve a scholarship because I am an orphan who grew up in a dysfunctional foster family.13、Ignoring the question 忽略问题Changing the topic before it is really consideredExample: The criminal won't say where he was on the night of the crime, but he does remember being teased relentlessly as a child.14、Trivial objections 琐碎的缺陷(微不足道的反驳理由)Can be similar to ad hominem in that it focuses on things unimportant to the issue at hand.当“从个人偏好出发”关注于对这个问题不重要的东西时，Trivial objections的这种逻辑错误和其相似Example: I think Ross Perot would make a terrible president. His ears are huge.。
GRE作文Argument万能模板
Inthis argument ，the author concludes/recommends that ….To support this conclusion/recommendation,the author points out/cites … .In addition/On the basis of this,the author also cites that … .This argument suffers from several critical/logical flaws,which render it unconvincing as it stands. /PE(paragraph ending)：…,the author cannotexpect us to take seriously the claim/convince me that …contribute to … /ruling out such/other possibilities/explanations/accounting for …,the author cannot justifiably conclude that …/ justify the claim/convince me that …/make any sound recommendation to …… before I can accept theauthor’s final conclusion that …(接Perhaps …)If so,this fact/Either scenario/Any of these scenarios,if ture, would significantly/seriously undermine/weaken (the arguer’s contention /conclusion that) …(1)A threshold problem with the argument invloves the statistical reliability ofthe survey because the size of the sample is too small to be sufficient.Also,the sample might be unrepresentative of … as a whole.Without a sufficiently representative sample,the author cannot draw any conclusion whatsoever on the basis of the study. (小样本、代表性)(2) …are rarely sufficient to establisha general conclusion. From the survey quotedinthis argument,we findnosignof suchprocedures for randomsamplingsand have good reasons to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect the general situation as a whole.Besides,…provides no information about what percentage of … responded to the surveys.The lower the percentage,the less reliable the results of the surveys/study ’s conclusion. (随机性、代表性)结尾总结用author’s conclusion depends,I would need more information about the size/randomness of the study ’s sample.The author provides no information concerning/omits to inform us about A,B,C and D.It is impossible to conclude without comparing the two groups subjects.For example, ….Without evidence of the study ’s methodological (and statistical) reliability, the author cannot rely on the study to draw any firm conclusion.(1)A is not necessarily due to B.Perhaps ….Since the argument fails to account for this alternative explanation for …,the author cannot …(2)The author unfairly attributes A to B/assumes that A were attributable tocking evidence to confirm this assumption,it is entirely possible that ….Or,perhaps ….After all,the autho r provides no evidence that ….PE.(1)A does not necessarily indicate that B.Perhaps …., ….PE.(2)The argument relies/depends on the (unsubstantiated) assumption that …/ Based on the fact that A the author infers that B.However,/Yet this is not necessarily the case.Perhaps ….If so,this fact would significantly undermine …(3)The fact that … lends no/little credible/scant support to …(4)A probleminvolves the definitionof ….The author fails todefine this critical term.If … is defined as … ,then … .In short, without a clear definition of … it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.The arguer uses previous experience to illustrate that now …,ignoring t he factor of time which perhaps can change everything including … .Eg:The economic situation becomes worse;The worsening economic situationOne problemwhy I disagree with the argument is that it is unwarranted toinfer from the success of B that A will also succeed by following the same format. Perhaps … .In short,lacking evidence that conditions on the … are relevantly similar,the author cannot convince me on the basis of A’s experience that the action would be effective in B. Eg:economic situation,regionThe argument suffers from “either-or ” reasoning.Based on t he fact that … ,the author unfairly concludes that … .However,the author overlooks the possibility …Another problemwiththe argument is that it overlooks other factors that /the possibility that A is not the only factor affectingB.For instance,perhaps entirely possible that …does in fact serve to ….PE.……/ItisThe author appreciates sb’s strong commitment to sth to some extent. However,we know the fact that to make a commitment is one thing,to achieve it is far more difficult.There is no indication that they might fulfill their promise.结尾： In sum,the argument is unconvincing as it stands/not well supported.To bolster it,the author must provide clear evidence that …The author must also show that ….To better assess/evaluate the argument we would need figures …/more information about ….We should also need to know …。
GRE中Argument 逻辑错误参考句式
Argument 逻辑错误参考句式1.Survey类A.The statistical figurequoted in theargument is obviouslynot so representativebecause the authorfails to offer theabsolute numberof…/because theauthor fails to offer therelative percentage ofthe number…B.The respondents appeared in the survey, namely the representatives of the group investigated, are not the required group/sample/samplin g concerning the conclusion/assumption because the author ignores the fact that…AWPC.Additionally, the time and the place in whichthe survey isconducted are notclearly demonstratedby the author.Meanwhile, whetherthe survey isconducted randomly isstill a puzzle.2.充分条件类错误A.Because of the lack ofthe reasonableevidence like…, thecondition regarded asthe sufficiency leadingto the outcome is obviously groundless.B.Even though the sufficient condition the author gives as….is necessary to result in the fact that…, the author still excludes some other factors like ….. Only when such factors are holistically considered in this argument can the conclusion bepersuasively drawn. 3.The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____ and the claim that ____.It is highly possible that other factors contribute to __B__.Based on the fact that __A__ on ccurred after __B__, the editor infers that __B__ should be responsible for __A__.However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that the earlier development caused the later one. ….the real reasonsWithout ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between __A__ and __B__ upon which the editor’s recommendation depends.4.范围变化A.A threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term.C. 由大变小The problem with this argument lies in the assumption the author draws that the nationwide situation equally and effectively applies to the every specific location(like…). Actually, this is not the case because of the following reasons involved. …D.E. Obviously, the author’s/arguer’s assumption/conclusion, based/depended/relied/est ablished on the given facts about the advantages/disadvantages of…, is groundless/one-sided/unpersuasive/unconvincing because he ignores/loses his sight of the relevant disadvantages/advantages included in this circumstance. …(merits/demerits,positive/negative effects, pro-side/con-side)The author’s/arguer’s assumption that by…..will the…be profitable/earn great profits is definitely groundless/unconvincingbecause, as the common sense goes, whether profits can be gained is determined by the balance between revenue and cost. However, not only does the author fail to offer the sufficient evidence about the revenue but also the cost required in operation and development is not included. …5.The author claims that 将来, because 过去/现在.This assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time./things invariably change/alter over extended period of time and within different context.8. false analogy…..The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between __A__ and __B__. The analogyfalsely depends upon the assumption that the similarity between A and B lies in the fact that…./this false analogy is drawn by the arguer because …However, it is entirely possible that A and B are distinct in many respects. For example, …/however, the common sense tells that there exists large difference between A and B in manyspecific aspects. For instance, ….11. all-any-anything …However, it is highly possible that some exception/some other optional cases may be considered in this circumstance. To be specific, …。
新GRE写作Argument 模板 By Jason Lee
新GRE写作Argument 模板——By Jason Lee﹡审题+提纲：2min﹡开头+结尾模板：5min﹡中间三段：7min*3=21min﹡补完结尾（检查润色）：2min一、开头-In this argument, the author concludes that...-To bolster this conclusion, the author points out that…-Close scrutiny of these supporting evidences, however, reveals that none of them lend any credibility to the author’s conclusion.二、主体段落展开段落一：-Firstly, the author has tried to reach the conclusion that…by pointing out that…but this argument has failed to see some significant factors.-For instance,-Or, another scenario can be that …展开段落二：-Secondly, by analyzing the conclusion of this argument, we can find the unstated assumption that…-However, the validity of this assumption is challenged by some other possibilities.-It is likely that…-It is of equal probability that..展开段落三：-Finally, even if the foregoing assumptions were all confirmed valid, there remain doubts that render the author’s whole reasoning logically flawed.-To be more specific,-Absent evidence to confirm this assumption, it is entirely possible that…1. Assumptions◆First of all, the author unfairly assumes that…◆After all, the author provides no evidence that…2. Specific Evidences◆The author fails to offer any evidence to warrant this crucial assumption.◆Only if the author could provide the evidence that…can this argument be confirmed valid.◆The assumption cannot be substantiated until the author could provide that…◆As long as the evidence(that/of…) could be offered, the author’s view might be reasonably justified.3. Questions◆The first question of vital prominence could be whether…◆Only if the answer were positive, can the argument be substantiated. In contrast, if the answer were negative, the argument would be considered logically flawed.4. Alternative Explanations◆The explanation offered by the author does not suffice to be evaluated as justifiable based on the given evidence. Alternative explanation could involve that …or that…◆The author’s conclusion unfairly ignores… so a better explanation might be…◆Without considering and ruling out other possible reasons, the author cannot successfully convince me that…*5. 补充一些攻击Flaw的句型(1)样本不足或不具代表性/调查不可靠◆The author provides no evidence that the survey is statistically reliable.◆Perhaps the survey’s sample is not sufficient in size or representative of the quality of…◆The survey methodology might be problematic in several respects:◆As a result, the author cannot justifiably draw any conclusion in light of the survey until adequate evidence is given to lend credibility to it.(2)错误类比（忽略个体差异）◆The author is drawing a false analogy between A and B. It is entirely possible that A and B own divergent situations. Perhaps…Without taking such differences into consideration, it is unconscionable to claim that…(3)方案并非最佳◆The argument fails to consider other possible options for…Perhaps by…or by…◆In short, without weighing the given suggestion against alternatives, it is unconscionable to claim that…(4)非充分/非必要条件、◆The validity of the view that…is never equivalent to the justifiability of the deduction that…(5)时间顺序混淆为因果关系/普通关联混淆为因果关系◆However, the conclusion that A is exclusively responsible for B based on the fact that B occurred after/ at the same time of A is unjustifiable.◆Yet the correlation alone amounts to scarce evidence of the claimed cause-and-effect relationship.(6)错误推论Absent evidence to warrant this deduction, it is entirely possible thatAny of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the author’s claim that…The fact (that…) accomplishes nothing towards bolstering the recommendation.*6. 段内/段间承接Absent the evidence,If this is the case,Perhaps,Even assuming/Even if……does not necessarily indicate that…三、结尾-In sum, the argument not only is logically unsound but also relies on several doubtful assumptions.-To reinforce the argument, the author must qualify the recommendation by accounting for possible alternatives and providing comprehensive evidence.-To better assess the argument, we would expect the author to provide adequate information with respect to…。
GRE作文Argument模板+错误分类
34，72，79，88，105，114，126，129，133，145，153，154，211，227，23223, Confusing concurrence with causality:同时发生不为因果The most important problem is the underlying assumption that it is ...that resulted in ... The author only points out that the two events occurred during the same period, however, we all know that merely a coincidence of two events could not sufficiently demonstrate a causal relationship between them. (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )Many other factors could also lead to ... which might include ... Without ruling out such factors, we could not be convinced that ...is the actual cause of ...1，53，59，60，72，75，90，91，101，105，129，142，153，173，23824, Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:前后发生不为因果The author concludes that ...is responsible for ... the assumption is based on the mere fact that ...occurred after ...however, the sequence of the two events, in itself, does not sufficiently prove that the former caused the later one.(many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )...might has resulted from other factors, such as ...Without ruling out these possible scenarios, the author could not establish a causal relationship between ...and ...2，9，16，25，30，92，99，102，110，119，123，170，180，195，205，215，218，230，237，239，242证据25, Insufficient evidence:证据不足The author claims that...by showing that....however, but this piece of information in itself is far from sufficient to demonstrate the assumption that...Although (the information provided by the author) may has some relation with ... (we need more critical important information about the case studied. ) More solid evidence are needed before we could be convinced that ...5，6，7，14，18，23，24，27，29，31，33，36，37，40，44，46，47，52，54，56，57，58，61，67，69，70，73，74，81，93，94，110，111，115，117，130，131，136，138，143，148，150，155，157，165，171，179，190，193，198，201，202，204，211，213，223，231，236，237，238，241Failing to consider the credibility of the evidence:46，47，66，72，76，88，118，136，151，176，22626, Unwarranted assumption/credibility of the evidence:无证据假设，攻击背景The assumption that ...is open to doubt, since the author does not provide any single evidence to substantiate the assumption. (many other possibilities might render the assumption suspect. )Given other possibilities about... the author could not hastily assumes that...6，8，11，12，13，14，15，17，21，22，23，25，28，33，50，53，56，62，64，66，67，74，75，78，83，84，86，87，88，89，90，91，92，95，100，101，102，104，105，108，110，112，113，114，118，120，121，122，125，126，127，128，129，130，132，134，136，137，140，142，144，145，146，148，151，152，156，157，160，161，163，164，169，170，172，174，177，178，179，181，191，192，194，195，19 7，202，204，205，206，208，210，212，216，218，219，221，222，223，225，228，231，235，236，239，24227, Definition critique:对某一专用名词没有解释，比如药One problem involves the definition of ...The author fails to give a clear definition of ... thus we could not evaluate if... (the definition might be different from what we commonly consider the term to be )As we commonly accept, ually means ... Therefore, if ...is defined as ... then ... is irrelevant to (the author’s conclusion)In one word, without a clear definition of ... it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.53，72，81，91，105，141，153，167，179，195，196，211，219，223，226，239。
Argument模板和漂亮句型的整理
Argument模板和漂亮句型的整理Argument模板和美丽句型的整理,我们一起学习一下吧，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
Argument模板和美丽句型的整理开头试验结论In this argument, the arguer concludes that …doing…will lead to …To support the conclusion, the arguer points out that…In addition, the arguer reasons that…The argument suffers from several critical fallacies.自己应当干吗依据观看和现象自己改正依据因果In this argument, the arguer recommends that … should advise … to …To justify this claim, the arguer provides the evidence that… Thus… should follow the study’s recommendation and … in order to …自己尝试新方法依据猜测和假想The conclusion in this argument is that … can expect to … by doing … In support of this prediction, the arguer claims that … Moreover, the arguer assumes that this attempt has … benefits:1) to; 2)to; 3)to; This argument is fraught with vague, oversimplified, and unwarranted assumptions.换一个供应商In this argument, the arguer advocates that … should … This recommendation is based on the observation that … Meanwhile, the arguer assumes … to be a better choice … because … This argument is problematic for … reasons.自己应当干吗依据其他州的状况In this analysis, the arguer claims that … should … To substantiate the conclusion, the arguer cites the example of … where … In addition, the arguer assumes that … This argument is unconvincing for several critical flaws.正文：The major problem with this argument is that …Another flaw that weakens this argument is that. …In addition, the arguer ignores several factors that might undermine the argument.… the arguer fails to consider several other relevant factors that might influence …For instance … since … what’s more … etc.样本的问题：When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generation they are used to support, so that historical changes will not invalidatethe generalization调查survey 的问题：The sample of the survey conducted by the … is vague.But we are told nothing about the way the poll was conducted and how well it represented the public opinions..(民意测验)How many people participated?The sample of the survey is not representative.数据的问题：(平均值)The study revealed, on average, only a small statistical correlation between(试验的数据不行靠) the data of the research is unconvincing (样本太小)the sample is too small to... (光数字没比例)the ratio of four to sixthere is only figures but no proportion of the survey 还是ratio?Insufficient SampleIf the [respondents] only stand for a tiny proportion of the whole [group], we should not be so sure about the conclusion that [the whole group…]The arguer commits afallacy of hasty generalization.It was only carried out in Sun City, but the arguer applies its result to all the company’s markets while doesn’t show us whether Sun City is arepresentative market of the whole markets.试验组的人：性别，年龄，生理特征副作用有的病人会对抗生素过敏错误的类比：But the problem is that the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.错误的比较：The comparison in this argument is incomplete and selective. The arguer discovers that …However, the arguer fails to provide any information regarding … respectively …别的因素：Furthermore the arguer ignores the possibility that … may … Unless the arguer also takes this factor into consideration, the comparison is unconvincing.It is very likely that … and hence… varies significantly.没有因果：Confusing causal relation with correlationthe arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if the maintenance of the airline has been improved as a result of sending its mechanics to the Seminar, which is, of course, an unwarranted assumption, it does not follow that 就算怎样，也不怎样Finally, the arguer hints that … but he fails to analyze the causes. Is it because… or because … ?-----------------------------------------------------------其他：The fact that … does not necessarily imply that …First of all, the argument is based on a hasty generalization. According to the cited studies … which is understandable.It is very likely that … and hence… varies significantly.分析常用：the actual amount of time for doing … respectively …The survey is based on two isolated examples. The arguer should survey more hospitals of both types.How large was the sampleHow many people participated?What extent do this participators improve their …speed?The arguer fails to indicate the attitude of the residents to the ABCs performance.循环假设The arguer commits a fallacy of begging the question in assuming that …-------------------------------------------------------------结尾：To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide more evidence concerning the percentage of the affected families and their geographical distribution.In summary, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and misleading.In conclusion, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between …To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that …To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information about …As it stands, the argument is not well reasoned. To make it logically acceptable, the arguer would have to demonstrate that … is the only condition that …Additionally, the arguer must provide evidence to rule out other possible causes of the …To conclude, this argument is not persuasive as it stands.新GRE写作Argument范文Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.The following appeared in a letter from a department chairperson to the president of Pierce University.Some studies conducted by Bronston College, which is also located in a small town, reveal that both male and female professors are happierliving in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the same geographic area. Therefore, in the interest of attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers to our faculty and improving the morale of our entire staff, we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member we hire. Although we cannot expect all offers to be accepted or to be viewed as an ideal job offer, the money invested in this effort will clearly be well spent because, if their spouses have a chance of employment, new professors will be more likely to accept our offers.For the past five years, consumers in California have been willing to pay twice as much for oysters from the northeastern Atlantic Coast as for Gulf Coast oysters. This trend began shortly after harmful bacteria were found in a few raw Gulf Coast oysters. But scientists have now devised a process for killing the bacteria. Once consumers are made aware of the increased safety of Gulf Coast oysters, they are likely to be willing to pay as much for Gulf Coast as for northeastern Atlantic Coast oysters, and greater profits for Gulf Coast oyster producers will follow.The following appeared in a memo from the marketing director of Bargain Brand Cereals.One year ago we introduced our first product, Bargain Brand breakfast cereal. Our very low prices quickly drew many customers away from the top-selling cereal companies. Although the companiesproducing the top brands have since tried to compete with us by lowering their prices, and although several plan to introduce their own budget brands, not once have we needed to raise our prices to continue making a profit. Given our success selling cereal, Bargain Brand should now expand its business and begin marketing other low-priced food products as quickly as possible.The Mozart School of Music should obviously be the first choice of any music student aware of its reputation. First of all, the Mozart School stresses intensive practice and training, so that students typically begin their training at a very young age. Second, the school has ample facilities and up-to-date professional equipment, and its faculty includes some of the most distinguished music teachers in the world. Finally, many Mozart graduates have gone on to be the best known and most highly paid musicians in the nation.新GRE写作Argument范文Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.The following is a letter that recently appeared in the Oak City Gazette, a local newspaper.Membership in Oak City‘s Civic Club-a club whose primary objective is to discuss local issues-should continue to be restricted to people who live in Oak City. People who work-in Oak City but who live elsewhere cannot truly understand the business and politics of the city. It isimportant to restrict membership to city residents because only residents pay city taxes and therefore only residents understand how the money could best be used to improve the city. At any rate, restricting membership in this way is unlikely to disappoint many of the nonresidents employed in Oak City, since neighboring Elm City‘s Civic Club has always had an open membership policy, and only twenty-five nonresidents have joined Elm City‘s Club in the last ten years.The following appeared in the annual report from the president of the National Brush Company.In order to save money, we at the National Brush Company have decided to pay our employees for each brush they produce instead of for the time they spend producing brushes. We believe that this policy will lead to the production of more and better brushes, will allow us to reduce our staff size, and will enable the company factories to operate for fewer hours-resulting in savings on electricity and security costs. These changes will ensure that the best workers keep their jobs and that the company will earn a profit in the coming year.The following is a memorandum written by the director of personnel to the president of the Cedar Corporation.It would be a mistake to rehire the Good-Taste Company to supply the food in our employee cafeteria next year. It is the second most expensive caterer in the city. In addition, its prices have risen in each ofthe last three years, and it refuses to provide meals for people on special diets. Just last month three employees complained to me that they no longer eat in the cafeteria because they find the experience ‘unbearable.‘ Our company should instead hire Discount Foods. Discount is a family-owned local company and it offers a varied menu of fish and poultry. I recently tasted a sample lunch at one of the many companies that Discount serves and it was delicious-an indication that hiring Discount will lead to improved employee satisfaction.The following is a recommendation from the personnel director to the president of Acme Publishing Company.Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course has greatly improved productivity. One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manager to vice president of the company in under a year. Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday. Moreover, Easy Read costs only $500 per employee-a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter. Clearly, Acme would benefit greatly by requiring all of our employees to take the Easy Read course.新GRE写作Argument范文Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.From a letter to the editor of a city newspaper.One recent research study has indicated that many adolescents need more sleep than they are getting, and another study has shown that many high school students in our city are actually dissatisfied with their own academic performance. As a way of combating these problems, the high schools in our city should begin classes at 8:30 A.M. instead of 7:30 A.M., and end the school day an hour later. This arrangement will give students an extra hour of sleep in the morning, thereby making them more alert and more productive. Consequently, the students will perform better on tests and other assignments, and their academic skills will improve significantly.Butter has now been replaced by margarine in Happy Pancake House restaurants throughout the southwestern United States. Only about 2 percent of customers have complained, indicating that 98 people out of 100 are happy with the change. Furthermore, many servers have reported that a number of customers who still ask for butter do not complain when they are given margarine instead. Clearly, either these customers cannot distinguish margarine from butter, or they use the term butter to refer to either butter or margarine. Thus, to avoid the expense of purchasing butter, the Happy Pancake House should extend this cost-saving change to its restaurants in the southeast andnortheast as well.Many employees of major United States corporations are fearful that they will lose their jobs in the near future, but this fear is largely unfounded. According to a recent study, a majority of companies expected to make new hires in the coming year, while fewer companies expected to lay off employees. In addition, although it is very disturbing to be laid off, the proliferation of programs and of workshops designed to improve job-finding skills has made being laid off far less painful than it once was.In the Bayhead Public Library, books that are rarely borrowed continue to take up shelf space year after year, while people who want to read a recent novel frequently find that the library‘s only copy is checked out. Clearly, the library‘s plan to replace books that are borrowed no more than once a year with sufficient copies of more recent books will solve this problem. The protest we have heard since this plan was made public has come from a small, and thus unrepresentative, group of some thirty people and so should therefore be ignored.Argument模板和美丽句型的整理。
英语考试作文-【高分必备】GRE写作Argument部分的6种逻辑错误汇总
英语考试作文【高分必备】GRE写作Argument部分的6种逻辑错误汇总新GRE写作包括Argument和Issue两部分，这两部分都比较重视逻辑思维，而这恰恰是中国学生容易错的地方。
今天给大家整理了新GRE写作Argument部分常犯的7种逻辑错误，希望小伙伴儿们在平时的备战练习中注意避免这些问题。
1、结论无据(gratuitous assumption)The author falsely depends on gratuitousassumption that.... However, no evidence is stated in the argument to supportthis assumption. In fact, this is not necessarily the case. For example, it ismore likely that.... Therefore, this argument is unwarranted without ruling outsuch possibility.2、无因果联系The author commits a fallacy of causaloversimplification. The line of the reasoning is that because A occurred beforeB, the former event is responsiblefor the latter. (The author uses thepositive correlation between A and B to establish causality. However, the factthatA coincides withB does not necessarily prove that A causedB.) But thisis fallacious reasoning unless other possible causal explanations have beenconsidered and ruled out. For example, perhaps C is the cause of these eventsor perhaps B is caused by D.3、样本不足(insufficient-sample)The evidence the author provides isinsufficient to support the conclusion drawn from it. One example is logicallyunsounded to establish a general conclusion (The statistics from only a fewrecent years are not necessarily a good indicator of future trends), unless itcan be shown that A1 is representative of all A.4、二者择一(Either-Orchoice)The author assumes that AA and BB aremutually exclusive alternatives and there is no room for a middle ground.However, the author provides no reason for imposing an either-or choice. Commonsense tells us that adjusting both AA and BB might produce better results.5、错误类比(based on a false analogy )The argument rests on the assumptionthat A isanalogous to B in all respects. This assumption is weak, sincealthough there are points of comparison between A and B, there is muchdissimilarity as well. For example, A..., however, B.... Thus, it is likelymuch more difficult for B to do....6、时地全等(all thingsare equal)The author commits the fallacy of “all things are equal”. The fact thathappened two years ago is not a sound evidence to draw a conclusion that....The author assumes without justification that the background conditions haveremained the same at different times or at different locations. However, it isnot clear in this argument whether the current conditions at AA are the same asthey used to be two years ago. Thus it is impossible to conclude that....TIPS：GRE写作两部分权重相同由于AA的写作不牵涉自己观点的展开，只须指出作者逻辑上的漏洞，因此在经过训练以后，写起来并不困难;而AI的写作需要自己展开自己设立的观点，不但需要逻辑上的洞察能力，还需要论证观点的能力，语言组织的能力，因此对于中国考生来讲比较困难，难以短期内有较大提高。
2022GRE写作argument哪些逻辑错误最常见
2022GRE写作argument哪些逻辑错误最常见GRE写作中大部分中国考生都是ARGUMENT部分的得分更高，这是由于ARGUMENT作为驳论在写作思路的难度上还是较低的下面我就和大家共享GRE写作ARGUMENT高分写法思路实例解读，来观赏一下吧。
GRE写作argument哪些规律错误最常见?想要写好GRE习作ARGUMENT作文，大家首先需要了解在argument作文题目中存在哪些比较常见的标志性规律错误和漏洞：基本概念常识虽然GRE考试本身出于公正的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业学问提出要求，但考生还是需要具备肯定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中常常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应当有所了解。
由于GRE作文中，经常会消失一些涉及这些基本学问的规律漏洞。
假如考生能够对这些学问有所了解，就能在文章题目中发觉更多问题。
极端态度观点假如大家读过一些专业性较强的原版杂志报纸，比如《纽约时报》、《华尔街日报》或《经济学人》，就会发觉其中许多文章都具备GRE 作文考试最喜爱的特质：思索全面，观点平衡，有理有据。
极端的观点和结论在GRE作文中鲜少有正确的时候，也往往会是最主要的攻击论点。
因此，假如考生在题目的结论中看到了诸如“must”或者“undoubtedly”之类的用词，那么这就是极端结论的最好证明。
不清晰的表述用词在GRE写作的题目中，诸如“few”, “many”, “more”, “less”, and“some”之类的用词常可以看到，这些词虽然在肯定程度上具备数字含义，本身却并无法表达出详细的数字，可以说是含义相对模糊不清的用词。
假如题目中的论述，特殊是涉及数据的部分是建立在这些模糊表达上而得出的结论，那么这个论述本身就存在问题，经常能成为可攻击的规律漏洞。
忽视个例的特别性有些题目，常会依据一个较小的例子来得出一个很大的结论。
这种以小见大的做法看似很好，但其实经常存在问题。
英语_GRE作文Argument模板之5错误类比汇总
19.(错误类比或草率推广)Even if Ad Lib’s serves are necessary to chieve the manage’s goal, it is entirely possible that[the experiences/measures/policy in A]Ad Lib’s service would not suffice to ensure similar [the result in B] sucess elsewhere—due to the sort of factors mentioned above that might have contributed to[the result in A] the Megalopolis success but would not come into play in other cities.152.The mere fact that on nearby Batia replenishing beach sand has served to protect shore-line buildings is scant evidence that Tria would achieve its goals by following Batia’s example. Perhaps the same course of action would be ineffective on Tria due to geological differences between the two islands. Or perhaps Batia is in a far better position than Tria financially to replenish its sand on a continual basis. In short, lacking evidence that conditions on the two islands are relevantly similar, the author cannot convince me on the basis of Batia’s experience that the proposed course of action would be effective in attaining Tria’s goals.155.The editorial continues by claiming that listening to audiocassettes will make children better readers beacuse when parents read aloud to their children these children become better readers. This argument by analogy is wholly unpersuasive.The latter allows for interaction between parent and child, while the former does not. The latter allows for the child to view written words as the parent reads—that is, to read—while the former does not. Besides, common sense and experience tell us that audiocassettes, which provide for passive listening, are likely to serve as crutches that dissuade children from active reading—instead of encouraging them to read.160.A threshold problem with the argument is that it assumes that what improves memory and learning in rats will also improve memory and learning in humans. Although this is entirely possible, the argument provides no evidence to support this assumption. Without such evidence the argument can be rejected out of hand.162.The argument assumes that the difference in soy consumption is the only possible explanation for this disparity in the occurrence of fatigue and depression. Yet the argument fails to substantiate this mon sence informs me that any one of a myriad of other differences—environmental, dietary, and genetic—might explain why North Americans suffer from these problems to a great extent than asians do. Without considering and ruling out alternative reasons for this disparity, the argument’s conclusion that soy is the key to the disparity is indefensible.168.Even assuming that the survey data accurately reflect the auto industry, the argument unfairly assumes that supervision affects worker productivity similarly at PPC. Perhaps PPC employscertain unique equipment or processes that require close worker supervision—even for older, more experienced workers. For that matter[同样] pehaps youth or inexperienced is an advantage in working productively at PPC, whereas in the auto industry either is a disadvantage. In short, without accounting for possible differences between PPC and auto manufacturers the director cannot convince me that his recommendation for PPC is sound.210.The argument depends on the hasty assumption that the kinds of tasks robots perform in space are similar to the ones they would perform in factories, and that there are no differences between the two environments that would render robots less effective in factory jobs than in space missions. Perhaps the effectiveness of robots in space missions is due largely to the weightless environment of space. Or perhaps the average space-mission robot performs less work than a typical factory robot would be required to work. In either case, the fact that robots are effective in space would amount to scant support for the author’s argument.214.(错误类比及总量和比例混淆)A Third assumption upon which the argument rests is that the percentage of residents who attend public schools is about the same in both cities.The argument indicates only that the total population of the two cities is about the same.If a comparatively small percentage of Blue City residents attend public schools, then the comparatively small amount of money Blue City devotes to those schools might be well justified despite an equal level of concern about the quality of public-school education among residents in the two cities.爷要听什么?随便你唱什么。
英语考试作文-GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析 实例讲解驳论文正确写法思路
英语考试作文
GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析实例讲解驳论文正确写法思路
GRE写作中ARGUMENT是两种题型中相对更容易得分的题型，不少中国考生拿到4分以上的GRE写作成绩也往往离不开ARGUMENT部分更高的得分。
所以GRE写作想要提分，从ARGUMENT入手来提升显然是一条更为便捷的快车道。
下面就结合GRE 写作ARGUMENT写法实例来分析作文高分写法套路。
GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析
想要写好GRE写作的ARGUMENT作文，考生首先要对ARGUMENT作文题目中存在的常见逻辑错误漏洞攻击点有比较全面清晰的认识，以下5种逻辑问题几乎每道GRE写作ARGUMENT的题目中都存在：
基本概念常识出错
虽然GRE考试本身出于公平的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业知识提出要求，但考生还是需要具备一定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中经常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应该有所了解。
因为GRE作文中，常常会出现一些涉及这些
基本知识的逻辑漏洞。
如果考生能够对这些知识有所了解，就能在文章题目中发现。
GRE_Arguement七种常见错误_个人总结
一．经不起推敲的类推（false analogy）This argument relies on what might be a false analogy between A and B C.（开头）In order for BC to serve as models that A should emulate, the arguer must assume that all relevant circumstances involved are essentially the same.(环境、背景不同)However, this assumption is unwarranted.（过渡）For example, the argument overlooks the possibility that…..Perhaps …..（列举各种可能性）The arguer simply assumes that ….. but he does not provide any evidence that……are indeed comparable.As we know, the …and …differ conspicuously.It is true that both…...but even here exist fundamental differences:…. （两种东西本身不同）Therefore, even though the….proved effective in….., there is no guarantee that it will work just as well for…..（结尾）二将因果关系与单纯的关联关系或时间关系混淆起来（confuse causal relationship with correlation ）The argument concluded based on a known correlation between A and B. Yet the correlation alone is only a scant evidence of the claimed “cause-and –effect” relationship.Perhaps…..Moreover, the argument overlooks the fact that….The arguer has not accounted for the possibility that…. If this is the case, than the conclusion would lack any merit whatsoever.三．认为一个群体的特征适用于该群体的所有成员四．认为某条件是某结果的必要和/或充足条件1.要想取得理想的结果就必须按照这种（推荐的）行为去做2.按照这种（推荐的）行为去捉就足以去的理想的结果a)The recommendation d epends on the assumption that no alternative means of …are available. Yet no evidence is offered to substantiate this assumption. Admitittedly,…..However, it is entirely possible that means other than this would also achieve the desired result. （指出替代选项的存在）Perhaps the desired improvement could be achieved if…..（列举替代选项）Without considering and ruling out these and other alternative means of…., the arguer cannot confidently conclude that…..must do…in order to achieve the goal.（收尾）The recommendation depends on the additional unsubstantiated assumption that…..would by itself improve……(指出不一定能达到目标)Absent evidence that this is the case, it is equally possible that….. Thus, without better evidence that……, the argument remains unconvincing.（列举可能性一）Even assuming that…., the arguer provides no clear evidence that….. The mere fact that ….hardly suffices to prove……., at least not without more information about….（让步，列举可能性二）Even if …..,perhaps additional measures—such as…..—would also be required in order to achieve….objectives.(列举可能附加的条件)五．基于可能不具代表性的统计数据One problem with the argument involves the sited statistics about….It is unreasonable to draw any conclusions about….based on statistics about….（指出数据不可依赖）The arguer fails to make clear the exact number of….If only small portions of the whole population are…..then the case might be that …（数据太小）Even if the sample size chosen from….is large enough, the statistics might also be incredible.Depending on the total number of….., it is entirely possible that…..are not representative of….For example, perhaps…..are particularly….Without considering and ruling out these and other alternative means of…., the arguer cannot confidently conclude that…（数据没有代表性）六．基于不准确的调查或民意测验结果。
GRE写作argument和issue模板准备技巧
GRE写作argument和issue模板准备技巧GRE写作Argument模板准备：掌握逻辑Argument要求考生分析所给题目，完成一篇驳，指出并且有力地驳斥题目中的主要逻辑错误。
Argument部分，首先要熟悉每一个题目，找出主要的逻辑错误，也就是Argument题目的提纲，同时每一个逻辑错误准备一套语言套路去说。
写完每一个题目的提纲后，写10-15篇完整的文章(语言能力弱的话，可以增加写作量)，找partner帮你改，知道错误以后再重写。
有些考生写GRE文章，喜欢用专业性的逻辑用语，其实没有必要，就事论事比较好。
在批驳的时候为了显得有力，可以多用用for example、it isssible that、it is likelythat之类的句型，因为Argument就是挑错与找茬的过程。
如果实在觉得错误不好找，那么就根据每一句话批，基本上，每一个表示原因的句子中都可能存在逻辑错误。
有人认为，Argument背一下错误分类就可以了。
但是在中这些只是次要的方面，主要的还在于寻找论述者的论据和事实是否对论点做了充分且必要的证明。
只有找出他们之间的缺点和不足,文章才会流畅。
掌握逻辑的因果关系，更好地把握文章的结论,会写出更漂亮的文章，而不是仅仅的survey、resnse、data等一些谁都用的西，无论什么都是越具体越有说服力。
GRE写作Issue模板准备：准备提纲Issue要求考生根据所给的题目，完成一篇表明立场的逻辑立。
Issue题库涉及、文化、科技、历史、治、艺术等诸多方面。
不同类型的题目有较大差别，但在同一类型的题目中却包含了许多命题方向非常接近的题目。
Issue写作对于论据的要XX非常高的，因此你的名人事例的储备，相关知识量的积累是非常重要的。
这一环节也正是GRE考生最为头疼的一部分，举不出支持自己的观点的例子，因此让自己的文章显得只有苍白的论证，缺乏说服力。
因此要多读历史，积累例子，尤其关注那些重要的哲学家、科学家、艺术家、治领袖等人的生平事迹、主要贡献。
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弃我去者，昨日之日不可留乱我心者，今日之日多烦忧Argument Example调查1, Selective sample:样本选择，一部分被排除在外One major problem is about the sample the author studied in the survey. the author considers only...(selective sub-groups) although (the sub-groups the author studied) do constitute a significant part of (the whole general population), however, (many other sub-groups)are actually excluded from the survey. Perhaps...or...without ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not make any general conclusion about...merely based on (selective sub-groups).4，14，16，45，63，65，67，80，84，88，90，97，123，146，154，156，168，179，185，193，196，207，227，231，232，236，238，2392, Quantity of the sample样本数量( pointing out that the current sample is too small in its size)(the fact cited by the author) could hardly illustrate the assumption that... because the author provides only N samples of (the general population),however, (the limited sample) might not be representative of the whole general group. thus we cannot accept the author’s conclusi on that...before he/she could provide more statistic data about (the situation of other sub-groups).10，14，33，40，53，69，95，115，123，132，139，150，154，158，167，179，180，188，191，2393, Do the statistics make any difference:调查只调查了部分情况，忽略了一部分The information provided by the author is insufficient for the author to reach the conclusion. the survey only studies the situation of ...(an(some) insignificant case(s)), however, many other more essential cases (related to the final conclusion) were ignored in the survey.(we need to know the condition of some other cases about which we care more/ the current case studied in the survey makes little sense on the final conclusion, the author should provide some more important information about the case he studied. )Lacking further studies on these important issues, the author could not hastily conclude that...merely based on the insignificant study.158，165，183，202，211，217 17，115，147，2205, Who conducted the survey:结果扭曲，调查者为了自己的利益The reliability of the survey is also open to doubt due to the organization who conducted the survey. (the organization)has vested interest in the final decision/conclusion which was based on the result of the survey, and thus might distort the actual answers of the respondents.(the institution/individuals may benefit greatly from the result if the result was interpreted as was currently ) Thus, the author should cite a survey which is conducted by an independent institution to convince us that (the assumption).115，1566, When was the survey conducted:时间变化The effectiveness of the result of the survey cited by the author as main evidence is also open to doubt. The survey was conduct (during a special period, or a long time ago), thus may not reflect the current situations accurately. It is true that ( the survey may reflect the opinions or situations of respondents at thetime when it was conducted), but people’s opinion toward (the subject surveyed)may have changed greatly during the past time (or, while this fact could not sufficiently illustrate that (the general group) will also...all the time)(many factors that could influence the validity of the survey will change in the future, or respondents may act differently during the period when the survey was conducted, thus the result of the survey could not represent the all-time situation. )Thus, a more recent survey, if a survey is needed at all, should be provided to sufficiently illustrate the author’s assumption that...7, Vague data:数据模糊—没有基数The information concerning ...is not accurate enough for us to evaluate the actual condition of ...The author only informs us that (the percentage/fraction of sub-groups which...but we do not know the base amount of (the general group) (if the base amount or corresponding fractions vary, the conclusion would be different. )For lack of detailed information about ( the base amount / fraction of) ... we can hardly assess ...4，5，8，9，11，12，14，16，20，22，23，25，27，31，32，39，42，44，49，52，55，68，70，71，73，77，79，87，89，100，103，120，122，124，130，133，134，135，141，143，144，145，155，159，165，175，177，182，183，189，194，196，199，200，203，204，206，211，212，214，216，222，223，231，236，238 8,Incomplete information:数据不完整The author does not provide complete information concerning ...in illustrating that ...The author only informs us that... but what we care more about is that... which is not provided by the author. (some other substantial information are needed for us to assess the soundness of the argument, and the conclusion would vary greatly when other conditions varied. ) For lack of detailed information about ... we can hardly evaluate ...6，7，8，10，14，15，17，18，20，21，24，27，29，30，32，35，36，38，39，42，43，44，46，49，52，54，64，65，66，68，70，71，73，77，79，81，82，83，84，85，87，88，89，90，91，92，94，95，96，97，98，99，100，103，104，105，107，108，116，117，119，120，127，130，135，137，141，143，144，145，147，150，152，155，161，165，166，167，168，169，170，171，172，174，175，179，180，181，183，184，185，191，192，193，198，199，200，203，205，206，211，212，213，214，215，216，217，218，219，221，222，224，225，226，228，229，231，232，233，235，237，238，239，240，241，2429, Are the respondents forthright when answering the questions:回答者不真实The reliability of the respondents...answers to the survey’s question is not sufficiently justified to support the conclusion...There is possibility that the respondents may not tell the truth about..(answering the questions honestly may lead to some undesirable consequences for the respondents, thus they may evade the crucial point, or even lie in their answers. ) Under such circumstances, it is almost impossible for us to expect the respondents to provide accurate information about their opinion toward...92，199，211，24210, Are the respondents representative:回答者没有代表性We should also notice that the respondents studied in the survey may not represent the general group of ...We all know that in many cases, people who are interested in ...might be generally more likely to respond to the survey than other people are, or are more willing to express their own opinions and positions on the issue of ...(other people who did not respond may hold a totally different position toward the issue studied, and the author should include those people in the study to present a more convincing result. )Without considering the situation of other groups of people, the result of the survey in itself could not justifiably illustrate that ...11，15，17，28，34，40，43，52，55，57，62，65，76，95，102，111，115，117，153，154，161，167，168，174，194，201，206，212，218，224，235比较11, False analogy:错误类比AB，A适合BIn the argument the author recommends A to carry out same (policies, actions, solutions on ... as B, but the analogy between them might be unsubstantiated. The author fails to illustrate that A and B are similar enough at every aspect and are indeed comparable. While it is true that A and B share some common ground on ...there are still some obvious differences between them. (many differences exist between A and B and these differences may well render the policies(actions, solutions, etc) proved to be effective for A might not have the same effectiveness for B )Before A decide to copy B’s experienc es, the author should take these differences into account and make careful study on the comparability of the two (cities, companies, schools, etc).2，4，9，12，13，16，18，20，25，26，28，29，31，35，38，39，41，42，43，44，55，56，67，72，89，91，92，94，97，99，102，108，109，110，116，119，124，125，131，132，133，149，152，155，160，162，169，177，180，182，186，187，192，198，204，205，209，210，211，212，218，226，230，232，235，236，237，238，23912, Incomplete comparison /selective comparison /ex parte information:错误对比AB，A不一定比B 好The author hastily implies that A is superior to B in ... but the comparison between A and B is incomplete. The author only compares ... however, there are myriad of factors which, if differ in these cases, would bring about totally different result for the comparison. (many other factors would influence the result while ignored by the author in the argument ) Without any further consideration about these factors, the author could not convince us that (A is better than B in certain aspect)merely based on an incomplete comparison.13, Confusing comparison and variation:只对比了一部分的变化or vice versa.In the argument the author provides the variation in ...to illustrate that ...Although the variation in ...could partly prove that ... however, we all know that to demonstrate ...the comparison between A and B is actually more convincing and necessary.:(the comparison between those entities could be more convincing in illustrating the conclusion ) Lacking comparison between ... we could not assess if ...23，48，63，85，106，132，135，168，173，179，180，186，188，206，216，224，240Incomplete comparison/exparte information:2，4，17，24，34，49，51，57，60，63，64，77，81，82，85，93，96，98，101，103，105，109，114，126，129，131，132，139，151，159，162，166，167，172，173，179，186，187，188，193，200，203，211，212，214，216，220，222，231，233，234，238，24114, Unrelated concepts:偷换概念In illustrating the assumption that ...the author commits a fallacy of hasty generalization.: The author cites A to prove B, however, A is not a good indication of B. (there are basic differences between A and B, thus A could not be properly used to illustrate B ) The author ought to make careful and clear differentiation between A and B before we could evaluate if the inference that ...is justified.1，3，4，10，11，16，20，23，29，31，34，35，36，38，40，44，48，49，53，55，58，63，67，68，72，77，80，81，85，87，88，89，91，93，96，101，105，106，107，114，120，121，124，130，132，133，134，139，140，143，146，153，155，156，160，161，166，167，172，173，175，181，183，187，188，190，193，194，196，198，199，200，201，Hasty generalization: 38，54，56，59，61，66，81，89，98，137，140，154 203，212，214，215，216，217，218，220，221，223，231，233，234，235，239，24115, Changing scopes:偷换范围The fact that ...could sufficiently substantiate the conclusion that...since the argument is based only on(some special cases) and the author does not differentiate between the ...of (different subjects) .Although the author’s inference that ...might be true for some cases, for example, ...Unfortunately, this is not true of every individual (in the general group).(other subjects may have totally different situation thus the author’s infere nce could not be properly applied to them. ) Unless the author can demonstrate that (the condition of other subjects is similar to that of the case studied), the general conclusion cannot be reached merely basing on these special and limited cases.3，6，8，10，19，22，23，28，29，40，41，44，45，49，51，60，70，80，83，84，87，90，91，93，94，95，96，97，98，113，115，116，117，118，119，121，126，129，130，131，134，135，145，147，148，150，154，156，158，165，171，172，175，176，180，185，187，188，193，194，195，203，205，206，207，211，213，217，218，220，223，230，233，234，24216, Inferring a future condition from a past condition:过去不能推未来In the argument the author suggests that we can (solve current problems or achieve current goals) through methods which have successfully solved the same kind of problems in the past.There is a hidden assumption assumed by the author that all conditions and factors upon which the effectiveness of (the method) depend have remained unchanged during the past (N years).However, many factors could have been changed during the past years. (many conditions and factors could have varied, which might render the solutions which were proved to be effective in the past might not have the same effectiveness in current days or in the future. )Without taking into account all these constantly changing factors, the author could not convince us that the proposed solution could be used to solve current problems successfully.1，2，4，5，8，11，13，15，18，20，21，22，23，25，30，32，36，37，48，52，61，62，65，67，68，73，78，85，87，93，94，95，100，116，119，130，134，136，138，140，146，151，158，161，167，168，171，183，190，201，204，208，209，213，216，218，219，225，226，230，237，240，24130, Lack of controlled experiment/ comparison:没考虑其他变量The author unfairly assumes that it is ...that resulted in ... The causal relationship is convincing only if the author could demonstrate that all other factors that might affect ...remained constant during the same period.(pointing out that corresponding controlled experiment is needed, or explaining how the experiment should be conducted.)Specifically, we need to know (the experiment result of one group of the subjects), Without appropriate comparison between A and B, the assumption that ...is unwarranted.18，23，41，59，75，76，85，103，122，128，153，167，168，175，176，180，206，207，224，236，237，241，242解决办法17, Sufficiency and necessity of a solution:解决办法不够有力The author assumes that the proposed actions are both sufficient and necessary for (achieving certain goal).To solve the problem successfully, many other fundamental requirements must be fulfilled. (many other important works must be done. ) Furthermore, many other available methods besides (the author’s proposal) could also be used to achieve the same purpose. (many other effective methods could also be adopted. )Before the author make a careful and thorough comparison between the effectiveness of his own proposal and other possible methods, the author’s proposal should not be hastily carried out.3，7，8，9，10，12，18，19，20，24，25，26，28，30，39，41，42，43，48，52，54，59，60，64，65，68，69，74，79，80，82，83，85，86，87，90，91，94，96，97，98，99，100，102，104，105，106，107，108，110，111，112，115，116，117，122，123，124，125，127，128，129，131，134，135，136，137，139，140，141，145，146，147，149，152，153，155，157，159，161，162，163，164，166，168，169，170，172，173，175，177，178，181，183，185，187，188，189，190，191，192，194，195，196，197，200，201，204，205，206，208，209，211，212，213，215，217，219，222，224，225，226，227，228，229，230，232，236，237，238，239，240，24218, Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion:解决办法没有可行性The feasibility of the arguer’s proposal can also be cast doubt on. The proposal relies on an assumption that (the proposal could be successfully carried out)however, the assumption might be unwarranted due to some critical obstacles. (possible obstacles to the effectiveness of the solution. )Unless the author could demonstrate that those obstacles could be effectively overcome, the proposal might be practically unfeasible.2，24，28，29，39，42，43，51，64，71，86，90，99，102，125，129，132，137，139，141，143，155，163，164，169，172，175，176，178，187，189，191，194，195，204，208，209，210，211，212，217，226，228，230，232，23319, Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly:没考虑解决方法带来的坏处In claiming that ... the author needs to do more comprehensive research on both positive and negative effects of the proposal. Although the proposal could be adopted to (solve the problem) to a certain degree, however, carrying out the proposal may actually bring about more harmful effects.(possible harmful effects ignored by the author. )Under such scenario, adopting the author’s proposal would harm, rather than benefit, (the author’s purpose).Incomplete thought:1，10，11，15，17，24，27，29，31，32，34，35，37，47，49，50，51，52，53，54，58，59，66，69，71，73，78，84，86，87，90，95，97，98，100，104，107，108，110，111，120，123，124，125，126，128，130，134，136，142，143，144，145，147，151，169，177，193，202，236，239Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly:1，2，5，9，13，14，21，22，23，24，38，39，40，43，44，52，55，60，62，63，65，67，69，71，72，76，80，82，84，86，89，92，94，96，98，101，102，104，105，107，108，111，112，114，118，119，122，124，125，127，128，129，133，136，151，152，157，160，163，164，168，169，170，172，173，174，176，178，180，181，182，184，185，186，188，189，191，192，193，200，201，204，206，208，210，213，215，217，218，221，224，226，227，228，229，230，231，232，234，237，24220, False dilemma:两者选一，没考虑其他解决办法In explaining ... the author is presenting a false dilemma. The author simply assumes that (the situation would be either A or B), while the two...are not necessarily mutually exclusive.(many other solutions/explanations could be more justifiable.) Before ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not convince us that there are only those two possible explanations for us to accept.5，33，41，47，82，93，108，113，138，148，150，166，175，182，184，185，190，195，196，202，204，205，213，218，220，233因果关系21, Non-causal relationship:没有因果关系，其他因素的影响The author unfairly assumes that it is ...that resulted in ...:But we can find no concrete evidence to substantiate the inevitable relationship between ...and ...(many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )In short, the author could not hastily conclude that ...is the only possible reason for ...before taking above factors into account.1，3，4，6，7，9，12，15，18，19，20，22，26，27，28，33，35，38，39，42，43，44，45，47，48，49，54，55，56，62，63，64，69，70，74，76，77，78，79，80，81，85，88，90，94，96，97，98，106，109，110，112，113，116，119，120，121，122，124，125，131，132，133，135，136，137，139，141，144，145，147，149，150，156，158，159，160，162，167，168，169，171，172，176，181，187，190，192，193，194，199，201，207，209，212，218，220，221，222，223，224，225，228，231，232，235，236，24122, Confusing the cause and the effect:不是A导致B，而是B导致A(少见)In the process of reasoning the author assumes that A is the reason for B.However, the author may confuse the cause and the effect. (there is possibility that it is B that actually causes A )The author fails to rule out the possibility that (B results in A). Since the author has not adequately take this possibility into account, the assumption that ...is untenable.34，72，79，88，105，114，126，129，133，145，153，154，211，227，23223, Confusing concurrence with causality:同时发生不为因果The most important problem is the underlying assumption that it is ...that resulted in ... The author only points out that the two events occurred during the same period, however, we all know that merely a coincidence of two events could not sufficiently demonstrate a causal relationship between them. (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )Many other factors could also lead to ... which might include ... Without ruling out such factors, we could not be convinced that ...is the actual cause of ...1，53，59，60，72，75，90，91，101，105，129，142，153，173，23824, Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:前后发生不为因果The author concludes that ...is responsible for ... the assumption is based on the mere fact that ...occurred after ...however, the sequence of the two events, in itself, does not sufficiently prove that the former caused the later one.(many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )...might has resulted from other factors, such as ...Without ruling out these possible scenarios, the author could not establish a causal relationship between ...and ...2，9，16，25，30，92，99，102，110，119，123，170，180，195，205，215，218，230，237，239，242证据25, Insufficient evidence:证据不足The author claims that...by showing that....however, but this piece of information in itself is far from sufficient to demonstrate the assumption that...Although (the information provided by the author) may has some relation with ... (we need more critical important information about the case studied. ) More solid evidence are needed before we could be convinced that ...5，6，7，14，18，23，24，27，29，31，33，36，37，40，44，46，47，52，54，56，57，58，61，67，69，70，73，74，81，93，94，110，111，115，117，130，131，136，138，143，148，150，155，157，165，171，179，190，193，198，201，202，204，211，213，223，231，236，237，238，241Failing to consider the credibility of the evidence:46，47，66，72，76，88，118，136，151，176，22626, Unwarranted assumption/credibility of the evidence:无证据假设，攻击背景The assumption that ...is open to doubt, since the author does not provide any single evidence to substantiate the assumption. (many other possibilities might render the assumption suspect. )Given other possibilities about... the author could not hastily assumes that...6，8，11，12，13，14，15，17，21，22，23，25，28，33，50，53，56，62，64，66，67，74，75，78，83，84，86，87，88，89，90，91，92，95，100，101，102，104，105，108，110，112，113，114，118，120，121，122，125，126，127，128，129，130，132，134，136，137，140，142，144，145，146，148，151，152，156，157，160，161，163，164，169，170，172，174，177，178，179，181，191，192，194，195，197，202，204，205，206，208，210，212，216，218，219，221，222，223，225，228，231，235，236，239，24227, Definition critique:对某一专用名词没有解释，比如药One problem involves the definition of ...The author fails to give a clear definition of ... thus we could not evaluate if...(the definition might be different from what we commonly consider the term to be )As we commonly accept, ually means ... Therefore, if ...is defined as ... then ... is irrelevant to (the author’sconclusion)In one word, without a clear definition of ... it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.53，72，81，91，105，141，153，167，179，195，196，211，219，223，226，23928, Negative evidence:自相矛盾的证据The author cites the evidence that ...to convince us that ...(the information provided by the author could be used to refute the author’s conclusion.)However, this piece of evidence may well suggest that... and could serve to refute the author’s assumptionThe author should provide more convincing information to reconcile this apparent self-contradictory claim.6，21，62，100，138，139，145，158，173，178，183，189，190，192，200，203，210，216，217，218，225，234，240，241利润问题29, Profit-cost analysis:Even if the aut hor’s proposal could be carried out effectively, we still could not hastily assume that ...will necessarily earn a substantial profit, as the author predicted. To evaluate the profitability of ...we should consider the function of both revenue and expense. However, the author does not provide any single piece of information about the possible cost of (carrying out the author’s proposal).(many key steps of the proposal may involve great expense, if the cost of carrying out the proposal exceeds projected revenue, the institution would be profitless. )Without more information about production costs, it is impossible to assess whether (carrying out the author’s proposal will be profitable).经济因素30, Economical factors:通货膨胀+需求变化Also, some economical factors should be taken into account in the argument. First, we need to know how much did the price of ...actually increase after adjustment for inflation.(if the rate of inflation exceeds the increase in the price of the product, then the increase is reasonable.)Second, the author fails to consider the variation in the demand for ... during the same period. If the supply of ...falls short of demand, then there is good reason for the increased price of ... The soundness of the speaker’s claim is significantly weakened by the lack of above-mentioned economical consideration.。