中英文对照资料外文翻译文献
外文文献及翻译
外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。
作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。
该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。
总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。
2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。
参考文献中文的英文对照
参考文献中文的英文对照在学术论文中，参考文献是非常重要的一部分，它可以为论文的可信度和学术性增添分数，其中包括中文和英文文献。
以下是一些常见的参考文献中文和英文对照：1. 书籍 Book中文：王小明. 计算机网络技术. 北京：清华大学出版社，2018.英文：Wang, X. Computer Network Technology. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2018.2. 学术期刊 Article in Academic Journal中文：张婷婷，李伟. 基于深度学习的影像分割方法. 计算机科学与探索，2019，13(1)：61-67.英文：Zhang, T. T., Li, W. Image Segmentation Method Based on Deep Learning. Computer Science and Exploration, 2019, 13(1): 61-67.3. 会议论文 Conference Paper中文：王维，李丽. 基于云计算的智慧物流管理系统设计. 2019年国际物流与采购会议论文集，2019：112-117.英文：Wang, W., Li, L. Design of Smart Logistics Management System Based on Cloud Computing. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Logistics and Procurement, 2019: 112-117.4. 学位论文 Thesis/Dissertation中文：李晓华. 基于模糊神经网络的水质评价模型研究. 博士学位论文，长春：吉林大学，2018.英文：Li, X. H. Research on Water Quality Evaluation Model Based on Fuzzy Neural Network. Doctoral Dissertation, Changchun: Jilin University, 2018.5. 报告 Report中文：国家统计局. 2019年国民经济和社会发展统计公报. 北京：中国统计出版社，2019.英文：National Bureau of Statistics. Statistical Communique of the People's Republic of China on the 2019 National Economic and Social Development. Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2019.以上是一些常见的参考文献中文和英文对照，希望对大家写作有所帮助。
交通安全外文翻译文献中英文
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITA TIONS OF ACCIDENT ANALYSISS.OppeAbstraetAccident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the (product) evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures. The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for (process) evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures. There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research. Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research. This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.Keyword: Consequences; purposes; describe; Limitations; concerned; Accident Analysis; possibilities1. Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research. These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis. A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly. For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video. It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record. In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident. For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked: Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him thepossibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated. At the moment of the accident there were no bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection. The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace. It is hardly possible to observe traffic behavior under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips. Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs. Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behavior as a reference base. The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered. We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis. Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, especially collected accident data, behavioral background data etc. To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety. Some ofthese activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system; some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:- detection of new or remaining safety problems;- description of the problem and its main characteristics;- the analysis of the problem, its causes and suggestions for improvement;- selection and implementation of safety measures;- evaluation of measures taken.Although this cycle can be carried out by the same person or group of persons, the problem has a different (political/managerial or scientific) background at each stage. We will describe the phases in which accident analysis is used. It is important to make this distinction. Many fruitless discussions about the method of analysis result from ignoring this distinction. Politicians, or road managers are not primarily interested in individual accidents. From their perspective accidents are often treated equally, because the total outcome is much more important than the whole chain of events leading to each individual accident. Therefore, each accident counts as one and they add up all together to a final safety result.Researchers are much more interested in the chain of events leading to an individual accident. They want to get detailed information abouteach accident, to detect its causes and the relevant conditions. The politician wants only those details that direct his actions. At the highest level this is the decrease in the total number of accidents. The main source of information is the national database and its statistical treatment. For him, accident analysis is looking at (subgroups of) accident numbers and their statistical fluctuations. This is the main stream of accident analysis as applied in the area of traffic safety. Therefore, we will first describe these aspects of accidents.2. The nature of accidents and their statistical characteristics.The basic notion is that accidents, whatever there cause, appear according to a chance process. Two simple assumptions are usually made to describe this process for (traffic) accidents:- the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed. The first assumption does not meet much criticism. Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents. In some cases where there is a direct causal chain (e.g. , when a number of cars run into each other) the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties. Casualties are often related to the same accident andtherefore the independency assumption does not hold. The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight. The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely. However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods. It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature. If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed. The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of (composite) situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations. E.g. , the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day (the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.). If the conditions are assumed to be the same (same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.) then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process. This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values (the estimate being the average of the two values). Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful. The Poisson assumptionis investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence. It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety. The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety. This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions. Such differences may guide the process of improvement. Because the main concern is to reduce the number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment. A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences. In many local cases an application is not possible. Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average. The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets. Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions. Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e. for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test. In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large. Then the Poissondistribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter. Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one. No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3. The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned. The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents (eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before. If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years. Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds. Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned. The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949. We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.(1). The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications. Foldvary and Lane (1974), inmeasuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.(2). Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model. Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables. The advantage of 1. and 2. over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated (sub)tables and corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.(3). More attention is put to parameter estimation. E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.(4). The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts. This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary. The last option is not found in many statistical packages. Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table. A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV (see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976). The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory. It tries to detect safety problems that need specialattention. The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or (groups of) road users with a high level of risk. 4. Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences. Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident. The researcher’s interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results (or does not result) in accidents. Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study. One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers. As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research. However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked. Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself. The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detectwhich factors, under what circumstances cause an accident. Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident. Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated. Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: - Given the state of the traffic system, traffic volume and composition, the manoeuvres of the road users, their speeds, the weather conditions, the condition of the road, the vehicles, the road users and their interactions, accidents can or cannot be prevented.- Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial. Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels. In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consistingof the elementary events (the situations) that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors. This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups. The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design (e.g. a roundabout) etc.中文译文交通事故分析的可能性和局限性S.Oppe摘要交通事故的统计数字, 尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展, 积极或消极检测事故的发展, 以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。
道路与桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together with the research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by an industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements. Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinking suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ent ire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it is then stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.）Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been found except for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。
毕业论文文献外文翻译----危机管理：预防,诊断和干预文献翻译-中英文文献对照翻译
第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。
翻译专业中英文对照外文翻译文献
翻译专业中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Translation EquivalenceDespite the fact that the world is becoming a global village, translation remains a major way for languages and cultures to interact and influence each other. And name translation, especially government name translation, occupies a quite significant place in international exchange.Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers havesought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localizationIt is generally accepted that translation, not as a separate entity, blooms into flower under such circumstances like culture, societal functions, politics and power relations. Nowadays, the field of translation studies is immersed with abundantly diversified translation standards, with no exception that some of them are presented by renowned figures and are rather authoritative. In the translation practice, however, how should we select the so-called translation standards to serve as our guidelines in the translation process and how should we adopt the translation standards to evaluate a translation product?In the macro - context of flourish of linguistic theories, theorists in the translation circle, keep to the golden law of the principle of equivalence. The theory of Translation Equivalence is the central issue in western translation theories. And the presentation of this theory gives great impetus to the development and improvement of translation theory. It‟s not difficult for us to discover that it is the theory of Translation Equivalence that serves as guidelines in government name translation in China. Name translation, as defined, is the replacement of the name in the source language by an equivalent name or other words in the target language. Translating Chinese government names into English, similarly, is replacing the Chinese government name with an equivalentin English.Metaphorically speaking, translation is often described as a moving trajectory going from A to B along a path or a container to carry something across from A to B. This view is commonly held by both translation practitioners and theorists in the West. In this view, they do not expect that this trajectory or something will change its identity as it moves or as it is carried. In China, to translate is also understood by many people normally as “to translate the whole text sentence by sentence and paragraph by paragraph, without any omission, addition, or other changes. In both views, the source text and the target text must be “the same”. This helps explain the etymological source for the term “translation equivalence”. It is in essence a word which describes the relationship between the ST and the TT.Equivalence means the state or fact or property of being equivalent. It is widely used in several scientific fields such as chemistry and mathematics. Therefore, it comes to have a strong scientific meaning that is rather absolute and concise. Influenced by this, translation equivalence also comes to have an absolute denotation though it was first applied in translation study as a general word. From a linguistic point of view, it can be divided into three sub-types, i.e., formal equivalence, semantic equivalence, and pragmatic equivalence. In actual translation, it frequently happens that they cannot be obtained at the same time, thus forming a kind of relative translation equivalence in terms of quality. In terms of quantity, sometimes the ST and TT are not equivalent too. Absolutetranslation equivalence both in quality and quantity, even though obtainable, is limited to a few cases.The following is a brief discussion of translation equivalence study conducted by three influential western scholars, Eugene Nida, Andrew Chesterman and Peter Newmark. It‟s expected that their studies can instruct GNT study in China and provide translators with insightful methods.Nida‟s definition of translation is: “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” It is a replacement of textual material in one language〔SL〕by equivalent textual material in another language（TL）. The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproducing of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance. The message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original. Translation equivalence is an empirical phenomenon discovered by comparing SL and TL texts and it‟s a useful operational concept like the term “unit of translation”.Nida argues that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, whereas dynamic equivalence is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect”.Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a ST word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs. Therefore, formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. According to Nida and Taber, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard.Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls “the principle of equivalent effect” where the relat ionship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message. The message has to be modified to the receptor‟s linguistic needs and cultural expectation and aims at complete naturalness of expression. Naturalness is a key requirement for Nida. He defines the goal of dynamic equivalence as seeking the closest natural equivalent to the SL message. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness; the TL should not show interference from the SL, and the …foreignness …of the ST setting is minimized.Nida is in favor of the application of dynamic equivalence, as a moreeffective translation procedure. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information.As Andrew Chesterman points out in his recent book Memes of Translation, equivalence is one of the five element of translation theory, standing shoulder to shoulder with source-target, untranslatability, free-vs-literal, All-writing-is-translating in importance. Pragmatically speaking, observed Chesterman, “the only true examples of equivalence (i.e., absolute equivalence) are those in which an ST item X is invariably translated into a given TL as Y, and vice versa. Typical examples would be words denoting numbers (with the exception of contexts in which they have culture-bound connotations, such as “magic” or “unlucky”), certain technical terms (oxygen, molecule) and the like. From this point of view, the only true test of equivalence would be invariable back-translation. This, of course, is unlikely to occur except in the case of a small set of lexical items, or perhaps simple isolated syntactic structure”.Peter Newmark. Departing from Nida‟s rece ptor-oriented line, Newmark argues that the success of equivalent effect is “illusory “and that the conflict of loyalties and the gap between emphasis on source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice. He suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of semanticand communicative translation. The former attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meani ng of the original, while the latter “attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.” Newmark‟s description of communicative translation resembles Nida‟s dynamic equivalence in the effect it is trying to create on the TT reader, while semantic translation has similarities to Nida‟s formal equivalence.Meanwhile, Newmark points out that only by combining both semantic and communicative translation can we achieve the goal of keeping the …spirit‟ of the original. Semantic translation requires the translator retain the aesthetic value of the original, trying his best to keep the linguistic feature and characteristic style of the author. According to semantic translation, the translator should always retain the semantic and syntactic structures of the original. Deletion and abridgement lead to distortion of the author‟s intention and his writing style.翻译对等尽管全世界正在渐渐成为一个地球村，但翻译仍然是语言和和文化之间的交流互动和相互影响的主要方式之一。
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献1汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Changing Automotive Environment: High-Temperature ElectronicsR. Wayne Johnson, Fellow, IEEE, John L. Evans, Peter Jacobsen, James R. (Rick) Thompson, and Mark ChristopherAbstract —The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperatureenvelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control unitson the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmissionwill push the ambient temperature above 125125℃℃.However, extreme cost pressures,increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerableheat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the controlunit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150 ℃ or less andthese will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition toX-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integrationof power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical℃ to 200℃ . Hybridactuator will require power devices to operate at 175electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. Thealternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasingas more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors mustwork in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaustgas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This paper examines themotivation for higher temperature operation,the packaging limitations evenat 125 C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenge at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125 ℃.Index Terms—Automotive, extreme-environment electronics.I. INTRODUCTIONI N 1977, the average automobile contained $110 worth of electronics [1]. By 2003 the electronics content was $1510 per vehicle and is expected to reach$2285 in 2013 [2].The turning point in automotive electronics was governmentTABLE IMAJOR AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSTABLE IIAUTOMOTIVETEMPERATUREEXTREMES(DELPHIDELCOELECTRONIC SYSTEMS) [3]regulation in the 1970s mandating emissions control and fuel economy. The complex fuel control required could not be accomplished using traditional mechanical systems. These government regulations coupled with increasing semiconductor computing power at decreasing cost have led to an ever increasing array of automotive electronics. Automotive electronics can be divided into five major categories as shown in Table I.The operating temperature of the electronics is a function of location, power dissipation by the electronics, and the thermal design. The automotive electronics industry defines high-temperature electronics as electronics operating above 125 ℃. However, the actual temperature for various electronics mounting locations varies considerably. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems recently published the typical continuous maximum temperatures as reproduced in Table II [3]. The corresponding underhood temperatures are shown in Fig. 1. The authors note that typical junction temperatures for integrated circuits are 10 ℃to15℃ higher than ambient or baseplate temperature, while power devices can reach 25 ℃ higher. At-engine temperatures of 125℃ peak can be maintained by placing the electronics on theintake manifold.Fig. 1. Engine compartment thermal profile (Delphi Delco Electronic Systems) [3].TABLE III THEAUTOMOTIVEENVIRONMENT(GENERALMOTORS ANDDELPHIDELCO ELECTRONICSYSTEMS) [4]TABLE IV REQUIREDOPERATIONTEMPERATURE FORAUTOMOTIVEELECTRONIC SYSTEMS(TOYOTAMOTORCORP. [5]TABLE VMECHA TRONICMAXIMUMTEMPERA TURERANGES(DAIMLERCHRYSLER,EA TONCORPORA TION, ANDAUBURNUNIVERSITY) [6]Fig. 2. Automotive temperatures and related systems (DaimlerChrysler) [8].automotive electronic systems [8]. Fig. 3 shows an actual measured transmission transmission temperature temperature temperature profile profile profile during during during normal normal normal and and excessive excessive driving drivingconditions [8]. Power braking is a commonly used test condition where the brakes are applied and the engine is revved with the transmission in gear.A similar real-world situation would be applying throttle with the emergencybrake applied. Note that when the temperature reached 135135℃℃,the over temperature light came on and at the peak temperature of 145145℃℃,the transmission was beginning to smell of burnt transmission fluid.TABLE VI2002I NTERNA TIONAL T ECHNOLOGY R OADMAPFOR S EMICONDUCTORS A MBI ENTOPERA TINGTEMPERA TURES FORHARSHENVIRONMENTS (AUTOMOTIVE) [9]The 2002 update to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) did not reflect the need for higher operating temperatures for complex integrated circuits, but did recognize increasing temperature requirements for power and linear devices as shown in Table VI [9]. Higher temperature power devices (diodes and transistors) will be used for the power section of power converters and motor drives for electromechanical actuators. Higher temperature linear devices will be used for analog control of power converters and for amplification and some signal processing of sensor outputs prior to transmission to the control units. It should be noted that at the maximum rated temperature for a power device, the power handling capability is derated to zero. Thus, a 200℃ rated power transistor in a 200℃ environment would have zero current carrying capability. Thus, the actual operating environments must be lower than the maximum rating.In the 2003 edition of the ITRS, the maximum junction temperatures identified forharsh-environment complex integrated circuits was raised to 150℃through 2018 [9]. Theambient operating temperature extreme for harsh-environment complex integrated circuits was defined as 40℃to 125℃ through 2009, increasing to 40℃to 150℃for 2010 and beyond. Power/linear devices were not separately listed in 2003.The ITRS is consistent with the current automotive high-temperature limitations. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems offers two production engine controllers (one on ceramic and one on thin laminate) for direct mounting on the engine. These controllers are rated for operation over the temperature range of 40℃to 125℃. The ECU must be mounted on the coolest spot on the engine. The packaging technology is consistent with 140℃ operation, but the ECU is limited by semiconductor and capacitor technologies to 125℃.The future projections in the ITRS are not consistent with the desire to place controllers on-engine or in-transmission. It will not always be possible to use the coolest location for mounting control units. Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has developed an in-transmission controller for use in an ambient temperature of 140℃[10] using ceramic substrate technology. DaimlerChrysler is also designing an in-transmission controller for usewith a maximum ambient temperature of 150℃ (Figs. 4 and 5) [11].II. MECHATRONICSMechatronics, or the integration of electrical and mechanical systems offers a number ofadvantages in automotive assembly. Integration of the engine controller with the engine allows pretest of the engine as a complete system prior to vehicle assembly. Likewise with the integration of the transmission controller and the transmission, pretesting and tuning to account for machining variations can be performed at the transmission factory prior to shipment to the automobile assembly site. In addition, most of the wires connecting to a transmission controller run to the solenoid pack inside the transmission. Integration of the controller into the transmission reduces the wiring harness requirements at the automobile assembly level.Fig. 4. Prototype DaimlerChrysler ceramic transmission controller [11]Fig. 5. DaimlerChrysler in-transmission module [11].The trend in automotive design is to distribute control with network communications. As the industry moves to more X-by-wire systems, this trend will continue. Automotivefinalassembly plants assemble subsystems and components supplied by numerous vendors to build the vehicle. Complete mechatronic subsystems simplify the design, integration, management, inventory control, and assembly of vehicles. As discussed in the previous section, higher temperature electronics will be required to meet future mechatronic designs.III. PACKAGINGCHALLENGES AT125℃Trends in electronics packaging, driven by computer and portable products are resulting in packages which will not meet underhood automotive requirements at 125℃. Most notable are leadless and area array packages such as small ball grid arrays (BGAs) and quadflatpacks no-lead (QFNs). Fig. 6 shows the thermal cycle test 40 ℃to 125℃ results for two sizes of QFN from two suppliers [12]. A typical requirement is for the product to survive 2000–2500 thermal cycles with<1% failure for underhood applications. Smaller I/O QFNs have been found to meet the requirements.Fig. 7 presents the thermal cycle results for BGAs of various body sizes [13]. The die size in the BGA remained constant (8.6 *8.6 mm). As the body size decreases so does the reliability. Only the 23-mm BGA meets the requirements. The 15-mm BGA with the 0.56-mm-thick BT substrate nearly meets the minimum requirements. However, the industry trend is to use thinner BT substrates (0.38 mm) for BGA packages.One solution to increasing the thermal cycle performance of smaller BGAs is to use underfill. Capillary underfill was dispensed and cured after reflow assembly of the BGA. Fig. 8 shows a Weibull plot of the thermal cycle data for the 15-mm BGAs with four different underfills. Underfill UF1 had no failures after 5500 cycles and is, therefore, not plotted. Underfill, therefore, provides a viable approach to meeting underhood automotive requirements with smaller BGAs, but adds process steps, time, and cost to the electronics assembly process.Since portable and computer products dominate the electronics market, the packages developed for these applications are replacing traditional packages such as QFPs for new devices. The automotive electronics industry will have to continuedeveloping assembly approaches such as underfill just to use these new packages in current underhood applications.IV. TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ABOVE125 ℃The technical challenges for high-temperature automotive applications are interrelated, but can be divided into semiconductors, passives, substrates,interconnections, and housings/connectors. Industries such as oil well logging have successfully fielded high-temperature electronics operating at 200℃ and above. However, automotive electronics are further constrained by high-volume production, low cost, and long-term reliability requirements. The typical operating life for oil well logging electronics may only be 1000 h, production volumes are in the range of 10s or 100s and, while cost is a concern, it is not a dominant issue. In the following paragraphs, the technical challenges for high-temperature automotive electronics are discussed.Semiconductors: The maximum rated ambient temperature for most silicon basedintegrated circuits is 85℃, which is sufficient for consumer, portable, and computing product applications. Devices for military and automotive applications are typically rated to 125℃. A few integrated circuits are rated to 150℃, particularly for power supply controllers and a few automotive applications. Finally, many power semiconductor devices are derated to zero power handling capability at 200℃.Nelmset al.and Johnsonet al.have shown that power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors (MOSFETs) can be used at 200℃[14], [15]. The primary limitations of these power transistors at the higher temperatures are the packaging (the glass transition temperature of common molding compounds is in the 180℃ to 200℃range) and the electrical stress on the transistor during hard switching.A number of factors limit the use of silicon at high temperatures. First, with a bandgap of 1.12 eV, the silicon p-n junction becomes intrinsic at high temperature (225℃ to 400℃depending on doping levels). The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by (1)As the temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases. When the intrinsic carrier concentration nears the doping concentration level, p-n junctions behave as resistors, not diodes, and transistors lose their switching characteristics. One approach used in high-temperature integrated circuit design is to increase the doping levels, which increases the temperature at which the device becomes intrinsic. However, increasing the doping levels decreases the depletion widths, resulting in higher electricfields within the device that can lead to breakdown.A second problem is the increase in leakage current through a reverse-biased p-n junction with increasing temperature. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are commonly used in IC design to provide isolation between devices. The saturation current (I,the ideal reverse-bias current of the junction) is proportional to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentrationwhere Ego=bandgap energy atT= 0KThe leakage current approximately doubles for each 10℃rise in junction temperature. Increased junction leakage currents increase power dissipation within the device and can lead to latch-up of the parasitic p-n-p-n structure in complimentary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Epitaxial-CMOS (epi-CMOS) has been developed to improve latch-up resistance as the device dimensions are decreased due to scaling and provides improved high-temperature performance compared to bulk CMOS.Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology replaces reverse-biased p-n junctions with insulators, typically SiO2 , reducing the leakage currents and extending the operating range of silicon above 200℃. At present, SOI devices are more expensive than conventional p-njunction isolated devices. This is in part due to the limited use of SOI technology. With the continued scaling of device dimensions, SOI is being used in some high-performance applications and the increasing volume may help to eventually lower the cost.Other device performance issues at higher temperatures include gate threshold voltage shifts, decreased noise margin, decreased switching speed, decreased mobility, decreased gain-bandwidth product, and increased amplifier input–offset voltage [16]. Leakage currents also increase for insulators with increasing temperature. This results in increased gate leakage currents, and increased leakage of charge stored in memory cells (data loss). For dynamic memory, the increased leakage currents require faster refresh rates. For nonvolatile memory, the leakage limits the life of the stored data, a particular issue for FLASH memory used in microcontrollers and automotive electronics modules.Beyond the electrical performance of the device, the device reliability must also be considered. Electromigration of the aluminum metallization is a major concern. Electromigration is the movement of the metal atoms due to their bombardment by electrons (current flow). Electromigration results in the formation of hillocks and voids in the conductor traces. The mean time to failure (MTTF) for electromigration is related to the current density (J)and temperature(T) as shown in (3)The exact rate of electromigration and resulting time to failure is a function of the aluminum microstructure. Addition of copper to the aluminum increases electromigration resistance. The trend in the industry to replace aluminum with copper will improve the electromigration resistance by up to three orders of magnitude [17].Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) is a second reliability concern. Time to failure due to TDDB decreases with increasing temperature. Oxide defects, including pinholes, asperities at the Si–SiO2 interface and localized changes in chemical structure that reduce the barrier height or increase the charge trapping are common sources of early failure [18]. Breakdown can also occur due to hole trapping (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). The holes can collect at weak spots in the Si–SiO2 interface, increasing the electricfield locally and leading to breakdown [18]. The temperature dependence of time-to-breakdown(tBD) can be expressed as [18]Values reported for Etbd vary in the literature due to its dependence on the oxidefield and the oxide quality. Furthermore, the activation energy increases with breakdown time [18].With proper high-temperature design, junction isolated silicon integrated circuits can be used to junction temperatures of 150℃ to 165℃, epi-CMOS can extend the range to 225℃to 250℃ and SOI can be used to 250℃ to 280℃ [16, pp. 224]. High-temperature, nonvolatile memory remains an issue.For temperatures beyond the limits of silicon, silicon carbidebased semiconductors are being developed. The bandgap of SiC ranges from 2.75–3.1 depending on the polytype. SiC has lower leakage currents and higher electric field strength than Si. Due to its wider bandgap, SiC can be used as a semiconductor device at temperatures over 600℃. Theprimary focus of SiC device research is currently for power devices. SiC power devices may eventuallyfind application as power devices in braking systems and direct fuel injection. High-temperature sensors have also been fabricated with SiC. Berget al.have demonstrated a SiCbased sensor for cylinder pressure in combustion engines [19] at up to 350℃ and Casadyet al.[20] have shown a SiC-based temperature sensor for use to 500℃. At present, the wafer size, cost, and device yield have made SiC devices too expensive for general automotive use. Most SiC devices are discrete, as the level of integration achieved in SiC to date is low.Passives: Thick and thin-film chip resistors are typically rated to 125 ℃. Naefeet al.[21] and Salmonet al.[22] have shown that thick-film resistors can be used at temperatures above 200℃ if the allowable absolute tolerance is 5% or greater. The resistors studied were specifically formulated with a higher softening point glass. The minimum resistance as afunction of temperature was shifted from 25℃to 150℃to minimize the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) over the temperature range to 300℃. TaN and NiCr thin-film resistors have been shown to have less than 1% drift after 1000 h at 200℃ [23]. Thus, for tighter tolerance applications, thin-film chip resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors provide a high-temperature option for higher power dissipation levels [21].High-temperature capacitors present more of a challenge. For low-value capacitors, negative-positive-zero (NPO) ceramic and MOS capacitors provide low-temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) to 200℃. NPO ceramic capacitorshave been demonstrated to 500℃ [24]. Higher dielectric constant ceramics (X7R, X8R, X9U), used to achieve the high volumetric efficiency necessary for larger capacitor values, exhibit a significant capacitance decrease above the Curie temperature, which is typically between 125℃ to 150℃. As the temperature increases, the leakage current increases, the dissipation factor increases, and the breakdown strength decreases. Increasing the dielectric tape thickness to increase breakdown strength reduces the capacitance and is a tradeoff. X7R ceramic capacitors have been shown to be stable when stored at 200℃ [23]. X9U chip capacitors are commercially available for use to 200 C, but there is a significant decrease in capacitance above 150℃.Consideration must also be given to the capacitor electrodes and terminations. Ni is now being substituted for Ag and PdAg to lower capacitor cost. The impact of this change on hightemperature reliability must be evaluated. The surface finish for ceramic capacitor terminations is typically Sn. The melting point of the Sn (232℃) and its interaction with potential solders/brazes must also be considered. Alternate surfacefinishes may be required.For higher value, low-voltage requirements, wet tantalum capacitors show reasonable behavior at 200℃ if the hermetic seal does not lose integrity [23]. Aluminum electrolytics are also available for use to 150℃. Mica paper (260℃) and Teflonfilm (200℃) capacitors can provide higher voltage capability, but are large and bulky [25]. High-temperature capacitors are relatively expensive. V capacitors are relatively expensive. Volumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, olumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, high-temperature and low-cost capacitors are still needed.Standard transformers and inductor cores with copper wire and teflon insulation are suitable for operation to 200℃. For higher temperature operation, the magnetic core, the conductor metal (Ni instead of Cu) and insulator must be selected to be compatible with the higher temperatures [16, pp. 651–652] Specially designed transformers can be used to 450℃ to 500℃, however, they are limited in operating frequency.Crystals are required for clock frequency generation for microcontrollers. Crystals with acceptable frequency shift over the temperature range from 55℃to 200℃ have been demonstrated [22]. However, the selection of packaging materials and assembly process for the crystal are key to high-temperature performance and reliability. For example, epoxies used in assembly must be compatible with 200℃ operation.Substrates: Thick-film substrates with gold metallization have been used in circuits to 500℃ [21], [23]. Palladium silver, platinum silver, and silver conductors are morecommonly used in automotive hybrids for reduced cost. Silver migration has been observed with an unpassivated PdAg thick-film conductor under bias at 300℃ [21]. The time-to-failure needs to be examined as a function of temperature and bias voltage with and without passivation. Low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) and high-temperature cofired ceramic (HTCC) are also suitable for high-temperature automotive applications. Embedded resistors are standard to thick-film hybrids, LTCC, and some HTCC technologies. As previously mentioned, thick-film resistors have been demonstrated at temperatures 200℃. Dielectric tapes for embedded capacitors have also been developed for LTCC and HTCC. However, these embedded capacitors have not been characterized for high-temperature use.High-Tg laminates are also available for fabrication of hightemperature printed wiring boards. Cyanate esters [Tg=250℃by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], polyimide (260℃by DSC), and liquid crystal polymers(Tm>280℃）provide options for use to 200℃. Cyanate ester boards have been used successfully in test vehicles at 175℃, but failed when exposed to 250℃ [26]. The higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the laminate substrates compared to the ceramics must be considered in the selection of component attachment materials. The temperature limits of the laminates with respect to assembly temperatures must also be carefully considered. Work is ongoing to develop and implement embedded resistor and capacitor technology for laminate substrates for conventional temperature ranges. This technology has not been extended to high-temperature applications.One method many manufacturers are using to address the higher temperatures whilemaintaining lower cost is the use of laminate substrates attached to metal. The typical design involves the use of higher Tg( +140℃ and above) laminate substrates attached to an aluminum plate (approximately 2.54-mm thick) using a sheet or liquid adhesive. To assist in thermal performance, the laminate substrate is often thinner (0.76 mm) than traditional automotive substrates for under-the-hood applications. While this design provides improved thermal performance, the attachment of the laminate to aluminum increases the CTE for the overall substrates. The resultant CTE is very dependent on the ability of the attachment material to decouple the CTE between the laminate substrate and the metal backing. However, regardless of the attachment material used, the combination of the laminate and metal will increase the CTE of the overall substrate above that of a stand-alone laminate substrate. This impact can be quite significant in the reliability performance for components with low CTE values (such as ceramic chip resistors). Fig. 9 illustrates the impact of two laminate-to-metal attachment options compared to standard laminate substrates [27], [28]. The reliability data presented is for 2512 ceramic chip resistors attached to a 0.79-mm-thick laminate substrate attached to aluminum using two attachment materials. Notice that while one material significantly outperforms the other, both are less reliable than the same chip resistor attached to laminate without metal backing.This decrease in reliability is also exhibited on small ball grid array (BGA) packages. Fig. 10 shows the reliability of a 15-mm BGA package attached to laminate compared to the same package attached to a laminate substrate with metal backing [27], [28]. The attachment material used for the metal-backed substrate was the best material selected from previous testing. Notice again that the metal-backed substrate deteriorates the reliability. This reliability deterioration is of particular concern since many IC packages used for automotive applications are ball grid array packages and the packaging trend is for reduced packaging size. These packaging trends make the use of metal-backed substrates difficult for next generation products.One potential solution to the above reliability concern is the use of encapsulants and underfills. Fig. 11 illustrates how conformal coating can improve component reliability for surface mount chip resistors [27], [28]. Notice that the reliability varies greatly depending on material composition. However, for components which meet a marginal level of reliability, conformal coatings may assist the design in meeting the target reliability requirements. The same scenario can be found for BGA underfills. Typical underfill materials may extend the component life by a factor of two or more. For marginal IC packages, this enhancement may provide enough reliability improvement toall the designs to meet under-the-hood requirements. Unfortunately, the improvements provided byencapsulants and underfills increase the material cost and adds one or more manufacturing processes for material dispense and cure.Interconnections: Methods of mechanical and electrical interconnection of the active and passive components to the board include chip and wire,flip-chip, and soldering of packaged parts. In chip and wire assembly, epoxy die-attach materials can beused to 165℃ [29]. Polyimide and silicone die-attach materials can be used to 200℃. For higher temperatures, SnPb ( >90Pb), AuGe, AuSi, AuSn, and AuIn have been used. However,with the exception of SnPb, these are hard brazes and with increasing die size, CTE mismatches between the die and the substrate will lead to cracking with thermal。
颜色识别中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料对照翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文原文An Approach of Color Feature Evaluation in ColorAbstract—This paper analyzes the characteristics of five commonly used color spaces and explores their influences on color recognition respectively. Divisibility evaluation based on distance criterion is utilized to evaluate the different colorfeatures in each color space and experimental results show that HSI color space has the best divisibility performance. Keywords-color space;colorrecognition; feature evalutation; divisibility critironI. I NTRODUCTIONColor is the most intuitive vision feature to describe colorful images.It has been widely used in pattern recognition for the reason that color feature is almost free from the effects of scale, rotation and translationfor the input images [1]. Colors in colorful images can be defined by different color space models, such as RGB space, CMY space, I1I2I3space, YUV space and HSI space. Among the above color spaces, RGBis the basic and the most common one and can readily be mapped into other color spaces. However, RGB space is non-uniform forcolor perception and is too easily influenced by light. Thethree color components of RGB space are correlated with each other [2]. CMY space represents colors by the complementary componentof RGB components. YUV space, frequently used in color TV systems, uses three channels as Y, U and V to define the pixel. Y are the brightness information, U and V are the color difference which denotes the overall color difference instead of the difference between the three components of RGB. HSI space is a uniform one which consists to the human perception of colors. Its three components are mutually independent and can perceive color change of each component respectively. But non-linear transform in HSI space may lead substantial computation as well as singularity of the color space when the saturationis low. While in YCbCr color space, the chrominance component and the luminance component are interdependent. Besides that, the conversion from YCbCr space to RGB space is linear and simple, so YCbCr space is commonly used in the field of video encoding compression. YUV space, YCbCr space and HSI space all represent spectrumin two dimension and use the third dimension to represent the intensity of color, which enables them more suitable for occasions where light intensity changes, than RGB space.Color recognition technique has been applied to many fields and has gone ahead rapidly. For instance, color recognition in product surface, license plates identification, face recognition and skin recognition [3-6]. Color recognition effects differ with the change of color space. This paper investigates on color feature divisibility in the commonly used color spaces as RGB space, CMY space, YUV space, YCbCr space, I1I2I3space and HSI space. Analysis indicates that HSI has the best divisibility performance in all theabove color spaces based on the distance criterion. It provides a theory basis for color recognition.II. COLOR SPACE AND I TS T RANSFORMATIONIt is essential to build up and select a suitable color space for obtaining a kind of valid color features to characterize colorful images. Different color spaces are utilized for different research purposes. Color space means to define color by anarray in three-dimension space. In the processing of colorful images, color space is also named as color model or color coordinates. One color space can be converted to another by certain transforms. Below is the introduction of some color spaces and their conversions [7].A. RGB Color SpaceRed (R), green (G), blue (B) are three primary colors ofspectrum. All colors can be generated by the sum of the threeprimary colors. In digital images, values of R, G and B rangefrom 0 to 255. A cube in three-dimension coordinate space can be used to describe the RGB color space, where red, green andblue are the three axes, shown in Fig.1.The main drawback of RGB color space as follows:• It is not intuitive. It is difficult to see from the RGBvalues the cognitive attributes that the color representsitself. • It is non-uniform. The perception difference betweentwo colors in RGB space is different from the distancebetween the two colors.• It is dependent on hardware devices.In a word, RGB space is device-related and an incompleteintuitive color description. To overcome these problems, othercolor spaces,which are more in line with characteristics of color vision, are adopted. RGB space can be mapped to other color spaces readily.B. CMY(CMYK) Color SpaceCMY space is a spatial structure of a rectangular Cartesian. Its three primary components are cyan (C), magenta (M) and yellow (Y). Colors are obtained by subtractive colors. CMY space is widely used in non-emission display as inkjet printers. Equal amount of the three components can generate the black color. But the aforementioned black color is not pure. Generally speaking, to generate true black color, the fourth component, i.e. black, is added in. This is the CMYK color space. CMY space is not very intuitive and non-linear. Its three components are the complementary colors of R, G and B. The transformations are as follows:The transformations from RGB space to CMY space are as follows:C. YUV and YCrCb Color SpaceYUV space and YCbCr space both generate a luminance component and two chrominance components. In YUV space, Y is the luminance component, U and V color difference. Y component is independent of the other two. Moreover, the YUV space can reduce the storage capacity required by digitalcolorful images by the characteristic of human vision. In YCbCr space, Y is the luminance component, Cb is the blue color component and Cr the red color component. Its advantages are obvious that color components are separated from luminance components and linear transformation can be performed from RGB space. Transformation from RGB space to YUV space can beexplained approximated by the following equations:D. HSI Color SpaceHSI space is established from the human psychologicalperception point of view. H (hue) is a color in a color corresponding to the main wavelength in chromatography. S (saturation) is equivalent to the purity of color. I (intensity ) is the brightness of color and theuniform amount of feeling. HSV (hue, saturation, value) and HSB (hue, saturation, brightness) are other color spaces similar to HSI color space , and are all belong to polar coordinate space structure. Their common merit is that they can describe the color intuitively. Most of them can be converted from RGB space linearly. HSI color space has two important points. One is that I component is separated from H component, i.e. I component is independent of image color information. The other is that H component and S component are closely linked to the way human feeling color, where the color description ability of H component is the most closet to human vision. And then distinguish ability of H component is the strongest [8]. Transformation from RGB space to HSI space can be explained by the following equations:HSI color space provides a suitable space with three components that is better used to descript color in line with human hobbits. However, the defect of non-linear in color difference still exists, especially the color and angle in the H component [9].E. I1I2I3 Color SpaceLinear transformation from RGB space to I1I2I3space can be explainedby the following equations to get three orthogonal color features:From formula (7), it can be seen that values of I1, I2and I3 component can be positive and negative. The non-correlation property of I1I2I3 space is the best in image recognition.III. FEATURE EVALUATION OF COLOR SPACEBy color spaces, the abstract, subjective visual perception can be translated into a concrete specific position, vector in three-dimensional space, which makes it possible to visualize color features of colorful images and devices. Color space is an important tool of color recognition. Various mixing system has its corresponding color space, and different color spaces have different properties with their respective advantages and disadvantages. Validityof color space is the key to color image processing. Divisibility criterion can be used to test different color space for their performanceon color classification. The distance criterion is widely utilized due to its concise and clear concept. Its principle is that the smaller the distance within a class while the greater the distance between classes, the better the divisibility it has. Below is the presented algorithm of feature evaluation based on distance criterion [10].• Calculate the mean vector and covariance of the ith class samples, Nis the number of total samples and Nithe number of the ithclass samples.IV. E XPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSISWhen identified by human eyes, colors are divided into eleven categories as red, green, blue, yellow, purple, orange, pink, brown, gray, white and black, shown in Fig. 2.The evaluation algorithm is performed respectively on RGB space, CMY space, YUV space, I1I2I3 spaceand HSI space. Feature parameter and assessment indicators are shown in Table Ⅰ.Seen from Table Ⅰ, the HSI space has the best performance compared to other four analyzed color spaces.V. CONCLUSIONIt is necessary to select an effective color space for colorful image processing. This paper analyzes and compares the performance of five common color spaces based on divisibility criterion. Experimental results show that HSI color space has the best divisibility performance compared with the other four spaces. It provides a basis for color space selection in color recognition.ACKNOWLEDGMENTThis work was supported by a grant from Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province (Grant number: 20102153). REFERENCES[1] WANG Hui, LVYan, ZHANG Ka, “Research on Color Space Applicable to Wood Species Recognition”, FORESTRY MACHINERY & WOODWORKING EQUIPMENT, Vol.37, pp.20-22,2009.[2] Palus, H. Representations of color images in different color spaces, The Color Image Processing Handbook. London: Chapman& Hall,1998.[3] WANG Yan-song, JIN Wei-qi, “Surface Inspection Based on Color Clustering of Mapping Chro matism”, Transactions of BeijingInstitute of Technology, Vol.30,pp.74-78,2010.[4] CAO Jian qiu, WANG Hua qing and LAN Zhang li, “Skin Color D ivision Base onModified YCrCb Color Space”, JOURNAL OF CHONGQ ING JIAOTONG UN IVERSITY( NATURAL SC IENCE) , Vol. 29, pp.488-492,2010.[5] WANG Feng, MAN Li-chun and XIAO Yi-jun et al., “Color Recognitionof License Plates Based on Immune Data Reduction”. JOURNAL OF SICHUAN UNIVERSITY (ENGINEERING SCIENCE EDITION), vol.40, pp. 164-170, 2008.[6] XU Qing, SHI Yue-xiang, XIE Wen-lan and ZHANG Zheng-zhen, “Method of face detection based on improved YUV color space”, Computer Engineering and Applications, Vol. 44, pp.158-162,2008.[7] HAN Xiaowei, Study on Key Technologies of Color Image Processing, Northeast University,2005.[8] LIU Zhongwei, ZHANG Yujin, “A Comparitive and Analysis Study of Ten color Feature-based Image Retrieval Algorithms”,SIGNAL PROCESSING, Vol.16, pp.79-83, 2000.[9] Liu Jin, Chen Gi, Yu Ruizhao, “Developm ent of Computer Color Science”, COMPUTER ENGINEERING,2,1997.[10] YANG Shuying.Pattern recognition and Intelligent Computation: Matlab Technolgoy, Beijing: Electronic Industry Press, 2008.中文译文关于颜色识别中颜色特征分析的方法摘要：分析五种常用的颜色空间的特征并研究其分别对颜色识别的影响。
水的性质论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献
水的性质论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献Properties of waterWater is the phase in which all the main processes take place in flotation. The processes that affect the surface characteristics of particles in water include dissociation of dissolved species, hydration, and the adsorption of ions and flotation reagents. Therefore, it is important to know the properties of water.Water is a polar compound and water molecules interact with each other by attractive forces called van der Waals forces. These forces are closely related to the polar structure of molecules. As well known, positive charges repel positive charges and negative charges repel negative charges, but positive charges attract negative charges. As a consequence, dipole molecules tend to take a position so that attraction between molecules occurs. This phenomenon is called Keesom orientation. Brownian motion disturbs the orientation. A dipole can also induce a dipole moment in another molecule causing attraction between the molecules. The phenomenon is called Debye induction.Nonpolar molecules do also interact with each other. In all atoms and molecules the continuous motion of negative electrons creates rapidly fluctuating dipoles with the positive nucleus causing attractive forces. These forces are called dispersion or London-van der Waals forces. The interaction of nonpolar molecules is caused by the dispersion forces but with polar molecules, such as water, also the Keesom orientation and the Debye induction forces occur. The total van der Waals interactions between two atoms or molecules are given by the sum of those due to orientation, induction and dispersion forces. The orientation interaction is significant only if dipole moment is high. The induction interaction is always small. According to Coulomb’s law electrostatic forces vary inversely with the second power of the distance between two charges. The interaction due to van der Waals forces is much weaker. The forces decay inversely with the sixth power of the distance between molecules. When atoms or molecules come very close to each other their electron clouds repel each other. Therefore, the resultants of van der Waals forces contain both attraction and repulsion terms.In addition to van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding is characteristic for water (Fig. 1). Hydrogen bonding occurs when an atom is attracted by rather strong forces to two atoms instead of only one, so that it may be considered to act as a bond between them. In water the hydrogen atom is covalently attached to the oxygen (about470 kJ/mol) but has additional attraction (about 23.3 kJ/mol) to a neighbouring oxygen atom of a water molecule. The bond is partly (about 90%) electrostatic and partly (about 10%) covalent (Isaacs et al., 2000, Suresh and Naik, 2000). Typically hydrogen bonding occurs where the partially positively charged hydrogen atom lies between partially negatively charged oxygen and nitrogen atoms, but is also found elsewhere, such as between fluorine atoms in HF2, and between water and smaller halide ions F-, Cl- and Br-.Water appears to be a simple compound but it has many specific properties. Water molecules form an infinite hydrogen-bonded network with localized and structured clustering. According to the present view, these clusters may contain 4-12 water molecules but much larger clusters have been suggested to occur (Chaplin, 2000). The lifetime of the structured clusters is very short, pico seconds in magnitude. Several models have been suggested for the structure of liquid water but no model is able to describe all the anomalous properties of water so far.H HOH H HOOH H H OO HHFigure 1. Schematic representation of hydrogen bonding of water molecules.Ions destroy the natural hydrogen bonded network of water. If the energy of inter- action between an ion and water dipoles is greater than the mutual attraction of water dipoles, the ion will be hydrated. Water molecules are oriented around the ion forming new structures. The degree of hydration depends on the size and valence of the ion. Anions are hydrated more strongly than cations of the same size because hydrogen atoms of water can approach closer than oxygen atoms of water. Ions that exhibit weaker interactions with water than water itself are known as structure- breakers,whereas ions that interact strongly with water are known as structure- makers.Small ions are strongly hydrated creating local order and higher local density. Large monovalent ions, such as Cs+ and I-, are very weakly solvated. Their surface charge density is low and they may be pushed on by strong water-water interactions. Their translational movement is high. Single atom ions may also be found in clathrate structures, where the lattice of water contains cavities that are capable of enclosing molecules without any bonds between them. Smaller ions, such as Rb+ and K+, cause the partial collapse of clathrate structures, through puckering, increasing the local mobility of water molecules. The smallest ions hold strongly to the first shell of their hydrating water molecules and hence there is less localized water molecule mobility. Divalent and trivalent ions are always more strongly solvated than monovalent ions. In the primary hydration shell the water molecules are most restricted in their motion but the effect does not end there. In the second hydration shell the water molecules are freer to rotate and exchange with bulk water, and so on. The position of hydrated water molecules on anions and cations is different and so is their ability to form hydrogen bonds. Altogether, the properties of water depend on all the ions and their characteristics.Ions and their hydrations affect the properties of water, such as viscosity, in many ways. Hydration is an exothermic process. During the formation of the internal layers of hydrated sheaths there is a considerable quantity of heat evolved. During the formation of the subsequent layers the amount of heat gradually decreases. If temperature is increased, the hydration of ions decreases. This is explained so that the rotational movement of water molecules hinders their orientation.The increase of orientation and the stability of the oriented dipoles decrease the solubilizing properties of water. The solvent action of water is closely connected with the hydration of the dissolved ions. If the dipoles of water are already polarized then the hydration of new ions by these water molecules is hindered. For the same reason, the conditions for the diffusion of ions become more difficult in polarized water. In addition, hydrated layers can prevent the adsorption of reagents on particles.The ionic composition of water is determined by the solubility of particles. Minerals are soluble if their hydration energy exceeds the lattice energy. Ion hydration energy increases as the valence of the ion increases and the ionic radius decreases. Also, the energy of crystal lattice increases. However, hydration energy increases much more slowly as ion valence increases than does crystal lattice energy. Therefore, an increase in valence is accompanied by a great reduction in solubility. This is why the sulphides and oxides of bivalent metals are relatively insoluble in water. The rate of dissolution depends on the nature of the mineral, the temperature and pH of the pulp, the intensity of agitation, particle size and the specific surface of the particles, and the ioniccomposition of water.The specific surface of particles determines the overall area that is in contact with water and, consequently, the number of ions that are transferred into the solution per unit of time. The intensity of agitation determines the movement of ions away from the surface of particles. These factors affect the kinetics of dissolution.The temperature and pH of the pulp do not affect only the kinetics of dissolution but also the equilibrium concentrations of the dissolved substances. In most cases, the solubility of minerals increases with an increase in temperature. This is due to the higher vibrational energy of the constituents in the crystal lattice, and at the same time due to the decreased forces between the ions, which facilitates the penetration of water into the lattice.Ionic equilibrium and solubility are important characteristics of solutions and of chemical reactions that occur in water. A chemical reaction in solution is possible when, on collision of ions, molecules are formed in which forces of cohesion between atoms exceed the forces of hydration. A requirement for a reaction to proceed is a removal of ions from the solution in the form of weakly dissociated molecules or nearly insoluble substances, i.e. as precipitate or as gas. At the high ionic concentration of a weakly soluble substance the solubility decreases. The solubility of minerals depends on complexes that are formed in each particular case. If the solution contains similar ions than the mineral, the solubility is decreased.外文翻译水的性质水是相在浮选中，所有的主要过程。
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
本文旨在汇总文学作品中的英文和中文对照外文翻译文献，共有以下几篇：
1. 《傲慢与偏见》
翻译：英文原版名为“Pride and Prejudice”，中文版由钱钟书翻译。
该小说是英国作家简.奥斯汀的代表作之一，描绘了19世纪英国中上层社会的生活和爱情故事。
2. 《了不起的盖茨比》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Great Gatsby”，中文版由杨绛翻译。
小说主要讲述了一个居住在纽约长岛的年轻白领盖茨比为了追求他的旧爱黛西而付出的努力，是20世纪美国文学的经典之作。
3. 《麦田里的守望者》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Catcher in the Rye”，中文版由施蛰存翻译。
该小说主人公霍尔顿是美国现代文学中最为知名的反英雄形象之一，作品深刻地揭示了青少年内心的孤独和矛盾。
4. 《1984》
翻译：英文原版名为“1984”，中文版由李敬瑞翻译。
该小说是英国作家乔治.奥威尔的代表作之一，描绘了一个虚构的极权主义社会。
以上是部分文学作品的中英文对照外文翻译文献，可以帮助读者更好地理解和学习相关文学作品。
信息系统信息技术中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料外文翻译文献Information Systems Outsourcing Life Cycle And Risks Analysis 1. IntroductionInformation systems outsourcing has obtained tremendous attentions in the information technology industry.Although there are a number of reasons for companies to pursuing information systems (IS)outsourcing , the most prominent motivation for IS outsourcing that revealed in the literatures was “cost saving”. Costfactor has been a major decision factors for IS outsourcing.Other than cost factor, there are other reasons for outsourcing decision.The Outsourcing Institute surveyed outsourcing end-users from their membership in 1998 and found that top 10 reasons companies outsource were:Reduce and control operating costs,improve company focus,gain access to world-class capabilities,free internal resources for other purposes, resources are not available internally, accelerate reengineering benefits, function difficult to manage/out of control,make capital funds available, share risks, and cash infusion.Within these top ten outsourcing reasons, there are three items that related to financial concerns, they are operating costs, capital funds available, and cash infusion. Since the phenomenon of wage difference exists in the outsourced countries, it is obvious that outsourcing companies would save remarkable amount of labor cost.According to Gartner, Inc.'s report, world business outsourcing services would grow from $110 billion in 2002 to $173 billion in 2007,a proximately 9.5% annual growth rate.In addition to cost saving concern, there are other factors that influence outsourcing decision, including the awareness of success and risk factors, the outsourcing risks identification and management,and the project quality management. Outsourcing activities are substantially complicated and outsourcing project usually carries a huge array of risks. Unmanaged outsourcing risks will increase total project cost, devaluatesoftware quality, delay project completion time, and finally lower the success rate of the outsourcing project.Outsourcing risks have been discovered in areas such as unexpected transition and management costs, switching costs, costly contractual amendments, disputes and litigation, service debasement, cost escalation, loss of organizational competence, hidden service costs,and so on.Most published outsourcing studies focused on organizational and managerial issues. We believe that IS outsourcing projects embrace various risks and uncertainty that may inhibit the chance of outsourcing success. In addition to service and management related risk issues, we feel that technical issues that restrain the degree of outsourcing success may have been overlooked. These technical issues are project management, software quality, and quality assessment methods that can be used to implement IS outsourcing projects.Unmanaged risks generate loss. We intend to identify the technical risks during outsourcing period, so these technical risks can be properly managed and the cost of outsourcing project can be further reduced. The main purpose of this paper is to identify the different phases of IS outsourcing life cycle, and to discuss the implications of success and risk factors, software quality and project management,and their impacts to the success of IT outsourcing.Most outsourcing initiatives involve strategic planning and management participation, therefore, the decision process is obviously broad and lengthy. In order to conduct a comprehensive study onto outsourcing project risk analysis, we propose an IS outsourcing life cycle framework to be served as a yardstick. Each IS outsourcing phase is named and all inherited risks are identified in this life cycle framework.Furthermore,we propose to use software qualitymanagement tools and methods in order to enhance the success rate of IS outsourcing project.ISO 9000 is a series of quality systems standards developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).ISO's quality standards have been adopted by many countries as a major target for quality certification.Other ISO standards such as ISO 9001, ISO 9000-3,ISO 9004-2, and ISO 9004-4 are quality standards that can be applied to the software industry.Currently, ISO is working on ISO 31000, a risk management guidance standard. These ISO quality systems and risk management standards are generic in nature, however, they may not be sufficient for IS outsourcing practice. This paper, therefore,proposes an outsourcing life cycle framework to distinguish related quality and risk management issues during outsourcing practice.The following sections start with needed theoretical foundations to IS outsourcing,including economic theories, outsourcing contracting theories, and risk theories. The IS outsourcing life cycle framework is then introduced.It continues to discuss the risk implications in precontract,contract, and post-contract phases. ISO standards on quality systems and risk management are discussed and compared in the next section. A conclusion and direction for future study are provided in the last section.2. Theoretical foundations2.1. Economic theories related to outsourcingAlthough there are a number of reasons for pursuing IS outsourcing,the cost savingis a main attraction that leads companies to search for outsourcing opportunities. In principle, five outsourcing related economic theories that lay the groundwork of outsourcing practice, theyare:(1)production cost economics,(2)transaction cost theory,(3)resource based theory,(4)competitive advantage, and(5)economies of scale.Production cost economics was proposed by Williamson, who mentioned that “a firm seeks to maximize its profit also subjects to its production function and market opportunities for selling outputs and buying inputs”. It is clear that production cost economics identifies the phenomenon that a firm may pursue the goal of low-cost production process.Transaction cost theory was proposed by Coase. Transaction cost theory implies that in an economy, there are many economic activities occurred outside the price systems. Transaction costs in business activities are the time and expense of negotiation, and writing and enforcing contracts between buyers and suppliers .When transaction cost is low because of lower uncertainty, companies are expected to adopt outsourcing.The focus of resource-based theory is “the heart of the firm centers on deployment and combination of specific inputs rather than on avoidance of opportunities”. Conner suggested that “Firms as seekers of costly-to-copy inputs for production and distribution”.Through resource-based theory, we can infer that “outsourcing decision is to seek external resources or capability for meeting firm's objectives such as cost-saving and capability improving”.Porter, in his competitive forces model, proposed the concept of competitive advantage. Besanko et al.explicated the term of competitive advantage, through economic concept, as “When a firm(or business unit within a multi-business firm) earns a higher rate of economic profit than the average rate of economic profit of other firms competing within the same market, the firm has a competitive advantage.” Outsourcing decision, therefore, is to seek cost saving that meets the goal of competitive advantage within a firm.The economies of scale is a theoretical foundation for creating and sustaining the consulting business. Information systems(IS) and information technology(IT) consulting firms, in essence, bear the advantage of economies of scale since their average costs decrease because they offer a mass amount of specialized IS/IT services in the marketplace.2.2. Economic implication on contractingAn outsourcing contract defines the provision of services and charges that need to be completed in a contracting period between two contracting parties. Since most IS/IT projects are large in scale, a valuable contract should list complete set of tasks and responsibilities that each contracting party needs to perform. The study of contracting becomes essential because a complete contract setting could eliminate possible opportunistic behavior, confusion, and ambiguity between two contracting parties.Although contracting parties intend to reach a complete contract,in real world, most contracts are incomplete. Incomplete contracts cause not only implementing difficultiesbut also resulting in litigation action. Business relationship may easily be ruined by holding incomplete contracts. In order to reach a complete contract, the contracting parties must pay sufficient attention to remove any ambiguity, confusion, and unidentified and immeasurable conditions/ terms from the contract. According to Besanko et al., incomplete contracting stems from the following three factors: bounded rationality, difficulties on specifying or measuring performance, and asymmetric information.Bounded rationality describes human limitation on information processing, complexity handling, and rational decision-making. An incomplete contract stems from unexpected circumstances that may be ignored during contract negotiation. Most contracts consist of complex product requirements and performance measurements. In reality, it is difficult to specify a set of comprehensive metrics for meeting each party's right and responsibility. Therefore, any vague or open-ended statements in contract will definitely result in an incomplete contract. Lastly, it is possible that each party may not have equal access to all contract-relevant information sources. This situation of asymmetric information results in an unfair negotiation,thus it becomes an incomplete contract.2.3. Risk in outsource contractingRisk can be identified as an undesirable event, a probability function,variance of the distribution of outcomes, or expected loss. Risk can be classified into endogenous and exogenous ris ks. Exogenous risks are“risks over which we have no control and which are not affected by our actions.”. For example, natural disasters such as earthquakes and flood are exogenous risks. Endogenous risks are “risks that are dependent on our actions”.We can infer that risks occurring during outsource contracting should belong to such category.Risk (RE) can be calculated through “a function of the probability of a negative outcome and the importance of the loss due to the occurrence of this outcome:RE = ΣiP(UOi)≠L(UOi) (1) where P(UOi) is the probability of an undesirable outcome i, and L(UOi) is the loss due to the undesirable outcome i.”.Software risks can also be analyzed through two characteristics :uncertainty and loss. Pressman suggested that the best way to analyze software risks is to quantify the level of uncertainty and the degree of loss that associated with each kind of risk. His risk content matches to above mentioned Eq.(1).Pressman classified software risks into the following categories: project risks, technical risks, and business risks.Outsourcing risks stem from various sources. Aubert et al. adopted transaction cost theory and agency theory as the foundation for deriving undesirable events and their associated risk factors.Transaction cost theory has been discussed in the Section 2.2. Agency theory focuses on client's problem while choosing an agent(that is, a service provider), and working relationship building and maintenance, under the restriction of information asymmetry.Various risk factors would be produced if such agent–client relationship becomes crumble.It is evident that a complete contract could eliminate the risk that caused by an incomplete contract and/or possible opportunistic behavior prompted by any contracting party. Opportunistic behavior is one of the main sources that cause transactional risk. Opportunistic behavior occurs when a transactional partner observes away of saving cost or removing responsibility during contracting period, this company may take action to pursue such opportunity. This type of opportunistic behavior could be encouraged if such contract was not completely specified at the first place.Outsourcing risks could generate additional unexpected cost to an outsourcing project. In order to conduct a better IS outsourcing project, identifying possible risk factors and implementing matured risk management process could make information systems outsourcing more successful than ever.rmation system outsourcing life cycleThe life cycle concept is originally used to describe a period of one generation of organism in biological system. In essence, the term of life cycle is the description of all activities that a subject is involved in a period from its birth to its end. The life cycle concept has been applied into project management area. A project life cycle, according to Schwalbe, is a collection of project phases such as concept,development, implementation, and close-out. Within the above mentioned four phases, the first two phases center on “planning”activity and the last two phases focus on “delivery the actual work” Of project management.Similarly, the concept of life cycle can be applied into information systems outsourcing analysis. Information systems outsourcing life cycle describes a sequence of activities to be performed during company's IS outsourcing practice. Hirsch heim and Dibbern once described a client-based IS outsourcing life cycle as: “It starts with the IS outsourcing decision, continues with the outsourcing relationship(life of the contract)and ends with the cancellation or end of the relationship, i.e., the end of the contract. The end of the relationship forces a new outsourcing decision.” It is clear that Hirsch heim and Dibbern viewed “outsourcing relationship” as a determinant in IS outsourcing life cycle.IS outsourcing life cycle starts with outsourcing need and then ends with contract completion. This life cycle restarts with the search for a new outsourcing contract if needed. An outsourcing company may be satisfied with the same outsourcing vendor if the transaction costs remain low, then a new cycle goes on. Otherwise, a new search for an outsourcing vendor may be started. One of the main goals for seeking outsourcing contract is cost minimization. Transaction cost theory(discussed in the Section 2.1)indicates that company pursuing contract costs money, thus low transaction cost will be the driver of extending IS outsourcing life cycle.The span of IS outsourcing life cycle embraces a major portion of contracting activities. The whole IS outsourcing life cycle can be divided into three phases(see Fig.1): pre-contract phase, contract phase, and post-contract phase. Pre-contract phase includes activities before a major contract is signed, such as identifying the need for outsourcing, planning and strategic setting, and outsourcing vendor selection. Contract phase startswhile an outsourcing contract is signed and then lasted until the end of contracting period. It includes activities such as contracting process, transitioning process, and outsourcing project execution. Post-contract phase contains those activities to be done after contract expiration, such as outsourcing project assessment, and making decision for the next outsourcing contract.Fig.1. The IS outsourcing life cycleWhen a company intends to outsource its information systems projects to external entities, several activities are involved in information systems outsourcing life cycle. Specifically, they are:1. Identifying the need for outsourcing:A firm may face strict external environment such as stern market competition,competitor's cost saving through outsourcing, or economic downturn that initiates it to consider outsourcing IS projects. In addition to external environment, some internal factors may also lead to outsourcing consideration. These organizational predicaments include the need for technical skills, financial constraint, investors' request, or simply cost saving concern. A firm needs to carefully conduct a study to its internal and external positioning before making an outsourcing decision.2. Planning and strategic setting:If a firm identifies a need for IS outsourcing, it needs to make sure that the decision to outsource should meet with company's strategic plan and objectives. Later, this firm needs to integrate outsourcing plan into corporate strategy. Many tasks need to be fulfilled during planning and strategic setting stages, including determining outsourcing goals, objectives, scope, schedule, cost, business model, and processes. A careful outsourcing planning prepares a firm for pursuing a successful outsourcing project.3. Outsourcing vendor selection:A firm begins the vendor selection process with the creation of request for information (RFI) and request for proposal (RFP) documents. An outsourcing firm should provide sufficient information about the requirements and expectations for an outsourcing project. After receiving those proposals from vendors, this company needs to select a prospective outsourcing vendor, based on the strategic needs and project requirements.4. Contracting process:A contract negotiation process begins after the company selects a probable outsourcing vendor. Contracting process is critical to the success of an outsourcing project since all the aspects of the contract should be specified and covered, including fundamental, managerial, technological, pricing, financial, and legal features. In order to avoid resulting in an incomplete contract, the final contract should be reviewed by two parties' legal consultants.Most importantly, the service level agreements (SLA) must be clearly identified in the contract.5. Transitioning process:Transitioning process starts after a company signed an outsourcing contract with a vendor. Transition management is defined as “the detailed, desk-level knowledge transfer and documentation of all relevant tasks, technologies, workflows, people, and functions”.Transitioni ng process is a complicate phase in IS outsourcing life cycle since it involves many essential workloads before an outsourcing project can be actually implemented. Robinson et al.characterized transition management into the following components:“employee management, communication management, knowledge management, and quality management”. It is apparent that conducting transitioning process needs the capabilities of human resources, communication skill, knowledge transfer, and quality control.6. Outsourcing project execution:After transitioning process, it is time for vendor and client to execute their outsourcing project. There are four components within this“contract governance” stage:project management, relationship management, change management, and risk management. Any items listed in the contract and its service level agreements (SLAs) need to be delivered and implemented as requested. Especially, client and vendor relationships, change requests and records, and risk variables must be carefully managed and administered.7. Outsourcing project assessment:During the end of an outsourcing project period, vendor must deliver its final product/service for client's approval. The outsourcing client must assess the quality of product/service that provided by its client. The outsourcing client must measure his/her satisfaction level to the product/service provided by the client. A satisfied assessment and good relationship will guarantee the continuation of the next outsourcing contract.The results of the previous activity (that is, project assessment) will be the base of determining the next outsourcing contract. A firm evaluates its satisfaction level based on predetermined outsourcing goals and contracting criteria. An outsourcing company also observes outsourcing cost and risks involved in the project. If a firm is satisfied with the current outsourcing vendor, it is likely that a renewable contract could start with the same vendor. Otherwise, a new “precontract phase” would restart to s earch for a new outsourcing vendor.This activity will lead to a new outsourcing life cycle. Fig.1 shows two dotted arrowlines for these two alternatives: the dotted arrow line 3.a.indicates “renewable contract” path and the dotted arrow line 3.b.indicates “a new contract search” path.Each phase in IS outsourcing life cycle is full of needed activities and processes (see Fig.1). In order to clearly examine the dynamics of risks and outsourcing activities, the following sections provide detailed analyses. The pre-contract phase in IS outsourcing life cycle focuses on the awareness of outsourcing success factors and related risk factors. The contract phase in IS outsourcing life cycle centers on the mechanism of project management and risk management. The post-contract phase in IS outsourcing life cycle concentrates on the need of selecting suitable project quality assessment methods.4. Actions in pre-contract phase: awareness of success and risk factorsThe pre-contract period is the first phase in information systems outsourcing life cycle (see Fig.1). While in this phase, an outsourcing firm should first identify its need for IS outsourcing. After determining the need for IS outsourcing, the firm needs to carefully create an outsourcing plan. This firm must align corporate strategy into its outsourcing plan.In order to well prepare for corporate IS outsourcing, a firm must understand current market situation, its competitiveness, and economic environment. The next important task to be done is to identify outsourcing success factors, which can be used to serve as the guidance for strategic outsourcing planning. In addition to know success factors,an outsourcing firm must also recognize possible risks involved in IS outsourcing, thus allows a firm to formulate a better outsourcing strategy.Conclusion and research directionsThis paper presents a three-phased IS outsourcing life cycle and its associated risk factors that affect the success of outsourcing projects.Outsourcing life cycle is complicated and complex in nature. Outsourcing companies usually invest a great effort to select suitable service vendors However,many risks exit in vendor selection process. Although outsourcing costs are the major reason for doing outsourcing, the firms are seeking outsourcing success through quality assurance and risk control. This decision path is understandable since the outcome of project risks represents the amount of additional project cost. Therefore, carefully manage the project and its risk factors would save outsourcing companies a tremendous amount of money.This paper discusses various issues related to outsourcing success, risk factors, quality assessment methods, and project management techniques. The future research may touch alternate risk estimation methodology. For example, risk uncertainty can be used to identify the accuracy of the outsourcing risk estimation. Another possible method to estimate outsourcing risk is through the Total Cost of Ownership(TCO) method. TCO method has been used in IT management for financial portfolio analysis and investment decision making. Since the concept of risk is in essence the cost (of loss) to outsourcing clients, it thus becomes a possible research method to solve outsourcing decision.信息系统的生命周期和风险分析1.绪言信息系统外包在信息技术工业已经获得了巨大的关注。
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文资料中英文资料外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications。
Theory and Principles1.ApplicationsXXX is the most common of its applications。
however。
and the onethat will be XXX.XXX “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement,which are classified as rigid pavements。
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XXX it provides they key to the design approach which must be used XXX.XXX XXX down into high and low types,the type usually XXX product is used。
The low typesof pavement are made with the cutback。
or emulsion。
XXX type may have several names。
However。
XXX is similar for most low-type pavements and XXX mix。
forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt XXX中英文资料XXX grade.中英文资料Fig.·1 A modern XXX.Fig.·2 Asphalt con crete at the San Francisco XXX.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are。
变电站中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述
变电站中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述XXXns are an essential part of electrical power systems。
servingas the interface een high-voltage n lines and lower-voltage n lines。
They play a critical role in XXX homes。
businesses。
and industries.Types of nsThere are several types of ns。
including n ns。
n ns。
and customer XXX to the end-users and step down the voltage for n to XXX a single customer or group of customers.XXXns consist of us components。
including transformers。
circuit breakers。
switches。
XXX are used to step up or step down thevoltage of the electricity。
XXX are used to control the flow ofXXX to the system.XXXXXX stages。
including site n。
layout design。
equipment n。
XXX n lines。
land availability。
and environmental ns。
The layout design involves determining the placement of equipment。
XXX appropriate transformers。
circuit breakers。
and other components。
外国文献的中英文对照版
diabetes neuropathies: update on definitions,diagnostic criteria,estimation of severity,and treatments糖尿病神经病变：更新的定义，诊断标准，估计的严重程度，与治疗Tesfaye S,Boulton A J.Dyck P J,et al.内容概要，博尔顿一·戴克磷，等。
AbstractPreceding the joint meeting of the 19th annual Diabetic Neuropathy Study Group of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (NEURODIAB) and the 8th International Symposium on Diabetic Neuropathy in Toronto, Canada, 13–18 October 2009, expert panels were convened to provide updates on classification, definitions, diagnostic criteria, and treatments of diabetic peripheral neuropathies (DPNs), autonomic neuropathy, painful DPNs, and structural alterations in DPNs.前联席会议第十九年糖尿病神经病变研究组欧洲糖尿病研究协会（neurodiab）和第八届国际糖尿病神经病变在多伦多，加拿大，–13 18 2009年十月，专家小组召开了提供更新的定义，分类，诊断标准，治疗糖尿病周围神经病变（标准草案），自主神经病变，痛苦的标准草案，和结构改变的标准草案。
英文文献 英汉对照
英文文献英汉对照以下是一篇英文文献的英汉对照：英文原文：The Role of Emotional Intelligence in LeadershipEmotional intelligence (EI) has been widely studied in recent years, and its importance in leadership has become increasingly recognized. EI refers to the ability to identify, use, understand, and manage emotions in positive ways that promote personal and social well-being. This article provides an overview of the role of EI in leadership and highlights some key findings from recent research.EI is critical for effective leadership because it affects how leaders interact with others, make decisions, and handle stress. Leaders with high EI are better able to build strong relationships with their teams, motivate them, and resolve conflicts effectively. They are also more likely to exhibit positive emotions that promote a positive work environment and inspire followers to achieve their potential.Research has shown that EI is a stronger predictor of leadership effectiveness than cognitive intelligence (IQ). Leaders with high EI are more likely to demonstrate transformational leadership behaviors, which are characterized by strong motivational skills, a vision for the future, and the ability to inspire and motivate followers.However, EI is not fixed and can be developed through training and self-reflection. Therefore, it is important for leaders to recognize the importance of emotional intelligence and work to improve their EI skills. By doing so, leaders can enhance their effectiveness, build stronger teams, and create a positive work environment that fosters innovation and creativity.中文翻译：情绪智力在领导力中的作用近年来，情绪智力（EI）受到了广泛的研究，其在领导力中的重要性也日益得到认可。
智能控制系统毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献
controlled object, as intelligent load monitoring test, is the use of single-chip I / O port output signal of relay control, then the load to control or monitor, thus similar to any one single chip control system structure, often simplified to input part, an output part and an electronic control unit ( ECU )
information, which can more effectively assist the security personnel to deal with the crisis, and minimize the damage and loss, it has great practical significance, some risk homework, or artificial unable to complete the operation, can be used to realize intelligent device, which solves a lot of artificial can not solve the problem, I think, with the development of the society, intelligent load in all aspects of social life play an important reuse.
儿童教育外文翻译文献
儿童教育外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文：The Role of Parents and Community in the Educationof the Japanese ChildHeidi KnipprathAbstractIn Japan, there has been an increased concern about family and community participation in the child’s educat ion. Traditionally, the role of parents and community in Japan has been one of support and less one of active involvement in school learning. Since the government commenced education reforms in the last quarter of the 20th century, a more active role for parents and the community in education has been encouraged. These reforms have been inspired by the need to tackle various problems that had arisen, such as the perceived harmful elements of society’spreoccupation with academic achievement and the problematic behavior of young people. In this paper, the following issues are examined: (1) education policy and reform measures with regard to parent and community involvement in the child’s education; (2) the state of parent and community involvement at the eve of the 20th century.Key Words: active involvement, community, education reform, Japan, parents, partnership, schooling, supportIntroduction: The Discourse on the Achievement GapWhen western observers are tempted to explain why Japanese students attain high achievement scores in international comparative assessment studies, they are likely to address the role of parents and in particular of the mother in the education of the child. Education mom is a phrase often brought forth in the discourse on Japanese education to depict the Japanese mother as being a pushy, and demanding home-bound tutor, intensely involved in the child’s education due to severe academic competition. Although this image of the Japanese mother is a stereotype spread by the popular mass media in Japan and abroad, and the extent by which Japanese mothers are absorbed in their children is exaggerated (Benjamin, 1997, p. 16; Cummings, 1989, p. 297; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992, p. 82), Stevenson and Stigler (1992) argue that Japanese parents do play an indispensable role in the academic performance of their children. During their longitudinal and cross-national research project, they and their collaborators observed that Japanese first and fifth graders persistently achieved higher on math tests than American children. Besides reciting teacher’s teaching style, cultural beliefs, and organization of schooling, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) mention parent’s role in supporting the learning conditions of the child to explain differences in achievement between elementary school students of the United States and students of Japan. In Japan, children receive more help at home with schoolwork (Chen & Stevenson, 1989; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992), and tend to perform less household chores than children in the USA (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). More Japanese parents than American parents provide space and a personal desk and purchase workbooks for their children to supplement their regular text-books at school (Stevenson et al., 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). Additionally, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) observed that American mothers are much more readily satisfied with their child’s performance than Asian parents are, have less realistic assessments of their child’s academic perform ance, intelligence, and other personality characteristics, and subsequently have lower standards. Based on their observation of Japanese, Chinese and American parents, children and teachers, Stevenson and Stigler (1992) conclude that American families can increase the academic achievement of their children by strengthening the link between school and home, creating a physical and psychological environment that is conducive to study, and by making realistic assessments and raising standards. Also Benjamin (1997), who performed ‘day-to-day ethnography’ to find out how differences in practice between American and Japanese schools affect differences in outcomes, discusses the relationship between home and school and how the Japanese mother is involved in the academic performance standards reached by Japanese children. She argues that Japanese parents are willing to pay noticeable amounts of money for tutoring in commercial establishments to improve the child’s performance on entrance examinations, to assist in ho mework assignments, to facilitate and support their children’s participation in school requirements and activities, and to check notebooks of teachers on the child’s progress and other school-related messages from the teacher. These booklets are read and written daily by teachers and parents. Teachers regularly provide advice and reminders to parents, and write about homework assignments of the child, special activities and the child’s behavior (Benjamin, 1997, p. 119, p. 1993–1995). Newsletters, parents’ v isits to school, school reports, home visits by the teacher and observation days sustain communication in later years at school. According toBenjamin (1997), schools also inform parents about how to coach their children on proper behavior at home. Shimahara (1986), Hess and Azuma (1991), Lynn (1988) and White (1987) also try to explain national differences in educational achievement. They argue that Japanese mothers succeed in internalizing into their children academic expectations and adaptive dispositions that facilitate an effective teaching strategy, and in socializing the child into a successful person devoted to hard work.Support, Support and SupportEpstein (1995) constructed a framework of six types of involvement of parents and the community in the school: (1) parenting: schools help all families establish home environments to support children as students; (2) communicating: effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programs and children’s progress; (3) volu nteering: schools recruit and organize parents help and support; (4) learning at home: schools provide information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions and planning; (5) decision making: schools include parents in school decisions, develop parent leaders and representatives; and (6) collaborating with the community: schools integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and development. All types of involvement mentioned in studies of Japanese education and in the discourse on the roots of the achievement gap belong to one of Epstein’s first four types of involvement: the creation of a conducive learn ing environment (type 4), the expression of high expectations (type 4), assistance in homework (type 4), teachers’ notebooks (type 2), mother’s willingness to facilitate school activities (type3) teachers’ advice about the child’s behavior (type 1), observ ation days by which parents observe their child in the classroom (type 2), and home visits by the teachers (type 1). Thus, when one carefully reads Stevenson and Stigler’s, Benjamin’s and other’s writings about Japanese education and Japanese students’ high achievement level, one notices that parents’ role in the child’s school learning is in particular one of support, expected and solicited by the school. The fifth type (decision making) as well as the sixth type (community involvement) is hardly ever mentioned in the discourse on the achievement gap.In 1997, the OECD’s Center for Educational Research and Innovation conducted a cross-national study to report the actual state of parents as partners in schooling in nine countries, including Japan. In its report, OECD concludes that the involvement of Japanese parents in their schools is strictly limited, and that the basis on which it takes place tends to be controlled by the teacher (OECD, 1997, p. 167). According to OECD (1997), many countries are currently adopting policies to involve families closely in the education of their children because (1) governments are decentralizing their administrations; (2) parents want to be increasingly involved; and (3) because parental involvement is said to be associated with higher achievement in school (p. 9). However, parents in Japan, where students already score highly on international achievement tests, are hardly involved in governance at the national and local level, and communication between school and family tends to be one-way (Benjamin, 1997; Fujita, 1989; OECD, 1997). Also parent–teacher associations (PTA, fubo to kyoshi no kai ) are primarily presumed to be supportive of school learning and not to participate in school governance (cf. OECD, 2001, p. 121). On the directionsof the occupying forces after the second world war, PTA were established in Japanese schools and were considered with the elective education boards to provide parents and the community an opportunity to participate actively in school learning (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88; Nakata, 1996, p. 139). The establishment of PTA and elective education boards are only two examples of numerous reform measures the occupying forces took to decentralize the formal education system and to expand educational opportunities. But after they left the country, the Japanese government was quick to undo liberal education reform measures and reduced the community and parental role in education. The stipulation that PTA should not interfere with personnel and other administrative tasks of schools, and the replacement of elective education boards by appointed ones, let local education boards believe that parents should not get involved with school education at all (Hiroki, 1996, p. 88). Teachers were regarded to be the experts and the parents to be the laymen in education (Hiroki, 1996, p. 89).In sum, studies of Japanese education point into one direction: parental involvement means being supportive, and community involvement is hardly an issue at all. But what is the actual state of parent and community involvement in Japanese schools? Are these descriptions supported by quantitative data?Statistics on Parental and Community InvolvementTo date, statistics of parental and community involvement are rare. How-ever, the school questionnaire of the TIMSS-R study did include some interesting questions that give us a clue about the degree of involvement relatively compared to the degree of involvement in other industrialized countries. The TIMSS-R study measured science and math achievement of eighth graders in 38 countries. Additionally, a survey was held among principals, teachers and students. Principals answered questions relating to school management, school characteristics, and involvement. For convenience, the results of Japan are only compared with the results of those countries with a GNP of 20650 US dollars or higher according to World Bank’s indicators in 1999.Unfortunately, only a very few items on community involvement were measured. According to the data, Japanese principals spend on average almost eight hours per month on representing the school in the community (Table I). Australian and Belgian principals spend slightly more hours and Dutch and Singaporean principals spend slightly less on representing the school and sustaining communication with the community. But when it comes to participation from the community, Japanese schools report a nearly absence of involvement (Table II). Religious groups and the business community have hardly any influence on the curriculum of the school. In contrast, half of the principals report that parents do have an impact in Japan. On one hand, this seems a surprising result when one is reminded of the centralized control of the Ministry of Education. Moreover, this control and the resulting uniform curriculum are often cited as a potential explanation of the high achievement levels in Japan. On the other hand, this extent of parental impact on the curriculum might be an indicator of the pressure parents put on schools to prepare their children appropriately for the entrance exams of senior high schools.In Table III, data on the extent of other types of parental involvement in Japan and other countries are given. In Japan, parental involvement is most common in case of schools volunteering for school projects and programs, and schools expecting parents to make sure that thechild completes his or her homework. The former is together with patrolling the grounds of the school to monitor student behavior most likely materialized through the PTA. The kinds and degree of activities of PTA vary according to the school, but the activities of the most active and well-organized PTA’s of 395 elementary schools investigated by Sumida (2001)range from facilitating sport and recreation for children, teaching greetings, encouraging safe traffic, patrolling the neighborhood, publishing the PTA newspaper to cleaning the school grounds (pp. 289–350). Surprisingly, less Japanese principals expect from the parents to check one’s child’s completion of homework than principals of other countries. In the discourse on the achievement gap, western observers report that parents and families in Japan provide more assistance with their children’s homework than parents and families outside Japan. This apparent contradiction might be the result of the fact that these data are measured at the lower secondary level while investigations of the roots of Japanese students’ high achievement levels focus on childhood education and learning at primary schools. In fact, junior high school students are given less homework in Japan than their peers in other countries and less homework than elementary school students in Japan. Instead, Japanese junior high school students spend more time at cram schools. Finally, Japanese principals also report very low degrees of expectations toward parents with regard to serving as a teacher aid in the classroom, raising funds for the school, assisting teachers on trips, and serving on committees which select school personnel and review school finances. The latter two items measure participation in school governance.In other words, the data support by and large the descriptions of parental of community involvement in Japanese schooling. Parents are requested to be supportive, but not to mount the territory of the teacher nor to be actively involved in governance. Moreover, whilst Japanese principals spend a few hours per month on communication toward the community, involvement from the community with regard to the curriculum is nearly absent, reflecting the nearly absence of accounts of community involvement in studies on Japanese education. However, the reader needs to be reminded that these data are measured at the lower secondary educational level when participation by parents in schooling decreases (Epstein, 1995; OECD, 1997; Osakafu Kyoiku Iinkai, unpublished report). Additionally, the question remains what stakeholders think of the current state of involvement in schooling. Some interesting local data provided by the Osaka Prefecture Education Board shed a light on their opinion.ReferencesBenjamin, G. R. (1997). Japanese lessons. New York: New York University Press.Cave, P. (2003). Educational reform in Japan in the 1990s: ‘Individuality’ and other uncertainties. Comparative Education Review, 37(2), 173–191.Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1989). Homework: A cross-cultural examination. Child Development, 60(3), 551–561.Chuo Kyoiku Shingikai (1996). 21 seiki o tenbo shita wagakuni no kyoiku no arikata ni tsu-ite [First Report on the Model for Japanese Education in the Perspective of theCummings, W. K. (1989). The American perception of Japanese parative Education, 25(3), 293–302.Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships. Phi Delta Kappan , 701–712.Fujita, M. (1989). It’s all mother’s fault: childcare and the socialization of working mothers in Japan. The Journal of Japanese Studies , 15(1), 67–91.Harnish, D. L. (1994). Supplemental education in Japan: juku schooling and its implication. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 26(3), 323–334.Hess, R. D., & Azuma, H. (1991). Cultural support for schooling, contrasts between Japanand the United States. Educational Researcher , 20(9), 2–8, 12.Hiroki, K. (1996). Kyoiku ni okeru kodomo, oya, kyoshi, kocho no kenri, gimukankei[Rights and duties of principals, teachers, parents and children in education. InT. Horio & T. Urano (Eds.), Soshiki toshite no gakko [School as an organization](pp. 79–100). Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo. Ikeda, H. (2000). Chiiki no kyoiku kaikaku [Local education reform]. Osaka: Kaiho Shup-pansha.Kudomi, Y., Hosogane, T., & Inui, A. (1999). The participation of students, parents and the community in promoting school autonomy: case studies in Japan. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 9(3), 275–291.Lynn, R. (1988).Educational achievement in Japan. London: MacMillan Press.Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Smith, T. A., Chrostowski,S. J., Garden, R. A., & O’Connor, K. M. (2000). TIMSS 1999 Intern ational science report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and ScienceStudy at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center.Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Garden, R. A., O’Connor, K. M.,Chrostowski, S. J., & Smith, T. A.. (2000). TIMSS 1999 International mathemat-ics report, findings from IEA’s Repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study at the Eight Grade.Chestnut Hill: The International Study Center. Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (2000).Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture. 1999, educational reform in progress. Tokyo: PrintingBureau, Ministry of Finance.Monbusho Ed. (1999).Heisei 11 nendo, wagakuni no bunkyoshisaku : Susumu kaikaku [Japanese government policies in education, science, sports and culture 1999: Educational reform in progress]. Tokyo: Monbusho.Educational Research for Policy and Practice (2004) 3: 95–107 © Springer 2005DOI 10.1007/s10671-004-5557-6Heidi KnipprathDepartment of MethodologySchool of Business, Public Administration and TechnologyUniversity of Twente P.O. Box 2177500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands译文：家长和社区在日本儿童教育中的作用摘要在日本，人们越来越关心家庭和社区参与到儿童教育中。
建筑工程灌注桩中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文资料外文翻译文献Bored pileSummaryDrill ( flushing, dig ) pile from the nineteen sixties, beginning in Henan province Nanyang region since the development application, because of its many advantages, has been widely used in soft soil, loess, including soil, expansive soil and other special types of foundation and industrial, civil, municipal, railway, highway, port andother types of Engineering practice. And precast pile, bored pile construction of no noise, no vibration, on the surrounding buildings and small environmental impact, pile diameter, buried deep, large bearing capacity. China's drilling pile maximum diameterof pile has reached 4000mm, maximum deep pile has reached 104m, and the steel pipe pile maximum diameter of 1200mm, the largest pile of prestressed concrete pipe pile with deep 83m, maximum diameter of 1300mm, the biggest pile depth 40m.Along with our country socialist construction is booming, with high-rise buildings, large span bridges on the rise, the bearing capacity of pile foundation with higher requirements. Large diameter bored pile therefore gets rapid development, pile length and pile diameter also do bigger more. However, in the existing various methods of pile, bored pile has many advantages and is widely used in construction, but it is hard to avoid the impact of mud, which not only reduces the bearing capacityof pile expectations, but also caused a serious waste of materials. Manual hole digging pile is difficult to achieve greater depth, its bearing capacity is also difficult to just as one wishes. In view of bored pile in this situation, how to improve the pile construction technology level, make the input material to be more reasonable to use,so as to greatly increase the bearing capacity of single pile in engineering field, have become hot issues in recent years.The introduction of bored cast-in-place pilePerfusion pile refers to the construction site by mechanical drilling, steel pipe soil compaction or human mining method in the foundation pile hole in form, and onits inner placed reinforcement cage, concrete made with different pile, drilling method, grouting pile can be divided again for cast-in-place pile, bored pile and digging several types of piles. Bored pile by pile into the definition and classification of a kindof pile.The characteristics of bored cast-in-place pile1、And sinking pile of hammering method, construction noise and vibration is smaller2、To construct than the precast pile of large diameter of pile3、In all kinds of ground can be used4、The construction quality of the pile bearing capacity influence5、Because the concrete is in the mud perfusion is difficult to control, so the quality of concreteBored pile construction methodPercussion drilling, punching grabbing drilling and rotary drilling hole can adoptslurry wall construction method. The construction process is: site formation, slurry preparation, buried tube and laying work platform rig and positioning, drilling, hole cleaning and inspection of hole quality and lower steel cage, underwater concrete perfusion to pull out the barrel to check quality. Construction sequence：(1) the construction preparationConstruction preparation comprise: selecting drill, drill, layout. Construction of bored pile drilling rig is the main equipment, according to the geological conditions and various drilling machine applied to select conditions(2) drilling machine installation and positioningIstallation of drilling machine based if not stable, easy to produce in the drilling machine construction, pile and pile inclined inclined eccentric and other adverse effects, therefore requires the installation of foundation stability. On the formation of softer, sloping ground, be bulldozed, the pad plate or tie reinforcement.In order to prevent the pile position allowed, construction is very important to the set the center position and the correct installation of drilling machine, the rig drilling machine, first use of the power drill and near the cage with the drill pipe, moving roughly position, and then Jack rack jacking, accurate positioning, so that the lifting pulley, drill bit or fixed drill hole cards and casing center in a vertical line, in order to ensure the verticality of the drilling rig. Drilling position deviation is not more than 2cm. Aligned with the pile location, with sleeper flat drill beam at the top of the tower, and symmetrical to the drill axis pulling cable wind rope.(3) buried tubeUnderground water level below the Kong Bitu under the hydrostatic pressure to the hole collapse, and even the phenomenon of flow of sand. If you can keep the borehole wall high underground water head, increase the hole hydrostatic pressure, to prevent collapse hole, hole wall. Casing in addition to play this role, at the same time, good isolation of surface water, ground, protecting the orifice pile hole drill guide fixed(4) slurry preparationDrilling mud is composed of water, clay ( bentonite ) and an additive composition. A floating drilling waste slag cooling the drill bit, drill, lubrication, increasing hydrostatic pressure, and in the hole wall to form a slurry, partition within the bore to prevent seepage, the hole collapse effect. Modulation of the drilling mud and circulating purifying mud, should be based on the drilling method and formation conditions to determine the slurry consistency, slurry consistency should beconsidered stratigraphic changes or operational requirements of motor control, the mud is too thin, small, poor effect of elimination of slag wall; slurry is too thick will weaken bit impact function, reduce drilling speed.(5) drillingThe borehole is a key working procedure, in construction must strictly according to the operating requirements, in order to ensure drilling quality, attention must be given to the hole quality, must be opposite for this good midline and verticality, and pressed well casing. Must pay attention in the construction are continuously added and pumping the slurry slag ( impact type ), but also at any time to check whether there is deviation phenomenon into hole. Using the impulse or clamshell type drilling machine construction, soil due to vibration and impact near the adjacent hole stability. So the drilled hole should be timely cleaning hole, decentralization and pouring underwater concrete reinforcing cage. Drill order should also be practical to plan, should not only guarantee a pile hole construction does not affect the last pile hole drill, and the moving distance of not too far and mutual interference.(6) the hole cleaningThe drilling depth, diameter, location and shape of hole is directly related to the quality of pile and pile body black. Therefore, in addition to drilling process close observation supervision, to meet the design requirements in drilling hole depth, with deep, hole, pore shape, pore size and other inspections. In the end hole inspection in full compliance with the design requirements, shall immediately proceed to bottom hole cleaning, avoid it too long that mud settling, caused by borehole collapse. For friction pile when the hole wall is easy to collapse, in underwater concrete perfusion before the sediment thickness of not more than 30cm; when the hole wall is not easy to collapse, not more than 20cm. For the post, in water or shoot the breeze, sediment thickness less than 5cm. Hole cleaning method is to use different and flexible application of drilling rig. Usually you can use normal circulation rotary drilling rig, reverse circulation rotary machine vacuum suction machine and slag pumping cylinder hole cleaning. The mud suction machine hole cleaning, required equipment, convenient operation, hole cleaning is thorough, but unstable in the soil should be used cautiously. Its principle is to use compressor generates high pressure air into a suction dredge pipeline will mud blowing.(7) pouring underwater concreteAfter finishing hole, can be prefabricated reinforcement cage hanging vertically into the hole, positioning to be fixed, and then using a perfusion catheter concrete,pouring concrete don't interrupt, or prone to the phenomenon of broken pile.Effect of bored pile bearing performance factorsIn the construction process, construction machinery, due to geological effects, often caused by pile soil ( weak layers ), the thickness of 0.2 ~ 0.5m, thick and up to 1m. Especially in soft soil with mud, drilling, hole bottom sediment is inevitable; even after careful cleaning hole, the hole cleaning after and before concrete, will precipitate some sediment, and in drilling process, widespread presence on the hole wall and the hole bottom soil disturbance. All of these affect the bearing capacity of bored pileplay.Pile static load test show that, bored pile end bearing capacity of only the ultimate load of the 15% ~ 35%, the side resistance and tip resistance of the existing synchronization phenomenon. Give full play to the role of lateral friction resistance is only a few millimeters of the displacement of pile top, to give full play to the role of tip resistance of pile diameter, needed to reach 10% - 30% of the displacement of pile top. Such a large displacement in engineering is not allowed. Pile side friction resistance to damage, and the damage limit is reached, and the end resistance cannot get sufficient play, its potential is great. This is the ultimate bearing capacity of bored pile is not to cause.Research shows that, at the bottom of pile soil exists, not only affects the tip resistance of the play, also make the side friction resistance loss. The existence of weak interlayer of pile, the pile body and the soil friction between the nature of the change, the friction between pile and soil by load transfer, is very bad. This is the bored pile bearing not tall benefit is another reason.Improve the bearing capacity of Bored PilesAccording to the bearing capacity of bored pile is not to cause analysis, engineering and some improving bearing capacity of pile foundation of the method, mostly around the elimination of pile bottom sediment, a pile of weak interlayer.(1)pre loading method in advance of the pile bottom for preloading, the pile soil compaction, improve the bearing capacity of piles. But time-consuming, costly, and not easy to implement.(2) extending end bearing area. The belled pile, in the past used in engineering is more, but on the bottom of pile soil are still incapable of action.(3) sand lining pile technology : the method for cast-in-place pile, construction, use double sleeve around the pile in sand filling, become sand set of about 3 ~ 10cm,sand set can improve the lateral wall of the friction resistance of pile.(4)Grouting technology:routing technology grouting method can be divided into the first grouting and grouting method. The first method of grouting is drilled in the Kong Zhuangcheng hole and before concrete grouting, the nozzle pipe into the hole bottom is inserted into the soil, spraying slurry, so that at the bottom of pile soil mixed with cement, then pile concrete.Pile capCap refers to bear, distribution from pier to carry the load on pile top, set toconnect all the top of the pile of reinforced concrete platform.Cap is piles and columns or piers contact part. The root cap, even ten piles are linked with the formation of the pile foundation. Cap for high pile cap and pile caps: low pile cap generally buried or partially buried in the earth, high pile cap generally above the ground or water. High rise pile cap having a free length, the surrounding supporting body to withstand horizontal load. Pile stress situation is extremely unfavorable. Pile internal force and displacement under the action of external force than the same level of low pile cap to be big, the stability is poor because of low pile cap.High rise pile cap is generally used for port, wharf, marine engineering and bridge engineering. Low pile cap is generally used in industrial and civil buildings. Pile head generally into platform 0.1 meters, and a reinforced anchor into the cap. Platform to build on the columns or piers, forming a complete power transmissionsystem.In recent years due to the large diameter bored pile, pile rigidity, strength is big, so high pile in bridge foundation construction has been widely used.灌注桩概述钻（冲、挖）孔灌注桩，从20世纪60年代初在河南省南阳地区研制应用以来，因其具有众多的优点，因其具有众多的优点，已广泛应用于包括软土、已广泛应用于包括软土、已广泛应用于包括软土、黄土、黄土、黄土、膨胀土等特殊土在内的各膨胀土等特殊土在内的各类地基和工业、民用、市政、铁路、公路、港口等各类工程实践中。
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平设计任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。
采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。
平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。
平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。
共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。
例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。
组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。
平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。
毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论,原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。
广告艺术勺最终目标是出售的商品和服务＞在平面设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。
在唐朝（618-906 ）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。
阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。
在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。
蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。
他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。
于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。
他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。
从1892年至1896年威廉？莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。
莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。
这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。
莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。
谁创造了最初的“平面设计” 似乎存在争议。
这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20 世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。
伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。
在2 0世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智育吐产”在不同领威的生产。
个性化的运动艺术在2俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目勺。
他们设十的建筑、剧院集海报面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。
Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。
Tschichold ,包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。
他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。
随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。
第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。
移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。
值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger ，设计师和Frutiger字体大学；保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。
平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。
从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。
可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。
设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。
将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。
连同这些被定义为品牌。
品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。
教科书的目的是本科目，女哋理科学和数学。
这些出版物已布局理论设计说明和图表。
一个常见的例子，在使用图形, 教育是图表人体解剖学。
平面设计也适用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。
平面设计是应用在娱乐行业的装饰，景观和视觉故事。
其他的例子娱乐设计用途包括小说，漫画，电影中的开幕和闭幕，在舞台上节目的和道具的安排。
这也包括艺术品在T恤衫的应用和其他物品的出售。
从科学杂志报道，提出意见和事实往往是提高图形和深思熟虑的组成视觉信息-被称为信息的设计。
报纸,杂志，博客电视和电影纪录片,可以使用平面设计通知及娱乐。
随着网络信息与经验的交互设计的工具，Adobe和Flash正越来越多地被用来说明的背景新闻。
一个平面设计项目可能涉及程式化和介绍现有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或图像开发的平面设计师。
例如，一家报纸的故事始于记者和摄影记者，然后成为平面设计师的工作安排到一个合理的页面布局，并确定是否有任何其他图形元素应当要求。
在一本杂志的文章或广告，往往是平面设计师或艺术总监将委员会摄影师或插图创建原始文件只是被纳入设计规划。
现代设计的做法已经扩展到了现代的计算机，例如在使用所见的用户界面，通常被称为交互式设计，或多媒体设计。
任何图形元素用于设计之前，图形元素必须是源于通过视觉艺术技能。
这些图形通常（但并不总是）被设计师开发。
视觉艺术的作品主要是视觉性的东西从使用传统的传播媒介、摄影或电脑产生的艺术。
平面设计原则可以适用于每一个人的版画艺术元素，并最终组成。
3印刷术是艺术工和技术型,修改类型字形,并安H啖型的设计。
类型字形字符）的创健和修改使用各种说明方法。
这项安排的类型是选择字体、大小、线长、主要的（行距）和文字的间距。
刷术是由排字工机，排字，印刷工人，图形艺术家，艺术总监，工作者和办事员。
直到数字时代，印刷成为一个专业的领域。
数字化开辟了新的视觉设计师和用户。
排版设计师平面设计的一部分是在网页设计中是图形设计处理安排风格（内容）的要素从早期的照明网页手工复制书籍的中世纪和程序，以错综复杂的现代杂志和目录布局，适当的网页设计公司长期以来一直是考虑的印刷材料，与印刷媒体，内容通常包括类型（文字，图片（照片）偶尔发生持有者图形的内容，没有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，烫金压印或盲目压花。
平面设计师常常专心研究于界面设计，如网页设计和软件设计，最终用户的交互性是一个设计考虑的布局或接口。
视觉沟通技巧、互动沟通技巧与用户互动得相结合和在线品牌推广，平面设计师往往与软件开发和网络开发人员创建的外观和风格的网站或软件应用程序，来加强用户或网络网站的访问者互动体验。
版画是在纸上，其他有机材料或者表面上印刷艺术品的过程。
每一张不会被复制，但时最初的因为它不是一个复制的另一艺术作品，并在技术上称为留下深刻的印象。
绘画或素描，另一方面，创造了独特的原始艺术品。
版画是由一个单一的原始表面创造的，在技术上已经作为基质而被已知。
常见的矩阵包括：金属板，通常是铜或锌的雕刻或蚀刻石料，用于光刻;块木刻的木材，油毡和织物板的丝网印刷。
但也有许多其他种类，讨论如下：作品从一个单一的印刷板创造一个版本，在现代通常每个签署和编号，形成限量。
打印也可编制成册，作为艺术家的书籍。
一个单一的打印可能是产品的一种或多种技术。
色彩学领域是如何在打印机上和显示器上用眼睛识别颜色和如何解释和组织这些色彩。
眼睛的视网膜被两个被命名为视杆和视锥的感光体涵盖。
视杆对光很敏感但是对颜色不是很敏感。
视锥却与视杆恰恰相反。
他们对光不太敏感，但是颜色可以被感知。
随着科技的发展，人们越来越认识到环境问题日益严重，大气污染、森林破坏、水土流失、土地沙漠化水资污染、大量物种灭色、石油、天然气煤等资牯竭。
作为工业殳计师,应该有强烈的环境其中，温室效应、臭氧层破坏和酸雨是当今全球性的三大环境问题。
温室效应就是大气变暖的效应其形成原因是太阳短波辐射可以透过大气射入地面, 而地面增暖后放出的长波辐射却被大气中的二氧化碳就像一层厚厚的玻璃，把地球变成了一个大暖房。
甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟姪以及水汽等也对温室效应有所贡献。
随着人口的急剧增加和工业的迅速发展，越来越多的二氧化碳排入大气中；又由于森林被大量砍伐，大气中原本应被森林吸收的二氧化碳没有被吸收，致使二氧化碳逐渐增加，温室效应也不断增强。
温室效应的后果十分严重,自然生态将随之发生重大变化，荒漠将扩尢土地侵働0重,森林退向极也旱涝灾害严重雨量增加;温带冬天更显夏天更旱;热带也变得更湿，干热的亚热带变得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新调整。
沿海将受到严重威胁。
由于气温升咼，两极冰块将融化，使海平面上升，将会淹没许多城市和港口。
臭氧层破坏现象引起科学界及整个国际社会的震动。
美国的两位科学家Mo nila和Rowla nd指出，正是人为的活动造成了今天的臭氧洞。
元凶就是现在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龙。
酸雨目前已成为一种范围广泛、跨越国界勺大气亏染现象酸雨破坏土壤, 使湖泊酸化,危害动植物生长;朿嗷人勺肢肤，诱发皮肤病，弓起肺拥肿肺硬化会腐蚀金属制品、油漆皮革纺织品和含碳酸盐的建筑。
总而言之，人类生活的环境已经日益恶化。
而恶化的原因大部分属于人类本身的不良生活方式和不尊重客观规律，急功近利，对于地球资源的使用没有科学的计划性，而且在设计、制造产品以及日常生活中缺乏保护环境的意识，以至于自毁家园，其危害不仅于当代，而且严重影响了子孙后代的生存。
环境问题在很大程度上是由于人们的不良设计、生活方式造成的后果。
于是给设计师们提出了一个严肃的问题：作为设计师，应肩负起保护环境的历史重任!也给世界带来了灾难。
工业设计在为人类创造了现代生活方式的同时，也加速了资源、能源的消耗，并对地球的生态平衡造成了巨大的破坏。
所以，作为工业设计师，建立环境意识体现了其道德和社会责任心。
设计师必须对自己的设计负责，必须把人类的健康幸福，自然与人类的和谐共存作为设计中心遵循的原则。
设计师还必须掌握必要的材料、工艺化工制造等方面的知识，使得其设计不对环境造成危害而成为可能。
“可持续发展设计”这一概念的提出，对于人性的回归及世界真正意义上的发展具有划时代的意义。
他体现了设计师的道德与责任，已成为21世纪设计发展的总趋势。
从此，人类传统工业文明发展模式转向现代生态文明发展模式。
它是社会进步，经济增长，环境保护三者之间的协同。
可持续发展是人们应遵循的一种全新的伦理、道德和价值观念。
其本质在于：充分利用现代科技，大力开发绿色资源,发展清洁生产不断改善和优化生态环境促使人与自然的和谐发展,人口资源和环境相互协调。