21世纪的美国行政法(中英文)
美国行政法案例法律英语(3篇)
第1篇Court: United States Supreme CourtCitation: 418 U.S. 683 (1974)Facts:The case of United States v. Nixon arose from the Watergate scandal, a major political scandal that occurred in the United States during the early 1970s. The scandal involved the illegal activities of members of the Nixon administration, including the break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C.In 1973, the Special Prosecutor, Archibald Cox, issued a subpoena to President Richard Nixon, requiring him to turn over tape recordings of conversations made in the Oval Office. Nixon refused to comply,asserting executive privilege and arguing that the tapes were subject to the president's absolute discretion.Issues:The central issue in the case was whether the president could assert executive privilege to withhold evidence from a grand jury investigation.Opinion of the Court:The majority opinion, written by Chief Justice Warren Burger, held that the president could not assert absolute executive privilege to withhold evidence from a grand jury investigation. The Court held that executive privilege is not an absolute right but rather a qualified privilege that must be balanced against the interests of the grand jury and the public.The Court outlined several factors that should be considered in determining whether executive privilege should be invoked:1. The subject matter of the investigation: The Court held that the subject matter of the investigation is a relevant factor. If the investigation concerns matters of national security or foreign relations, executive privilege may be more compelling. However, if theinvestigation concerns internal executive branch matters, executive privilege may be less compelling.2. The need for the evidence: The Court held that the need for the evidence is a relevant factor. If the evidence is essential to the investigation, executive privilege may be less compelling.3. The degree to which the evidence is relevant: The Court held that the degree to which the evidence is relevant is a relevant factor. If the evidence is highly relevant, executive privilege may be less compelling.4. The degree to which the evidence has been previously disclosed: The Court held that the degree to which the evidence has been previously disclosed is a relevant factor. If the evidence has been previously disclosed, executive privilege may be less compelling.Reasoning:The Court relied on several precedents to support its decision. It cited United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974), which held that the president could not claim executive privilege to withhold evidence from a grand jury investigation. The Court also cited separation of powers principles, arguing that the independence of the executive and judicial branches requires that the president not be able to use executive privilege to obstruct the judicial process.The Court further held that executive privilege is not absolute because it would undermine the rule of law and the independence of the judicial branch. The Court argued that the grand jury is an independent body that must be free to investigate criminal conduct without interference from the executive branch.Significance:The case of United States v. Nixon is one of the most significant Supreme Court decisions concerning executive privilege. It established the principle that executive privilege is not absolute and that it must be balanced against the interests of the grand jury and the public.The case also had a significant impact on the Watergate scandal. The Supreme Court's decision forced President Nixon to comply with the subpoena and turn over the tape recordings, which ultimately led to his resignation.Discussion:The case of United States v. Nixon raises several important questions about the scope of executive privilege and the balance between the powers of the executive and judicial branches. While the Court held that executive privilege is not absolute, it also recognized that the president must have some degree of discretion to protect sensitive information.One potential criticism of the Court's decision is that it may have weakened the president's ability to protect national security information. However, the Court's decision was based on the specific facts of the case and the need for the evidence in the grand jury investigation.Another criticism is that the Court's decision may have set a precedent for other cases involving executive privilege. This could lead to increased judicial oversight of executive branch actions and potentially undermine the separation of powers.In conclusion, the case of United States v. Nixon is a landmark decision that has had a significant impact on the balance of power between the executive and judicial branches. It establishes that executive privilege is not absolute and that it must be balanced against the interests of the grand jury and the public. The case remains a relevant and important topic of discussion in American constitutional law.Footnotes:1. United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974).2. Archibald Cox was appointed as the Special Prosecutor to investigate the Watergate scandal.3. Executive privilege refers to the president's right to withhold certain information from the public and other branches of government.4. The rule of law refers to the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced, and independently adjudicated.5. The separation of powers refers to the division of government into different branches, each with its own powers and responsibilities.6. The balance of power refers to the distribution of power among different branches of government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.7. The executive branch is responsible for enforcing the laws and administering the government.8. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the laws and resolving disputes.9. The legislative branch is responsible for making the laws.10. The grand jury is a group of citizens who are empaneled to investigate whether there is sufficient evidence to charge a person with a crime.第2篇IntroductionThe case of United States v. Nixon (1974) is one of the most significant cases in American administrative law. This landmark case revolves around the issue of executive privilege and its limitations in the context of the Watergate scandal. The Supreme Court's decision in this case has had a profound impact on the balance between executive power and the rule of law in the United States. This article will discuss the facts of the case, the legal issues involved, and the Supreme Court's decision.Facts of the CaseIn 1972, a break-in was discovered at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. Theinvestigation revealed that several of the individuals involved in the break-in were connected to the Nixon administration. The Watergate scandal led to numerous investigations and inquiries, including a special Senate committee and a grand jury investigation.During the course of the investigation, the special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, requested that President Richard Nixon release tape recordings of conversations that occurred in the Oval Office. The president refused to comply with the request, claiming executive privilege, which is the right of the president to withhold certain information from Congress or the courts.Legal IssuesThe central legal issue in the case was whether the president's claim of executive privilege was valid and whether it could be invoked to prevent the release of the tape recordings. The Supreme Court had to consider several questions:1. Does the president have executive privilege?2. If so, is executive privilege absolute or does it have limits?3. Does the executive privilege extend to the president's personal conversations?The Supreme Court's DecisionIn a 7-2 decision, the Supreme Court held that the president does have executive privilege, but that it is not absolute. The Court emphasized that executive privilege is a necessary component of the separation of powers and allows the president to carry out his duties without interference from the other branches of government.However, the Court held that executive privilege is not absolute and must be balanced against the public interest. In this case, the Court concluded that the public interest in uncovering the truth about theWatergate scandal outweighed the president's claim of executive privilege.The Court further held that the executive privilege does not extend to the president's personal conversations. The Court stated that the privilege is meant to protect the confidentiality of official communications, not the president's personal thoughts and feelings.Impact of the DecisionThe decision in United States v. Nixon has had a significant impact on American administrative law. It has established that executive privilege is not an absolute right and that it must be balanced against the public interest. This has implications for other cases involving executive privilege, such as the release of classified information or the investigation of governmental misconduct.Moreover, the case has reinforced the principle that the rule of law is paramount and that no individual, including the president, is above the law. This has been a crucial factor in maintaining the integrity of the democratic process and ensuring that the government operates within the bounds of the law.ConclusionThe case of United States v. Nixon is a landmark case in American administrative law. It highlights the importance of balancing executive power with the rule of law and underscores the principle that no individual is above the law. The Supreme Court's decision has had a lasting impact on the administration of justice in the United States and continues to be a relevant precedent in cases involving executive privilege and governmental misconduct.第3篇Case BriefCase Name: City of Boston v. EPACitation: 868 F.2d 896 (1st Cir. 1989)FactsThe City of Boston, Massachusetts, sought to reduce its emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) to comply with the Clean Air Act of 1970. To achieve this goal, Boston proposed to implement a cap-and-trade program, which would allow the city to purchase allowances from other sources to cover its excess emissions. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) denied Boston's proposal, claiming that it was not in compliance with the Clean Air Act. Boston challenged the EPA's decision in court.IssueWhether the EPA's decision to deny Boston's proposal to implement a cap-and-trade program was arbitrary and capricious, and therefore, an abuse of discretion.HoldingThe court held that the EPA's decision to deny Boston's proposal was not arbitrary and capricious, and therefore, not an abuse of discretion.RationaleThe court began by noting that the EPA has broad discretion in interpreting and enforcing the Clean Air Act. In this case, the EPA concluded that Boston's proposal was not in compliance with the Act because it would not achieve the necessary reductions in SO2 emissions. The court agreed with the EPA's interpretation of the Act and found that the agency's decision was based on substantial evidence.The court also considered whether the EPA's decision was arbitrary and capricious. The court held that the EPA's decision was not arbitrary and capricious because it was based on a reasonable interpretation of the Clean Air Act and was supported by substantial evidence. The court emphasized that the EPA's decision was not motivated by improper considerations and that the agency had carefully considered the arguments presented by Boston.Finally, the court addressed whether the EPA's decision was an abuse of discretion. The court held that the EPA's decision was not an abuse of discretion because it was within the agency's authority to interpret and enforce the Clean Air Act. The court also noted that the EPA's decision was in the public interest, as it was designed to ensure that Boston's emissions were reduced to the levels required by the Act.DiscussionThe City of Boston v. EPA case is an important example of the deference that courts afford to administrative agencies in interpreting and enforcing complex environmental regulations. The case highlights the broad discretion that agencies have in making decisions regarding compliance with environmental laws and the deference that courts give to those decisions.The court's decision in this case is consistent with the principle that administrative agencies are experts in their respective fields and should be given considerable latitude in interpreting and enforcing complex regulations. However, the court also emphasizes that agencies must act within the scope of their authority and cannot base their decisions on improper considerations.The case also raises important questions about the role of cap-and-trade programs in environmental regulation. While cap-and-trade programs can be an effective tool for reducing emissions, they must be designed and implemented in a manner that is consistent with the requirements of the Clean Air Act. The court's decision in this case suggests that agencies must carefully consider the impact of cap-and-trade programs on compliance with environmental regulations before approving such programs.ConclusionThe City of Boston v. EPA case is an important example of the deference that courts afford to administrative agencies in interpreting and enforcing complex environmental regulations. The case highlights the broad discretion that agencies have in making decisions regarding compliance with environmental laws and the deference that courts give tothose decisions. The case also raises important questions about the role of cap-and-trade programs in environmental regulation, emphasizing the need for careful design and implementation to ensure compliance with environmental laws.。
美国宪法法规修正案中英文版
美国宪法修正案（中、英文版）修正案[一]国会不得制定关于下列事项的法律：确立国教或禁止信教自由，剥夺言论自由或出版自由；剥夺人民和平集会和向政府诉冤请愿的权利。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[二]管理良好的民兵是保障自由州的安全之所必需，此人民持有和携带武器的权利不得侵犯。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[三]士兵在和平时期，未经房主许可不得驻扎于任何民房；在战争时期，除依法律规定的方式外亦不得进驻民房。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[四]人民保护其人身、住房、文件和财物不受无理搜查扣押的权利不得侵犯；除非有合理的根据认为有罪，以宣誓或郑重声明保证，并详细开列应予搜查的地点、应予扣押的人或物，不得颁发搜查和扣押证。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[五]非经大陪审团提出报告或起诉，任何人不受死罪或其它重罪的惩罚，惟在战时国家危急时期发生在陆、海军中或正在服役的民兵中的案件不在此限。
任何人不得因同一犯罪行为而两次遭受生命或身体伤残的危害；不得在任何刑事案件中被迫自证其罪；未经正当法律程序，不得剥夺任何人的生命、自由或财产；非有恰当补偿，不得将私有[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[六]在一切刑事诉讼中，被告应享受下列权利：由犯罪行为发生地的州和地区的公正陪审团予以迅速和公开的审判，该地区应事先已由法律确定；获知控告的性质和原因；同原告证人对质；以强制程序取得有利于自己的证据；并取得律师帮助为其辩护。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[七]在习惯法诉讼中，争执价额超过20元，由陪审团审判的权利应予保护；案情事实经陪审团审定后，除非依照习惯法的规则，合众国的任何法院不得再行审理。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[八]不得索取过多的保释金，不得处以过重的罚金，或施加残酷的、非常的刑罚。
[1791年12月15日批准]修正案[九]本宪法对某些权利的列举不得被解释为否定或轻视由人民保有的其它权利。
[整理版]外国行政法
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专题一：基本原理比较一、概念比较（一）英美行政法1、奥斯丁定义：公法分宪法和行政法，规定主权行使的限度和方式的行政：社会公共行政和国家行政。
2、霍兰认为行政法：公法中最早的是宪法和行政法，认为宪法是静态的，行政法是动态的。
3、古德诺对行政法的定义：认为行政法是公法的一部分，规定行政机关的组织、职权并规定公民在受到行政行为侵害时的行政救济（比较全面）英美法系的行政法主要目的是控制行政权，而不是保证行政效力有效行使的法。
4、戴雪：行政法是规定惯例特权的法，认为行政法是法国的法律，而英国是没有的，他认为行政法应服从法律。
英美法系的学者：是从控制行政权力和行政程序两方面概括行政法定义的。
法律最初被认为是“命令”，然后认为是“规则”。
英美法系重视行政程序，大陆法系也逐步重视行政程序，行政程序发展三阶段：1、首先欧洲国家——提出行政程序；2、美国为代表，行政程序进一步发展；3、上世纪90年代，香港、澳门、日本、韩国等分别制定了自己的行政法，我国也逐步发展了行政程序，将实体法与程序法相分离。
如：行政处罚，我国制定了《中华人民共和国行政处罚法》。
二、行政法特点的比较（一）法系间的比较（大陆与英美间）１、行政法制度方面的比较大陆法系具有独立的行政法院，英美法系国家行政诉讼都由普通法院审理。
我国现在也由法院审理，只是适用一些独立的行政。
法国现有行政法院，甚至在行政系统内，归属与行政系统。
德国设在司法系统内。
２、行政法基本理念比较（１）大陆法系把行政法视为管理法；英美法系国家视为控权法。
（２）大陆法系强调政府管理的效力，使行政机关的命令在上下间所产生的效益；英美法系控制国家的行政权力，保护公民基本权利。
３、行政法调整对象大陆法系从四方面：实体的法律关系、程序的法律关系、外部的法律关系、内部的法律关系。
英美：外部的法律关系和程序的法律关系。
（二）国家之间的比较１、法国行政法特点：（１）存在独立的行政法院系统，适用于独立的法律规则。
英美行政法的比较
英美行政法的比较概念（一）英国行政法的概念英国大部分学者在很长时间内对行政法存在一个错误⏹的观念，他们认为：英国没有行政法，行政法是行政法院受理行政诉讼、适用特别法保护管理特权的制度。
这种制度不符合英国的法治原则，不允许官吏的特权存在在；所以英国没有行政法，也不需要行政法。
这种对法国行政法院和行政诉讼的认识是错误的。
产生这种误解的原因是由于英国属于英美法系国家，⏹没有公法与私法的严格区分，公民和政府之间的关系以及公民相互之间的关系，适用的法律和管辖的法院相同。
事实上，行政诉讼只是行政法的一部分，而且法国行政法院从18世纪末成立以来，逐渐演变，到19世纪末期已成为公民权利的有力保障。
正是由于这个缘故，在英国的传统法学中，行政法不是一个单独的部门，也没有明确的行政法概念。
随着行政机关权力的扩张，英国年轻一代的学者对支⏹配行政活动的法律的认识加深，其中代表性的如英国行政法权威学者韦德（Sir William Wade）从实质和内容两个角度对行政法予以明确界定：1.从实质角度出发，行政法是“控制政府权力的法律”，⏹又叫“控权法”；2.从内容角度出发，行政法是“调整行政机关行使权力⏹和履行职责的基本原则的总称”。
（二）美国行政法的概念⏹当代美国，有关行政法的概念有狭义与广义两种。
⏹1.狭义的行政法概念⏹狭义的行政法概念认为行政法是关于行政活动的程⏹序的法律，不包括实体法。
狭义的行政法概念是从实际的观点和保护公民权利⏹的角度来说明行政法的意义和作用。
因为行政机关对公民权利的侵害主要发生在法律的执行当中，而法律的执行本质上是个程序问题。
所以，认为行政法是行政活动的程序的法律，便于提高行政效率和保护公民的权利。
2.广义的行政法概念⏹行政法是关于公共行政的法律，包括行政程序法和行⏹政实体法，内部行政法和外部行政法。
这就是广义的行政法概念。
广义的行政法概念是从全面的观点来说明行政法，符合行政法的实际情况和需要。
特点（一）英国行政法的主要特点⏹⏹英国行政法的基本原则和体系主要由普通法规定。
21世纪行政法
21世纪行政法一、引言与历史我的画布大得惊人，我必须也不得不用大而粗略的笔法在上面作画。
我将集中关注与广义的政府管制相关的行政法。
首先，我将简要地概述上个世纪美国行政法的主要特色，并揭示它们是如何经过修正以后步入我们现在这个时代的。
而后，我将评价在面对日益增长的行政困顿（administrativefatigue）时滋生出来的实现管制目标的新方法，以及这些新方法对行政法的意义。
最后，我将扼要论及方兴未艾的行政法之国际性一面以结束本文。
行政管制的兴起刚刚结束的那个世纪，目睹了行政管制范围和强度的急剧增长。
市场以及私人自我调整的其它复杂形式，创造出巨大的利益，但也产生了市场无效率和市场失灵、经济权力和经济强势地位的滥用、环境的恶化、生产安全危害、经济不稳定、依赖性以及其它的制度性弊病。
私法和刑法的不足已经得到证明，为回应它们的不足，立法机关制定了涉及面极其广泛的行政管理计划，以防止这些弊病。
运用的管制方法主要是命令和控制方法，依照这种方法，政府对个体行为施加了详细的禁律或要求。
银行必须有一定的最低资本金。
发电厂不得排放超过规定数量的空气污染颗粒物。
我们必须把废纸、废金属与其它废弃物分隔开。
今天，几乎每一个活动领域都受到政府的管制；我们的人身安全和经济保障以及福利皆依赖于政府管制。
事实上，没有一个法律实务领域不牵涉行政管制，无论它是证券金融、儿童福利、税收、国际贸易、住房供给、就业，还是其它任何实务领域。
这就是为什么纽约大学从今春开始要求一年级学生必须学修一门新的关于管制型行政国的课程，从而确保我们所有的毕业生对法律、管制条例以及管制型政府的立法、行政和司法过程具备基本的知识。
如果说这一创举看上去是迟到很长时间了，不妨想一想哈佛法学院依然坚持朗戴尔院长（DeanLangdell）于19世纪确立的普通法课程。
行政法在自由民主社会中，行政管制本身亦受到行政法的规范。
行政法界定了行政机关在政府体制内的结构性地位，规定了行政机关必须遵循的决定程序，确定了独立的司法机关可以对行政行为进行审查以及司法审查的强度。
会计专业术语中英文对照
a payment or serious payments 一次或多次付款abatement 扣减absolute and unconditional payments 绝对和无条件付款accelerated payment 加速支付acceptance date 接受日acceptance 接受accession 加入accessories 附属设备accountability 承担责任的程度accounting benefits 会计利益accounting period 会计期间accounting policies 会计政策accounting principle 会计准则accounting treatment 会计处理accounts receivables 应收账款accounts 账项accredited investors 经备案的投资人accumulated allowance 累计准备金acknowledgement requirement 对承认的要求acquisition of assets 资产的取得acquisitions 兼并Act on Product Liability （德国）生产责任法action 诉讼actual ownership 事实上的所有权additional filings 补充备案additional margin 附加利差additional risk附加风险additions （设备的)附件adjusted tax basis 已调整税基adjustment of yield 对收益的调整administrative fee管理费Administrative Law(美国）行政法advance notice 事先通知advance 放款adverse tax consequences 不利的税收后果advertising 做广告affiliated group 联合团体affiliate 附属机构African Leasing Association 非洲租赁协会after-tax rate 税后利率aggregate rents 合计租金aggregate risk 合计风险agreement concerning rights of explore natural resources 涉及自然资源开发权的协议agreement 协议aircraft registry 飞机登记airframe （飞机的)机身airports 机场airworthiness directives (飞机的）适航指令alliances 联盟allocation of finance income 财务收益分配allowance for losses on receivables 应收款损失备抵金alternative uses 改换用途地使用amenability to foreign investment 外国投资的易受控制程度amendment 修改American Law Institute 美国法学会amortization of deferred loan fees and related consideration 递延的贷款费和相关的报酬的摊销amortization schedule 摊销进度表amortize 摊销amount of recourse 求偿金额amount of usage 使用量AMT （Alternative Minimum Tax) （美国）可替代最低税analogous to类推为annual budget appropriation 年度预算拨款appendix (契约性文件的）附件applicable law 适用法律applicable securities laws适用的证券法律applicable tax life 适用的应纳税寿命appraisal 评估appraisers 评估人员appreciation 溢价appropriation provisions 拨款条例appropriation 侵占approval authority 核准权approval 核准approximation近似arbitrary and artificially high value (承租人违约出租人收回租赁物时法官判决的)任意的和人为抬高的价值arbitration 仲裁arm’s length transaction 公平交易arrangement 安排arrest 扣留Article 2A 美国统一商法典关于法定融资租赁的条款articles of incorporation 公司章程AsiaLeaae 亚洲租赁协会assess 评估asset manager 设备经理asset risk insurance 资产风险保险asset securitization 资产证券化asset specificity 资产特点asset tracking 资产跟踪asset-backed financing 资产支持型融资asset—based lessor 立足于资产的出租人asset—oriented lessor (经营租赁中的)资产导向型出租人asset 资产assignee 受让人assignment 让与association 社团at the expiry 期限届满时ATT (automatic transfer of title）所有权自动转移attachments 附着物attributes 属性auction sale 拍卖audits 审计authenticate 认证authentication 证实authority 当局authorize 认可availability of fixed rate medium—term financing 固定利率中期融资可得到的程度available—for—sale securities 正供出售证券average life 平均寿命average managed net financed assets 所管理的已筹资金资产净额平均值aviation authority 民航当局backed-up servicer 替补服务者backhoe反铲装载机balance sheet date 资产负债表日bandwidth 带宽bank affiliates 银行的下属机构bank quote 银行报价bankruptcy cost 破产成本bankruptcy court 破产法院bankruptcy law 破产法bankruptcy proceedings 破产程序bankruptcy 破产bareboat charterer 光船承租人bargain renewal option廉价续租任择权basic earnings per share每股基本收益basic rent基本租金(各期应付的租金）beneficiaries受益人big—ticket items大额项目bill and collect开票和收款binding agreement有约束力的协议blind vendor discount卖主暗扣bluebook蓝皮书(美国二手市场设备价格手册）book income账面收入book loses账面亏损borrower借款人BPO(bargain purchase option）廉价购买任择权bridge facility桥式融通bridge桥梁broker fee经纪人费brokers经纪人build—to-suit leases（租赁物由承租人）承建或承造的租赁协议bulldozer推土机bundled additional services捆绑（在一起的）附加服务bundling捆绑（服务)business acquisition业务收购business and occupation tax营业及开业许可税business generation业务开发business trust商业信托by（e)-laws细则byte字节cable TV network有线电视网络cable电缆cancelability可撤销性cancelable可撤销的capacity资格capital allocation资本分派capital constraint资金掣肘capital contribution出资额capital cost资本费用capital expenditure基建费用capital lease融资租赁协议capital market资本市场capitalize资本化captive finance company专属金融公司captives专属公司carrying amount维持费用carrying value账面结存价值case law案例法cash collatera1现金抵押cash election现金选择cash flow coverage ratio现金流偿债能力比率cash flow现金流cash receipts and cash applications现金收入及现金运用casualty value要因价值（指租赁物毁坏或灭失时承租人应付的赔偿金额）casualty灾变、事故CAT(computer—added tomograph)依靠电脑的层析X射线摄影机category种类causal sale偶然销售ceiling上限cellular（mobile）移动通信central authority中央集权certificate of acceptance接受证书、验收证书certificate of participation共享证书certificate证书charitable trust公益信托chattel mortgage动产抵押chattel paper动产文据checking account存款支票户checklists审核内容清单circuit board线路板civil and commercial law 民商法Civil Code(德国）民法典civil law country(欧洲大陆各国的）大陆法系国家claim 权利要求classes级别classification criteria归类标准classification determination类别的确定classification indicators分类指标classification of leases租赁协议分类classification opinion分类观点classification process归类过程clawback (用附加税）填补（福利开支)client顾客clinic诊所collateral agent副代理人collateral tracking system抵押物跟踪制度collateral value抵押物价值collateralized by third party medical receivables due以第三方到期医疗应收款作为质押collateral抵押物collect and disburse收取和支付collectibility可收回程度collection托收comfort level方便程度commerce clause商务条款commercial risk商业风险commercial terms商业条款commissions佣金commitment承诺common carriage通用车队common law country（英美等）海洋法系国家common trust共同信托commonality通用性compensate补偿competitive risk竞争风险competitor竞争者complex finance leases复杂的融资租赁comprehensive income综合收入comptroller审计官computer计算机conceptual difference概念上的差别concession period持有特许权的期间concession让步、特许conclusion结论conditional sales agreement附条件销售协议conditions of usage使用条件conduit structure管道结构(的公司)confidentiality保密性configure改装conflict冲突connectivility(信息传递中的)可连通性consensual or non-consensual lien同意或非经同意的留置权consent 同意consideration对价consolidation合并constructive acceptance of collateral抵押物的指定接受constructive sale推定出售consulting and advisory services咨询及顾问服务Consumer Credit Act（德国）消费者信用法consumer price index消费者价格指数consumer secured transaction消费者有担保交易consumer transaction消费者交易consumption tax消费税container集装箱contingent rental随机租金contingent rents随机租金continuation beyond the termination date终止日后的接续continuous and close customer contact同客户持续而紧密的接触contract maintenance（对设备的)合同维修contract origination合同开发contract pool合同池contract portfolio合同组合contract sales合同出售contracting cost缔约成本contracting states 缔约国contracts for services服务合同contractual provisions合同条款contributions出资Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Award承认和执行外国仲裁裁决公约convention 公约converted subordinated notes可转换次级票据convincing case有说服力的案例core framework核心框架corporate aircraft公务(飞）机corporate debt market公司债市场corporate guarantees公司担保corporate income tax公司所得税corporation公司correlation相关性cost of capital资金成本cost of funds筹资成本cost of sale销售成本coterminous rate同期利率counsel律师counterclaim反诉counterpart副本course of dealing and usage of trade交易习惯和贸易惯例covenants契约coverage（保险中的)险别crane起重机credit and liquidity enhancement信用及流动性增级credit card receivables信用卡应收款credit card信用卡credit development信用变化credit enhancement信用增级credit history and profile信用记录和规模credit rating信用等级credit risk allocation and management信用风险的分摊及管理credit risk信用风险credit underwriting process信用担保程序credit-based lessor立足于信用的出租人credit-oriented lessor（经营租赁中的)信贷导向型出租人creditors债权人creditworthiness信誉criterion(衡量用的）标准critical goals关键性目标cross-border funding跨境融资currency risk货币风险current and non-current liabilities当期及非当期负债current ratio流动比率current realization即期实现cushion缓冲customer contact客户联系customer's purchase cycle客户的购买周期customers客户damage 损害dampening effect削弱性效应data transfer数据转换data transmission数据传输DDC (dedicated contract carriage）指定车型及司机的合同车队dealer lessors供应商出租人debt capital债务资本debt covenant债务契约debt instruments债务证书debt issuance costs债务发行成本debt maturities债务期限debt securities债务证券debt service债息debt-equity ratios自有资金负债率debt—equity treatment债务－权益处理debtor债务人debt-to—equity ratio权益负债率decay（机械设备的）腐蚀declarations声明dedicated capacity carriage指定最低运输量的合同车队dedicated carriage一应俱全的车厢deductibility可抵扣程度deduction扣减default违约defeasance structures带有废止条款的结构defense抗辩deficiency claim损失索赔deficiency损失、缺陷definitional maze定义上的暧昧不明definition定义deflation通货紧缩deinstallation拆卸delay in delivery 延迟交付delinquencies拖欠delivery and acceptance process交付及验收程序denunciation 退出deposit account押金账项deposit taker存款接受者deposition处置depreciated value折余价值depreciation allowance折旧提存depreciation benefit折旧好处depreciation deductions折旧抵扣depreciation expense折旧费用depreciation period折旧期间deregulation解除管制derivative financial instruments衍生的金融工具designated location指定的位置detention扣押detraction减损developed and mature market发达而成熟的市场diagnostic equipment诊断设备differentiation差别化digitization数字化diluted earning per share每股稀释后收益direct and consequential damage直接和间接损失direct financing lease直接融资租赁direct tax直接税disaster recovery services（电脑租赁的）救灾服务disclaimer免责disclosure items披露项目discount rate折现率discounted present value折现值discretion自由酌情处理discrimination差别待遇disguised credit sale变相信贷销售disguised purchaser of the leased asset经过伪装的租赁资产买入人（指融资租赁的承租人）dispute resolution process争议解决程序dissolution解散distinction区别distinctive triangular relationship 特有的三边关系distribution分配diverse nuances多样化的细微差别diversification多样化diversity多样性dividends红利documentation文件制作及提供domestic law 国内法double taxation agreement双重课税协议double tax双重税double—dip tax leases(租赁一方为美国法人而另一方不是美国法人时的）双重所有权租赁协议down payment定金down time窝工时间downgraded信用等级下降downward sloped interest expense line趋降的利息费用曲线draftsmanship（合同文本的）起草due diligence应有的审慎durability耐久性duration of delay拖延的持续时间duress胁迫early buyout提前买断early termination提前结束earnings before minority interest少数权益前收益earnings pattern收益模型EBO (early buyout)提前买断economic benefits经济利益economic climate经济气候economic life经济寿命economic ownership经济上的所有权education教育effective date生效日effective ownership有效的所有权effective waiver of defenses（对）抗辩的有效放弃effectiveness有效性electronic mail电子邮件eligibility合格性embedded嵌入emerging lease markets新兴租赁市场employee benefit plans雇员福利计划enactment实施encumbrance留置权end—of—term consequences期末结果end-of-term process期末程序ends up倒闭end-users最终用户enforceable强制性的enforcing remedies实施补救engine发动机enhanced equipment trust certificate增级的设备信托证书enter into force生效entitlement权利资格Environmental Liability Act（德国)环境责任法EPS（earning per share)每股收益率equalizing等量化equipment cost设备成本equipment defects设备瑕疵equipment identification设备认定equipment leasing industry设备租赁业equipment risk allocation and management设备风险的分担及管理Equipment Schedule设备清单equitable owner衡平法上的所有权人equity capital权益资本equity contribution权益出资equity in net loss of invests投资净损失中的权益equity insertion权益嵌入(指经营租赁的出租人在购置用于租赁的货物时要更多地依赖其自有资金）equity investor权益投资人equity securities权益证券ERISA( Employee Retirement Income and Security Act)（美国)雇员退休收入及担保法escalation clauses自动调整条款essential use实质性使用estate(房地产）产业estimated remaining period估计的剩余期间estimated residual估计的余值estimates估计ETO（early termination option)（对）提前结束（的）任择权evolution演变excess cash过剩现金excess deduction超额扣减exchange交换excise tax许可证税exclusive remarketing firms（只处置某类设备的）专业性再处置公司executory cost执行成本exempt assets免税资产exempt entity免税机构exercisable 可行使的exercise price行使（某项权利,例如购买任择权时的）价格exhaustion损耗Exhibit(契约性文件的）附件EXIM bank（美国)进出口银行expenditure开支expertise专长expiration of the initial lease term初始租赁期限的届满exposure to residual asset value所承担的资产残值风险express warranty明示的担保extended retention of possession对占有的延伸提留extension延期external reporting risk财务报告引起的外部风险FAA（Federal Aviation Administration)(美国)联邦航空署face value面值factoring company代理融通公司fair market value leases公允市值租赁（指租金按租赁市场的常见数额来确定）fair market value transactions公允市值交易fair value公允价值fair wear and tear合理磨损FASB(Federal Accounting Standards Board) 13(美国）财务会计标准委员会第13号说明：租赁FASIT （financial asset securitization investment trust)金融资产证券化投资信托fatal illness绝症features装置federal income tax联邦所得税Federal Tax Court(德国)联邦税务法庭federally guaranteed mortgage联邦保证抵押fee receivable应收费fee subordination附加费fee—based financing services以收费为基础的融资服备Felalease拉美租赁协会fiber optics光纤fiduciary responsibilities受托责任filing备案finance and other income财务及其它收入finance charges财务费用finance companies金融公司、财务公司finance lease laws融资租赁法律finance lease融资租赁协议financial assets金融资产financial bottom line财务底线financial components财务成份financial distortion财务失真financial institution金融机构financial instruments金融证书，金融工具financial leasing transaction融资租赁交易financial leasing融资租赁financial lessor融资出租人financial performance财务业绩financial ratios财务比率financial reality财务现实financial reporting risk(因财务失真所导致的）财务报告风险financial statement appearance资产负债表的表现financial terms融资条件financiers融资人financing source融资来源finding认定firm term确定的条款first amendment leases首期更改租赁协议five different frameworks（作为租赁交易宏观环境的）五个不同的框架fixed investment trust固定投资信托fixed purchase option固定价格购买任择权fixed rate固定利率fixed wire有线(通信)fixture filing固定备案flexibility灵活性floating lease accrued interest receivable浮动租赁应计的应收利息fluctuation波动FMRV（fair market rental value）公允的租金市值footnote disclosure通过附注披露foreclosure disposition扣押抵债处置foreclosure了结抵押(抵押权人按规定拍卖抵押物以受偿）forklift叉车form report格式报告forward rate agreement远期利率协议forward start swaps远期掉期four criteria（区别融资租赁和经营租赁的)四项标准fractional interest零散权益franchise特许权fraud欺诈free standing derivative instruments自力支撑的衍生工具from cradle to grave从摇篮到坟墓（指自始至终全程服务）front—end payment前端支付FSL（full-service lease）全程服务租赁fuel use tax燃料使用税full commitment全额承诺full disclosure充分披露full-payout versus non—full—payout全额支付还是非全额支付full-payout全额支付full-service lease全套服务租赁fund appropriation拨款fund risk筹资风险funding resources筹资渠道funding risk筹资风险furnish供应future cash flow未来的现金流future lease payment未来租赁付款GAAP(generally accepted accounting principle）公认会计准则gains收益gear ratio资本充足率gearing资本充足率general intangible一般无形物geographic distance地理上的距离German Insolvency Act德国破产法global leasing industry全球租赁业global survey全球调查globalization全球化goods货物goodwill商誉governmental agency政府（指定的)代理机构governmental body政府机构governmental fund政府基金governmental taking政府征用GPTD（gross profit tax deferral）毛利税递延grantor trust委托人信托grantors委托人grantor授予人growth rate增长率guaranteed residual value有担保的残值guarantee担保hallmark印记hardware硬件harmonization(在有着不同法规情况下的）协调headings标题health care merchant fund incorporation 保健商融资公司health care receivables保健应收款health care services保健服务healthcare provider保健提供者heavy maintenance大修hedge against inflation抵御通涨hedge套期保值helicopters直升机hell-or high water clauses绝对责任条款high technology leasing高技术租赁hire purchase agreement租购协议hire purchase contracts租购合同hirer租入人holders持有人homogeneity同质性hospitalization（到）医院治疗hours of use(设备的）使用小时hurdle rate最低可接受费率IAS(International Accounting Standard) 17国际会计准则17 租赁IDC（initial direct costs）初始直接费用identification确认idle capacity闲置的能力IFC（International Finance Corporation)国际金融公司illness疾病illustration演示immaterial items非实质性事项immediately available fund立即可以得到的资金impairment of assets资产减损implementation执行implicit interest rate隐含利率implied acceptance默认接受implied warranty or guarantee 暗示的担保in-bound leases进口租赁inception of the lease租赁协议开始日income and expense recognition收入和支出的确认income statement损益表income tax所得税incremental borrowing rate of interest新增借款利率incurrance of an obligation义务的承担indebtedness欠款indemnification赔偿indemnify保护indenture trustee契约受托人independent director独立董事indexed rate指数利率(指跟着某个基准利率走的利率) index指数indirect bank leasing间接的银行租赁indirect tax间接税individual lessees个人承租人industrialization工业化industry dynamics行业动向industry lingo行话（行业内的暗语）information信息infrastructure基础设施infringement侵权in-house expertise（该公司）自有的专长initial accounting初始的会计处理initial case law初始判例法initial lease term初始的租期innovation创新in-place remarketing原地再处置input tax投入税insider transaction内部交易insolvency破产inspection findings检验结果inspection report检验报告inspection检验inspector检验员institutional finance机构融资instrument工具、文据insurance carrier承保人insurance claims保险索赔insurance coverage保险类别insurance function保险功能insurance policy保险单intangible assets无形资产intangible benefit无形权益intellectual property right知识产权intelligence gathering情报收集intentional or grossly negligent act故意的或严重疏忽的作为interest and fee income利息和收费收入interest component of scheduled payments排定进度付款的利息部分interest rate spreads利差interest rate swaps利率掉期interim real estate financing不动产过渡性融资interim rent暂行租金（在租金首付日应付的租金）intermediate twin—aisle中程双过道（指飞机）internal preference（所披露的信息严重扭曲时的）内部参考international financial leasing of equipment国际设备融资租赁international leasing community国际租赁界international registration requirement plan（飞机的)国际登记计划要求internationalization国际化Internet互联网interperiod tax allocation各期之间的税收分配invasion侵犯inventory盘存、存货清册investment company投资公司investment grade credit rating投资等级信用评级investment return投资回报investors投资人invoice发票IOSCO（International Organization of Securities Commissions)证券委员会国际组织IRC(Internal Revenue Code）（美国）国内税收法irrevocable不可撤销的IRS（Internal Revenue Service）（美国）国内税务局issue notes出立票据issuer发行人IT assets信息技术资产item项目job qualification sheet职业资格证judge法官judgement裁决judicial arena司法场所judicially-assisted repossession司法协助重新占有junk bonds垃圾债券jurisdictions司法管辖区label标记landing gear（飞机的）起落架landing着陆language（合同中的）用语large ticket asset大额资产lease application租赁申请lease fee租赁费（对租金中所含收益部分的形容）lease for movables动产租赁协议lease inception起租日lease intended as security担保意向租赁lease liabilities租赁负债lease lines of credit租赁信贷限额lease manager租赁协议管理人lease portfolio租赁协议组合lease registry租赁协议登记lease tax租赁税lease termination payment(为）提前结束(租赁协议而作的）支付lease term租赁期限lease versus purchase租还是买leased assets租赁资产leased equipment 租赁设备leased items租赁物件leased property租赁财产leasehold租赁、租借lease-in/lease—out（美国特有的为享受税收待遇而在美国企业同外国企业之间订立的）租入租出租赁协议lease-purchase financing租购融资leases租赁协议Leaseurope欧洲租赁协会leasing activities租赁业务leasing agreement租赁协议leasing arrangement租赁安排leasing company租赁公司leasing professionals租赁专业人员leasing regulation对租赁的管制leasing systems(手工的或电脑的)租赁业务管理系统leasing's share of GDP租赁占国内生产总值的份额leasing租赁legal arrangement法律安排legal consequences法律后果legal entity法人legal fees法律费legal form法律形式legal issue法律课题legal ownership法定所有权legal owner法定所有权人legal right法定权利legal risk法律风险legal status法律地位legal title法定所有权legal treatment法律处理legally empowered法律授权的legitimate business purpose合法的营业目的lenders放款人lenient terms宽松条款lessee intent承租人的意向lessee承租人lessor’s internal staff出租人的内部人员lessor出租人letter of credit信用证level of collateral抵押水平leverage borrowings杠杆借款leverage ratio资本充足率leveraged lease杠杆租赁levy扣押liabilities负债liberal depreciation rules自由折旧规则license特许licensing agreements许可证协议licensing of lease activity对租赁业务的许可lien date留置日lien留置权life-limited parts（飞机上）限制其使用小时的部件limitation of liability责任限度limited ability有限能力limited liability company有限责任公司liquidated damage损失赔偿金liquidator 清算人liquidity facility流动性融通liquidity support流动性支持liquidity现金支付能力litigation诉讼loans disguised as leases伪装成租赁的贷款loan-type financing贷款型融资loan贷款lobby effort游说努力local law当地法律local statues当地法规local tax地方税location所在地lock box account锁箱账户lock box collection and sweep arrangement（银行的）锁箱和自动转存安排locomotive（铁路）机车long term rental contract长期出租合同loss containment亏损防堵loss ratio赔付率losses损失lost sales losses出租人为了再处置收回的租赁物而失去出租新的租赁物的机会所带来的损失MACRS depreciation（美国的）加速成本回收的折旧maintain reserves（飞机租赁中承租人承担的）保养准备金maintenance contract维修保养合同maintenance interval（飞机发电机的）维修间隔期maintenance policies and procedures保养方针及程序make-whole premium凑整升水managerial reporting risk（财务报告导致的）管理层报告的风险manipulation of accounting principles对会计准则的巧妙运用manufacturer subsidy(来自）制造商（的）补贴marginal tax rate边际税率market friction市场摩擦market imperfection市场的不完善market participants市场参与者market penetration市场渗透率market rates of interest市场利率market share市场份额market size市场规模market stability市场稳定性marketplace市场环境master lease illustration租赁协议正文master lease主租赁协议material facts重要事实maturity到期日means手段measurement criteria衡量标准mechanism机制memory function备忘功能mercantile—type sale商业性销售merchantability适销性(经营租赁协议中的暗示保证）merges合并merit review process事实真相检查程序middle—market leasing中级市场租赁MIGA（Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency）多边投资担保署minimum capital最低资本minimum lease payments receivable应收最小租赁付款minimum lease terms最短租赁期限minimum rental rate最低租金费率mirror—in/mirror—out principle(飞机返还时的维修状况同交付时）一模一样的原则mismatches不匹配mitigate缓解（风险）mobility移动性model模式modem“猫”（调制解调器）modification 更改monetary policy货币政策money—over—money lease钱到钱的租赁（租赁业内对融资租赁的俗称）monitoring监控monoline insurer单一险种保险人monopolies垄断部门monopoly垄断month—to—month rentals（期满但租赁物未退还时的）逐月收取的租金moratorium延缓履行mortgage loan placement抵押贷款安排motor carrier fee机动车费MPD(maintenance planning document)维修计划书MRI(magnetic resonance imaging）核磁共振成象multiple jurisdiction涉及多个司法管辖区的multi-years lease commitment多年的租赁款项承付municipal trade tax地方贸易税named owner指名的所有权人narrative report陈述式报告narrow-body aircraft窄机身飞机nascent幼稚的national independent full-service leasing rental firms全国性的独立全面服务租赁出租公司nationality国籍NCCUSL(The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws)(美国）统一州法律委员会全国会议negligence 过失nenrenewal penalties期末若不留购或不续租时的罚金net cash investment outstanding 净现金出资余额net collectible value可回收净额net earnings净收益net financed assets已融资资产净额net gain on sale of financing transactions融资交易出售的净利得net investment outstanding净出资余额net lease净租赁(指不附带任何技术服务的租赁）net margin净收益net of deferred taxes递延所得税后净额net taxable income净应税收入net value净值net worth tax净财富税network connection device网络联接器件networks网络new product family新产品系列niche market可填补空缺的市场noise 噪声nominal price 名义价格nominal purchase option名义价格购买任择权non-accrual status不应计的状态non—appropriation不得挪用non-cancellable lease不可撤销的租赁协议non-conforming equipment不合格设备non-contracting states非缔约国nondebt interest非债务利益non—delivery未交付nonexclusive remarketing firms综合性再处置公司nonexistent不存在的non-full-payout非全额支付nonlabeled program(卖主同出租人各归各的)销售计划nonoperating leasing非经营租赁non-ownership for balance sheet不在资产负债表上资本化nonpossessory pledge非占有的抵押non—recourse sale of lease receivable对租赁应收款的无追索出售non-substitution clause不得替代条款nontax lease非税收租赁（指附条件销售，其中承租人被视为税收所有权人,可对租赁资产计提折旧）normal depreciable life正常可折旧寿命normal lease常规租赁normal terminations正常结束notarization公证人的公证notary system公证制度notes secured by equipment设备抵押票据notice of termination终止（租赁的)通知number of lease payments租赁付款次数objection拒绝obligations债务obligopolies受权专营部门obligor债务人obsolescence陈旧occasional sales exemption偶然销售豁免OEC（original equipment cost)设备原值off balance sheet financing表外融资off-balance sheet securitizations资产负债表外证券化offering and sale发售和出售official tax depreciation tables官方（制订的）税收折旧表off-lease equipment退租设备offsetting claims抵销请求权omission 不作为on—condition parts（飞机上）根据具体情况决定可否使用的部件one-off program（卖主的对谁都一样的)统一销售计划one—stop shopping一站式采购one—way consumer truck rental business单程客户载重汽车出租业务operating expense事业费operating leases经营租赁协议operating leasing经营租赁operational efficiency经营效率OPIC(Oversea Private Insurance Corporation)海外私人保险公司option to buy 购买任择权option to purchase购买任择权option to renewal续租任择权options期权ordinary course常规过程ordinary trusts普通信托organizational documents机构文件original collateral初始抵押品original lease value租赁原值originating lessor作为发起人的出租人originator发起人out-bound big-ticket leasing大宗出口租赁outpatient clinic门诊诊所outright purchase直接购买outright sale直销outsourcing外包overcollateralization超额提供抵押overhaul检修owner trust所有者信托owner 所有者ownership interest所有权权益ownership leases所有权租赁（对融资租赁实质的形容）ownership retention所有权的保留ownership所有权packaging包装parameter参数parent母公司participants参与者particular withholding tax特殊预提税partnership合伙企业partners合作伙伴parts sale（再处置中的）部件出售parts 部件party identification对当事方的认定passive investment trust被动投资信托pass-through entity传递实体pattern 模式payee受款人payment amount支付金额payment due已到期应付款payment of rentals租金支付payors付款人pay-through note定付(证券)peculiar tax shelter provision of liquidation proceeds对请算得款的特定的避税规定penetration渗透per se corporations本质上的公司percentage of sales销售额的百分比perfection完善、保全performance业绩、履行periodic rate of return 期回报率peripheral（电脑的)外部设备permanent funding activities长期资金融通方式permanent funding vehicles长期性的融资工具permission允许permit执照personal property leasing动产租赁personal property tax动产税personal resume个人简历perspective（看问题的）角度physical deterioration物理性能的退化piercing the corporate veil捅破公司的面纱place of taxation纳税地placement放置capital goods, plants or other equipment （the equipment）不动产、厂场或其它设备（设备) players参与者pledge资产抵押polarization（将目标市场定位于某类规模客户的）极化policy of insurance保险单portfolio concentration组合（中的设备类型的）集中程度portfolio(投资)组合possession占有potential conflict潜在冲突potential impairment潜在减损power by the hour leases按每月使用小时支付租金的租赁power generation发电power transmission（电、气、热的）能源传输practitioner从业者predetermined period事先确定了的期间preestablished floor预先设定的底价preface前言prefund先行融资prejudgment property recovery在法院裁决前先收回财产prejudice损害premium保费pre-paid lease payments预付的租赁付款present transfer即时转移present values现值preservation of exist bank line现有银行信贷额度的保留presumption推论pretax rate税前利率preventive maintenance预防性保养price/performance curve性能价格曲线prices indices价格指数pricing quandary定价上的左右为难pricing risk定价风险pride of ownership对所有权的满足感primary servicer主服务者prime interest rate基本利率principal office and place主营业地principal本金printer打印机prior written consent预先的书面同意prior written notice预先的书面通知priorities优先权private and public私人的或公共的private carriers私人运送人private international law国际私法private placement(对）特定对象（直接）销售private—label program（卖主同出租人联手的）销售计划privatization私有化probability概率proceedings pending未决程序proceeds进款process nexus程序关系product产品profit generation利润产生。
美国行政法
• （4）、《私人秘密法》（Privacy Act） 制定于1974年，现属于行政程序法的内容， 其主要内容为行政机构获取、制作、保存、 管理有关私人情报的档案资料的规则、程 序及其他机构、个人查阅、获得有关私人 情况的档案资料的规则、程序等。
• （5）、《政府公开法》（在阳光下的政府 法，即Government in the Sunshine Act） 制定于1976年，现亦为联邦行政程序法的 一部分，其主要内容是行政机构会议公开， 包括会前通知、会中允许公众查阅会议记 录材料的规则和程序，以及在行政机构不 依法公开举行会议时，公众请求司法救济 的规则。
• • • •
二、美国行政法的主要内容 共三个部分 （一）关于行政机关权力的法律 （二）关于行政程序的法律（最重要的是 《联邦行政程序法》——简称APA，但关 于行政程序的法律并不仅仅限于联邦行政 程序法） • （三）关于司法审查的法律
• 三、美国行政法的法源 • 美国行政法的法源，即美国行政法律规范的载体， 亦即载有美国行政法律规范的各种法律出版物。 美国行政法的主要法源有： • （一）《美国联邦法规汇编》（U.S Code and U.S Code Annoted）,其中收有美国联邦国家机关 制定和发布的所有现行有效的法律文件。 • （二）美国政府手册（U.S Government Manual），其中主要收有有关对美国各政府机构 及职能权限的规定的法律文件。
第二章 美国行政法发展历史
• 一、援引英国先例时期（1875年前） • “行政法”一词在1893年才在美国的学术 著作中首先出现，但在“行政法”概念出 现之前，在美国就有行政法存在。 • 在1875年前，美国行政法主要是援引、接 受英国的法律，这一时期美国行政法的主 要内容是通过法院对行政权的行使加以控 制，主要形式是令状制度，其中有执行令、 禁止令和调卷令。
第三章--美国行政法---47页
• 三、美国联邦政府的组成
• 1、总统 • 2、总统的执行机构 • 3、内阁 • 4、行政部 • 5、独立管制机构 • 6、政府公司
• 总统的权力和职务包括：
- 任命最高法院大法官和下级联邦法院法官──所有任命必须得到参 议院确认批准； - 任命政府各部部长和直属机构负责人──所有任命必须得到参议院 确认批准； - 担任武装部队总司令； - 担任名义国家元首； - 谈判签署国际条约以及同美国印第安部落的条约──条约必须经参 议院通过批准； - 否决国会通过的立法提案； - 赦免或缓期执行联邦罪处罚(弹劾定罪除外)。
• 美国的独立管制机构兴起于19世纪末,于罗斯福新政时 进入全盛发展时期。
• e.g.1887年美国国会设立的州际贸易委员会（ICC）， 主要负责对铁路的管制 。中央情报局 （CIA）。
• 特点：
1、独立性。美国的独立管制机构独立于立法、司法、行政部门 之外,既不归国会领导,也不对总统负责,被称为“无头的第四部 门”, 集准立法权、准司法权Байду номын сангаас行政权于一身。
•
• 4、联邦条例汇编（Code of Federal Regulation）—— 收 集在《联邦登记》上正式发布的各行政机构的规章。
• 5、各州法规汇编——各州行政法的主要法源。 • 6、各州规章汇编——并非每一个州都有其州规章汇编，只
有38个州有。） • 7、各州政府手册（State Manuals）和州政介绍(The
• 这一时期的美国行政法着重关注行政法的宪法依 据、授权裁量的合法性以及对自由裁量的立法上 的控制等方面。因此，此时美国行政法的概念可 以概括为议会依宪法制定的调整行政活动合法性 的法律。（“传送带”模式）
美国行政法
Section 1. An Introductory Problem: Field SanitationWhat are “reasonable sanitary facilities” in the case of farm workers? Should an agency regulate it? How should a court respond to agency inaction? What is the agency’s relationship to Congress and the Executive?第一章一个介绍性的问题：农田卫生对于农场的工人来说，什么是合理的卫生条件？行政机关应该规制它吗？法院对行政机关的不作为应当怎样处理？行政机关和国会以及行政部门的关系如何？Congress enacted the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970 to “ensure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions.” 29 U.S.C. § 651(b). The Occupat ional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) issues workplace safety regulations. It is part of the Department of Labor.由国会颁布的《职业安全和健康法》（1970）规定：国家尽最大可能保障国内所有工作者的安全和健康条件。
本条载于美国法典第29节第651条第2款。
隶属于劳动部的职业安全和健康管理局（OSHA）依法颁布工作场所的安全条例。
In December 1974, a Standards Advisory Committee on Agriculture developed a proposed field sanitation standard. OSHA issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in April 1976 but did not issue a rule after the comment period closed. A Hispanic American group sued, asking the court to order the Secretary to issue a rule. 1974年12月，一个农业标准顾问委员会对一个农田卫生标准提案进行了详尽阐述，1976年4月OSHA发出一个关于行政立法提案的通知，但在评议期满后并没有就该提案颁布法规。
Constitution_of_the_United_States_美国宪法中英文对照版讲解
Constitution of the United States美国宪法中英文对照版收集整理：何勇刚QQ=13100882005.11.30PreambleWe, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.序言我们美利坚合众国的人民，为了组织一个更完善的联邦，树立正义，保障国内的安宁，建立共同的国防，增进全民福利和确保我们自己及我们后代能安享自由带来的幸福，乃为美利坚合众国制定和确立这一部宪法。
Article ISection 1 - Legislative powers; in whom vestedAll legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.第一条第一款本宪法所规定的立法权，全属合众国的国会，国会由一个参议院和一个众议院组成。
Section 2 - House of Representatives, how and by whom chosen Qualifications of a Representative. Representatives and direct taxes, how apportioned. Enumeration. Vacancies to be filled. Power of choosing officers, and of impeachment.1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the elector in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.众议院应由各州人民每两年选举一次之议员组成，各州选举人应具有该州州议会中人数最多之一院的选举人所需之资格。
美国宪法与行政法
据可能成立的理由，以宣誓或宣言保证，并详细说明搜查地点和扣押的人或 物，不得发出搜查和扣押状。
第五修正案 “非经大陪审团提起公诉，人民不应受判处死罪或会因重罪而
被剥夺部分公权之审判；唯于战争或社会动乱时期中，正在服 役的陆海军或民兵中发生的案件，不在此例；人民不得为同一 罪行而两次被置于危及生命或肢体之处境；不得被强迫在任何 刑事案件中自证其罪，不得未经过适当法律程序而被剥夺生命、 自由或财产；人民私有产业，如无合理赔偿，不得被征为公 用”。
二、国家机构
（2）联邦法院的组织结构 94个联邦地区法院 13个联邦上诉法院 1个联邦最高法院 3、司法制度 （1）司法审查制度 （2）判例制度 （3）陪审团制度
联邦最高法院
二、国家机构
（四）联邦与州的权限划分 采取联邦列举、各州保留的原则。 全国性的涉及全国利益的事项由联邦行使权力
第六修正案 在一切刑事诉讼中，被告有权由犯罪行为地的州和地区的公正
陪审团予以迅速和公开的审判，该地区应事先已由法律规定； 得知控告的性质和理由；同原告证人对质；以强制程序取得对 其有利的证人；并取得律师帮助为其辩护。
《权利法案》
第七修正案
在习惯法的诉讼中，其争执价额超过二十美元，由陪审团审判的权利应受到 保护。由陪审团裁决的事实，合众国的任何法院除非按照习惯法规则，不得 重新审查。
——外交、军事、公民权利保护、缔结条约等。
宪法未授予联邦而又未禁止各州行使的权力，除人民 保留的之外，由各州行使——教育、警察、地方行政 与财政等。
禁止联邦和州行使的权力，由人民保留——不得授予 贵族爵位、不得通过剥夺公民权利的法案和追溯既往 的法律等。
二十一世纪的行政法_L_B_斯图尔特
参见Public Interest Law: An Economic and Institutional Analysis(Burton A1Weisbrod et al1eds,1978)。
根据对私人权利的理解,正式的法律听证和司法审查的需要和作用也会比较有限。这种理解与培育经
济生产力所必需的广泛的管理上的裁量权是不一致的。〔14〕
在1946年,国会制定了行政程序法。〔15〕该法连同随后20年里的美国行政法,反映了行政法传统模
式和对管制主义兰迪斯式的视角之间一种勉强的妥协。
41利益代表模式〔16〕 在20世纪60年代后期,作为对以下三个相互关联的发展的回应,行政法发
关键词:行政法 行政管制
Richard B1Stewart,系纽约大学John Edward Sexton法律教授。
苏苗罕,浙江大学公法与比较法研究所。Email:sumiaohan@zju1edu1cn1
毕小青,中国社会科学院法学研究所副译审。
一 导言及历史
我的考察范围如此广泛,以致我必须进行粗线条的论述。采用广义的理解,我将把焦点集中在与行
助,以及Jane Stewart和纽约大学法学院的同事所作的富有帮助的评述。
本文题目是Administrative Law in the Twenty-first Century,原载NEWYORKUNIVERSITYLAWREVIEW(纽约大学法律评论)2003年第78
卷第2期,第101 -123页。本文翻译已获作者授权,并得到了宋华琳博士的帮助,在此一并致谢。(二)行政法
外国行政程序法
3、公正原则
法的目的在于维持公平正义， 法的目的在于维持公平正义，美国联邦行政程序法有许多此方面的规 其主要是： 一般法规应公布 否则，均不得要求人们遵守， 一般法规应公布， 定，其主要是：1.一般法规应公布，否则，均不得要求人们遵守，而 机密法规则除外。 行政机关在进行行政立法或行政裁决时 行政机关在进行行政立法或行政裁决时， 机密法规则除外。2.行政机关在进行行政立法或行政裁决时，应同等 地给予一切利害关系人听证的机会，使其能够适当地表达其意见， 地给予一切利害关系人听证的机会，使其能够适当地表达其意见，否 则有失公正原则。 主持听证的官员除可作初步决定外不得参与上诉 则有失公正原则。3.主持听证的官员除可作初步决定外不得参与上诉 或再审案件的决定，以求公正即实行审裁分开。 一切主持听证的官 或再审案件的决定，以求公正即实行审裁分开。4.一切主持听证的官 员或参与决定的官员，均应以超然态度履行职务，不得徇私、偏袒， 员或参与决定的官员，均应以超然态度履行职务，不得徇私、偏袒， 任何官员，如自认不能胜利时，或本于忠实的义务，自觉不宜时， 任何官员，如自认不能胜利时，或本于忠实的义务，自觉不宜时，可 行回避。 证据的取舍为求公正 任何当事人均可举证， 证据的取舍为求公正， 行回避。5.证据的取舍为求公正，任何当事人均可举证，对方也可反 并可相互对质。采用证据的官员应以不偏袒任何当事人的态度， 证，并可相互对质。采用证据的官员应以不偏袒任何当事人的态度， 采纳证据，以求公正无私。 在司法审查期间 在司法审查期间， 采纳证据，以求公正无私。6.在司法审查期间，任何机关基于公正原 则认为有必要，均可延续执行决定的日期。 则认为有必要，均可延续执行决定的日期。任何负责司法审查的法院 为避免不可弥补的损失发生， 为避免不可弥补的损失发生，在合理的情况下均可采取必要和适当的 程序，以延缓行政行为执行的日期。 程序，以延缓行政行为执行的日期。
财务中英文对照分享
a payment or serious payments 一次或多次付款abatement 扣减absolute and unconditional payments 绝对和无条件付款 accelerated payment 加速支付acceptance date 接受日acceptance 接受accession 加入accessories 附属设备accountability 承担责任的程度accounting benefits 会计利益accounting period 会计期间accounting policies 会计政策accounting principle 会计准则accounting treatment 会计处理accounts receivables 应收账款accounts 账项accredited investors 经备案的投资人accumulated allowance 累计准备金acknowledgement requirement 对承认的要求acquisition of assets 资产的取得acquisitions 兼并Act on Product Liability （德国）生产责任法action 诉讼actual ownership 事实上的所有权additional filings 补充备案additional margin 附加利差additional risk附加风险additions （设备的）附件adjusted tax basis 已调整税基adjustment of yield 对收益的调整administrative fee管理费Administrative Law（美国）行政法advance notice 事先通知advance 放款adverse tax consequences 不利的税收后果advertising 做广告affiliated group 联合团体affiliate 附属机构African Leasing Association 非洲租赁协会after-tax rate 税后利率aggregate rents 合计租金aggregate risk 合计风险agreement concerning rights of explore natural resources 涉及自然资源开发权的协议agreement 协议aircraft registry 飞机登记air<I>frame</I> （飞机的）机身airports 机场airworthiness directives （飞机的）适航指令alliances 联盟allocation of finance income 财务收益分配allowance for losses on receivables 应收款损失备抵金alternative uses 改换用途地使用amenability to foreign investment 外国投资的易受控制程度amendment 修改American Law Institute 美国法学会amortization of deferred loan fees and related consideration 递延的贷款费和相关的报酬的摊销amortization schedule 摊销进度表amortize 摊销amount of recourse 求偿金额amount of usage 使用量AMT (Alternative Minimum Tax) （美国）可替代最低税analogous to类推为annual budget appropriation 年度预算拨款appendix （契约性文件的）附件applicable law 适用法律applicable securities laws适用的证券法律applicable tax life 适用的应纳税寿命appraisal 评估appraisers 评估人员appreciation 溢价appropriation provisions 拨款条例appropriation 侵占approval authority 核准权approval 核准approximation近似arbitrary and artificially high value (承租人违约出租人收回租赁物时法官判决的)任意的和人为抬高的价值arbitration 仲裁arm’s length transaction 公平交易arrangement 安排arrest 扣留Article 2A 美国统一商法典关于法定融资租赁的条款articles of incorporation 公司章程AsiaLeaae 亚洲租赁协会assess 评估asset manager 设备经理asset risk insurance 资产风险保险asset securitization 资产证券化asset specificity 资产特点asset tracking 资产跟踪asset-backed financing 资产支持型融资asset-based lessor 立足于资产的出租人asset-oriented lessor (经营租赁中的)资产导向型出租人asset 资产assignee 受让人assignment 让与association 社团at the expiry 期限届满时ATT (automatic transfer of title) 所有权自动转移attachments 附着物attributes 属性auction sale 拍卖audits 审计authenticate 认证authentication 证实authority 当局authorize 认可availability of fixed rate medium-term financing 固定利率中期融资可得到的程度 available-for-sale securities 正供出售证券average life 平均寿命average managed net financed assets 所管理的已筹资金资产净额平均值aviation authority 民航当局backed-up servicer 替补服务者backhoe反铲装载机balance sheet date 资产负债表日bandwidth 带宽bank affiliates 银行的下属机构bank quote 银行报价bankruptcy cost 破产成本bankruptcy court 破产法院bankruptcy law 破产法bankruptcy proceedings 破产程序bankruptcy 破产bareboat charterer 光船承租人bargain renewal option廉价续租任择权basic earnings per share每股基本收益basic rent基本租金（各期应付的租金）beneficiaries受益人big-ticket items大额项目bill and collect开票和收款binding agreement有约束力的协议blind vendor discount卖主暗扣bluebook蓝皮书（美国二手市场设备价格手册）book income账面收入book loses账面亏损borrower借款人BPO(bargain purchase option)廉价购买任择权bridge facility桥式融通bridge桥梁broker fee经纪人费brokers经纪人build-to-suit leases（租赁物由承租人）承建或承造的租赁协议 bulldozer推土机bundled additional services捆绑（在一起的）附加服务bundling捆绑（服务）business acquisition业务收购business and occupation tax营业及开业许可税 business generation业务开发business trust商业信托by(e)-laws细则byte字节cable TV network有线电视网络cable电缆cancelability可撤销性cancelable可撤销的capacity资格capital allocation资本分派capital constraint资金掣肘capital contribution出资额capital cost资本费用capital expenditure基建费用capital lease融资租赁协议capital market资本市场capitalize资本化captive finance company专属金融公司captives专属公司carrying amount维持费用carrying value账面结存价值case law案例法cash collatera1现金抵押cash election现金选择cash flow coverage ratio现金流偿债能力比率cash flow现金流cash receipts and cash applications现金收入及现金运用casualty value要因价值（指租赁物毁坏或灭失时承租人应付的赔偿金额） casualty灾变、事故CAT(computer-added tomograph)依靠电脑的层析X射线摄影机category种类causal sale偶然销售ceiling上限cellular(mobile)移动通信central authority中央集权certificate of acceptance接受证书、验收证书certificate of participation共享证书certificate证书charitable trust公益信托chattel mortgage动产抵押chattel paper动产文据checking account存款支票户checklists审核内容清单circuit board线路板civil and commercial law 民商法Civil Code（德国）民法典civil law country（欧洲大陆各国的）大陆法系国家claim 权利要求classes级别classification criteria归类标准classification determination类别的确定classification indicators分类指标classification of leases租赁协议分类classification opinion分类观点classification process归类过程clawback (用附加税)填补（福利开支）client顾客clinic诊所collateral agent副代理人collateral tracking system抵押物跟踪制度collateral value抵押物价值collateralized by third party medical receivables due以第三方到期医疗应收款作为质押collateral抵押物collect and disburse收取和支付collectibility可收回程度collection托收comfort level方便程度commerce clause商务条款commercial risk商业风险commercial terms商业条款commissions佣金commitment承诺common carriage通用车队common law country（英美等）海洋法系国家 common trust共同信托commonality通用性compensate补偿competitive risk竞争风险competitor竞争者complex finance leases复杂的融资租赁comprehensive income综合收入comptroller审计官computer计算机conceptual difference概念上的差别concession period持有特许权的期间concession让步、特许conclusion结论conditional sales agreement附条件销售协议 conditions of usage使用条件conduit structure管道结构(的公司)confidentiality保密性configure改装conflict冲突connectivility（信息传递中的）可连通性consensual or non-consensual lien同意或非经同意的留置权consent 同意consideration对价consolidation合并constructive acceptance of collateral抵押物的指定接受constructive sale推定出售consulting and advisory services咨询及顾问服务Consumer Credit Act（德国）消费者信用法consumer price index消费者价格指数consumer secured transaction消费者有担保交易consumer transaction消费者交易consumption tax消费税container集装箱contingent rental随机租金contingent rents随机租金continuation beyond the termination date终止日后的接续continuous and close customer contact同客户持续而紧密的接触 contract maintenance（对设备的）合同维修contract origination合同开发contract pool合同池contract portfolio合同组合contract sales合同出售contracting cost缔约成本contracting states 缔约国contracts for services服务合同contractual provisions合同条款contributions出资Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Award承认和执行外国仲裁裁决公约convention 公约converted subordinated notes可转换次级票据convincing case有说服力的案例core <I>frame</I>work核心框架corporate aircraft公务（飞）机corporate debt market公司债市场corporate guarantees公司担保corporate income tax公司所得税corporation公司correlation相关性cost of capital资金成本cost of funds筹资成本cost of sale销售成本coterminous rate同期利率counsel律师counterclaim反诉counterpart副本course of dealing and usage of trade交易习惯和贸易惯例covenants契约coverage（保险中的）险别crane起重机credit and liquidity enhancement信用及流动性增级credit card receivables信用卡应收款credit card信用卡credit development信用变化credit enhancement信用增级credit history and profile信用记录和规模credit rating信用等级credit risk allocation and management信用风险的分摊及管理 credit risk信用风险credit underwriting process信用担保程序credit-based lessor立足于信用的出租人credit-oriented lessor(经营租赁中的)信贷导向型出租人creditors债权人creditworthiness信誉criterion（衡量用的）标准critical goals关键性目标cross-border funding跨境融资currency risk货币风险current and non-current liabilities当期及非当期负债current ratio流动比率current realization即期实现cushion缓冲customer contact客户联系customer’s purchase cycle客户的购买周期 customers客户cable TV network有线电视网络cable电缆cancelability可撤销性cancelable可撤销的capacity资格capital allocation资本分派capital constraint资金掣肘capital contribution出资额capital cost资本费用capital expenditure基建费用capital lease融资租赁协议capital market资本市场capitalize资本化captive finance company专属金融公司captives专属公司carrying amount维持费用carrying value账面结存价值case law案例法cash collatera1现金抵押cash election现金选择cash flow coverage ratio现金流偿债能力比率cash flow现金流cash receipts and cash applications现金收入及现金运用casualty value要因价值（指租赁物毁坏或灭失时承租人应付的赔偿金额） casualty灾变、事故CAT(computer-added tomograph)依靠电脑的层析X射线摄影机category种类causal sale偶然销售ceiling上限cellular(mobile)移动通信central authority中央集权certificate of acceptance接受证书、验收证书certificate of participation共享证书certificate证书charitable trust公益信托chattel mortgage动产抵押chattel paper动产文据checking account存款支票户checklists审核内容清单circuit board线路板civil and commercial law 民商法Civil Code（德国）民法典civil law country（欧洲大陆各国的）大陆法系国家claim 权利要求classes级别classification criteria归类标准classification determination类别的确定classification indicators分类指标classification of leases租赁协议分类classification opinion分类观点classification process归类过程clawback (用附加税)填补（福利开支）client顾客clinic诊所collateral agent副代理人collateral tracking system抵押物跟踪制度collateral value抵押物价值collateralized by third party medical receivables due以第三方到期医疗应收款作为质押collateral抵押物collect and disburse收取和支付collectibility可收回程度collection托收comfort level方便程度commerce clause商务条款commercial risk商业风险commercial terms商业条款commissions佣金commitment承诺common carriage通用车队common law country（英美等）海洋法系国家common trust共同信托commonality通用性compensate补偿competitive risk竞争风险competitor竞争者complex finance leases复杂的融资租赁comprehensive income综合收入comptroller审计官computer计算机conceptual difference概念上的差别concession period持有特许权的期间concession让步、特许conclusion结论conditional sales agreement附条件销售协议conditions of usage使用条件conduit structure管道结构(的公司)confidentiality保密性configure改装conflict冲突connectivility（信息传递中的）可连通性consensual or non-consensual lien同意或非经同意的留置权 consent 同意consideration对价consolidation合并constructive acceptance of collateral抵押物的指定接受constructive sale推定出售consulting and advisory services咨询及顾问服务Consumer Credit Act（德国）消费者信用法consumer price index消费者价格指数consumer secured transaction消费者有担保交易consumer transaction消费者交易consumption tax消费税container集装箱contingent rental随机租金contingent rents随机租金continuation beyond the termination date终止日后的接续continuous and close customer contact同客户持续而紧密的接触contract maintenance（对设备的）合同维修contract origination合同开发contract pool合同池contract portfolio合同组合contract sales合同出售contracting cost缔约成本contracting states 缔约国contracts for services服务合同contractual provisions合同条款contributions出资Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Award承认和执行外国仲裁裁决公约convention 公约converted subordinated notes可转换次级票据convincing case有说服力的案例core <I>frame</I>work核心框架corporate aircraft公务（飞）机corporate debt market公司债市场corporate guarantees公司担保corporate income tax公司所得税corporation公司correlation相关性cost of capital资金成本cost of funds筹资成本cost of sale销售成本coterminous rate同期利率counsel律师counterclaim反诉counterpart副本course of dealing and usage of trade交易习惯和贸易惯例 covenants契约coverage（保险中的）险别crane起重机credit and liquidity enhancement信用及流动性增级credit card receivables信用卡应收款credit card信用卡credit development信用变化credit enhancement信用增级credit history and profile信用记录和规模credit rating信用等级credit risk allocation and management信用风险的分摊及管理 credit risk信用风险credit underwriting process信用担保程序credit-based lessor立足于信用的出租人credit-oriented lessor(经营租赁中的)信贷导向型出租人creditors债权人creditworthiness信誉criterion（衡量用的）标准critical goals关键性目标cross-border funding跨境融资currency risk货币风险current and non-current liabilities当期及非当期负债current ratio流动比率current realization即期实现cushion缓冲customer contact客户联系customer’s purchase cycle客户的购买周期customers客户damage 损害dampening effect削弱性效应data transfer数据转换data transmission数据传输DDC (dedicated contract carriage)指定车型及司机的合同车队 dealer lessors供应商出租人debt capital债务资本debt covenant债务契约debt instruments债务证书debt issuance costs债务发行成本debt maturities债务期限debt securities债务证券debt service债息debt-equity ratios自有资金负债率debt-equity treatment债务－权益处理debtor债务人debt-to-equity ratio权益负债率decay（机械设备的）腐蚀declarations声明dedicated capacity carriage指定最低运输量的合同车队dedicated carriage一应俱全的车厢deductibility可抵扣程度deduction扣减default违约defeasance structures带有废止条款的结构defense抗辩deficiency claim损失索赔deficiency损失、缺陷definitional maze定义上的暧昧不明definition定义deflation通货紧缩deinstallation拆卸delay in delivery 延迟交付delinquencies拖欠delivery and acceptance process交付及验收程序 denunciation 退出deposit account押金账项deposit taker存款接受者deposition处置depreciated value折余价值depreciation allowance折旧提存depreciation benefit折旧好处depreciation deductions折旧抵扣depreciation expense折旧费用depreciation period折旧期间deregulation解除管制derivative financial instruments衍生的金融工具 designated location指定的位置detention扣押detraction减损developed and mature market发达而成熟的市场diagnostic equipment诊断设备differentiation差别化digitization数字化diluted earning per share每股稀释后收益direct and consequential damage直接和间接损失direct financing lease直接融资租赁direct tax直接税disaster recovery services（电脑租赁的）救灾服务disclaimer免责disclosure items披露项目discount rate折现率discounted present value折现值discretion自由酌情处理discrimination差别待遇disguised credit sale变相信贷销售disguised purchaser of the leased asset经过伪装的租赁资产买入人（指融资租赁的承租人）dispute resolution process争议解决程序dissolution解散distinction区别distinctive triangular relationship 特有的三边关系distribution分配diverse nuances多样化的细微差别diversification多样化diversity多样性dividends红利documentation文件制作及提供domestic law 国内法double taxation agreement双重课税协议double tax双重税double-dip tax leases（租赁一方为美国法人而另一方不是美国法人时的）双重所有权租赁协议down payment定金down time窝工时间downgraded信用等级下降downward sloped interest expense line趋降的利息费用曲线draftsmanship（合同文本的）起草due diligence应有的审慎durability耐久性duration of delay拖延的持续时间duress胁迫early buyout提前买断early termination提前结束earnings before minority interest少数权益前收益earnings pattern收益模型EBO (early buyout)提前买断economic benefits经济利益economic climate经济气候economic life经济寿命economic ownership经济上的所有权education教育effective date生效日effective ownership有效的所有权effective waiver of defenses（对）抗辩的有效放弃 effectiveness有效性electronic mail电子邮件eligibility合格性embedded嵌入emerging lease markets新兴租赁市场employee benefit plans雇员福利计划enactment实施encumbrance留置权end-of-term consequences期末结果end-of-term process期末程序ends up倒闭end-users最终用户enforceable强制性的enforcing remedies实施补救engine发动机enhanced equipment trust certificate增级的设备信托证书enter into force生效entitlement权利资格Environmental Liability Act（德国）环境责任法EPS(earning per share)每股收益率equalizing等量化equipment cost设备成本equipment defects设备瑕疵equipment identification设备认定equipment leasing industry设备租赁业equipment risk allocation and management设备风险的分担及管理Equipment Schedule设备清单equitable owner衡平法上的所有权人equity capital权益资本equity contribution权益出资equity in net loss of invests投资净损失中的权益equity _insertion权益嵌入（指经营租赁的出租人在购置用于租赁的货物时要更多地依赖其自有资金）equity investor权益投资人equity securities权益证券ERISA（Employee Retirement Income and Security Act）（美国）雇员退休收入及担保法escalation clauses自动调整条款essential use实质性使用estate（房地产）产业estimated remaining period估计的剩余期间estimated residual估计的余值estimates估计ETO(early termination option)（对）提前结束（的）任择权evolution演变excess cash过剩现金excess deduction超额扣减exchange交换excise tax许可证税exclusive remarketing firms（只处置某类设备的）专业性再处置公司 executory cost执行成本exempt assets免税资产exempt entity免税机构exercisable 可行使的exercise price行使（某项权利，例如购买任择权时的）价格exhaustion损耗Exhibit（契约性文件的）附件EXIM bank（美国）进出口银行expenditure开支expertise专长expiration of the initial lease term初始租赁期限的届满exposure to residual asset value所承担的资产残值风险express warranty明示的担保extended retention of possession对占有的延伸提留extension延期external reporting risk财务报告引起的外部风险FAA(Federal Aviation Administration)(美国)联邦航空署face value面值fa cto ring company代理融通公司fair market value leases公允市值租赁（指租金按租赁市场的常见数额来确定）fair market value transactions公允市值交易fair value公允价值fair wear and tear合理磨损FASB(Federal Accounting Standards Board) 13（美国）财务会计标准委员会第13号说明：租赁FASIT (financial asset securitization investment trust)金融资产证券化投资信托 fatal illness绝症features装置federal income tax联邦所得税Federal Tax Court（德国）联邦税务法庭federally guaranteed mortgage联邦保证抵押fee receivable应收费fee subordination附加费fee-based financing services以收费为基础的融资服备Felalease拉美租赁协会fiber optics光纤fiduciary responsibilities受托责任filing备案finance and other income财务及其它收入finance charges财务费用finance companies金融公司、财务公司finance lease laws融资租赁法律finance lease融资租赁协议financial assets金融资产financial bottom line财务底线financial components财务成份financial distortion财务失真financial institution金融机构financial instruments金融证书，金融工具financial leasing transaction融资租赁交易financial leasing融资租赁financial lessor融资出租人financial performance财务业绩financial ratios财务比率financial reality财务现实financial reporting risk(因财务失真所导致的)财务报告风险 financial statement appearance资产负债表的表现financial terms融资条件financiers融资人financing source融资来源finding认定firm term确定的条款first amendment leases首期更改租赁协议five different <I>frame</I>works（作为租赁交易宏观环境的）五个不同的框架 fixed investment trust固定投资信托fixed purchase option固定价格购买任择权fixed rate固定利率fixed wire有线(通信)fixture filing固定备案flexibility灵活性floating lease accrued interest receivable浮动租赁应计的应收利息fluctuation波动FMRV(fair market rental value)公允的租金市值footnote disclosure通过附注披露foreclosure disposition扣押抵债处置foreclosure了结抵押（抵押权人按规定拍卖抵押物以受偿）forklift叉车form report格式报告forward rate agreement远期利率协议forward start swaps远期掉期four criteria（区别融资租赁和经营租赁的）四项标准fractional interest零散权益franchise特许权fraud欺诈free standing derivative instruments自力支撑的衍生工具from cradle to grave从摇篮到坟墓（指自始至终全程服务）front-end payment前端支付FSL(full-service lease)全程服务租赁fuel use tax燃料使用税full commitment全额承诺full disclosure充分披露full-payout versus non-full-payout全额支付还是非全额支付 full-payout全额支付full-service lease全套服务租赁fund appropriation拨款fund risk筹资风险funding resources筹资渠道funding risk筹资风险furnish供应future cash flow未来的现金流future lease payment未来租赁付款GAAP(generally accepted accounting principle)公认会计准则 gains收益gear ratio资本充足率gearing资本充足率general intangible一般无形物geographic distance地理上的距离German Insolvency Act德国破产法global leasing industry全球租赁业global survey全球调查globalization全球化goods货物goodwill商誉governmental agency政府（指定的）代理机构governmental body政府机构governmental fund政府基金governmental taking政府征用GPTD(gross profit tax deferral)毛利税递延grantor trust委托人信托grantors委托人grantor授予人growth rate增长率guaranteed residual value有担保的残值guarantee担保hallmark印记hardware硬件harmonization(在有着不同法规情况下的)协调headings标题health care merchant fund incorporation 保健商融资公司 health care receivables保健应收款health care services保健服务healthcare provider保健提供者heavy maintenance大修hedge against inflation抵御通涨hedge套期保值helicopters直升机hell-or high water clauses绝对责任条款high technology leasing高技术租赁hire purchase agreement租购协议hire purchase contracts租购合同hirer租入人holders持有人homogeneity同质性hospitalization（到）医院治疗hours of use（设备的）使用小时hurdle rate最低可接受费率IAS(International Accounting Standard) 17国际会计准则17 租赁 IDC(initial direct costs)初始直接费用identification确认idle capacity闲置的能力IFC(International Finance Corporation)国际金融公司illness疾病illustration演示immaterial items非实质性事项immediately available fund立即可以得到的资金impairment of assets资产减损implementation执行implicit interest rate隐含利率implied acceptance默认接受implied warranty or guarantee 暗示的担保in-bound leases进口租赁inception of the lease租赁协议开始日income and expense recognition收入和支出的确认 income statement损益表income tax所得税incremental borrowing rate of interest新增借款利率 incurrance of an obligation义务的承担indebtedness欠款indemnification赔偿indemnify保护indenture trustee契约受托人independent director独立董事indexed rate指数利率（指跟着某个基准利率走的利率） index指数indirect bank leasing间接的银行租赁indirect tax间接税individual lessees个人承租人industrialization工业化industry dynamics行业动向industry lingo行话（行业内的暗语）information信息infrastructure基础设施infringement侵权in-house expertise（该公司）自有的专长 initial accounting初始的会计处理initial case law初始判例法initial lease term初始的租期innovation创新in-place remarketing原地再处置input tax投入税insider transaction内部交易insolvency破产inspection findings检验结果inspection report检验报告inspection检验inspector检验员institutional finance机构融资instrument工具、文据insurance carrier承保人insurance claims保险索赔insurance coverage保险类别insurance <I>function</I>保险功能insurance policy保险单intangible assets无形资产intangible benefit无形权益intellectual property right知识产权intelligence gathering情报收集intentional or grossly negligent act故意的或严重疏忽的作为interest and fee income利息和收费收入interest component of scheduled payments排定进度付款的利息部分interest rate spreads利差interest rate swaps利率掉期interim real estate financing不动产过渡性融资interim rent暂行租金（在租金首付日应付的租金）intermediate twin-aisle中程双过道（指飞机）internal preference（所披露的信息严重扭曲时的）内部参考international financial leasing of equipment国际设备融资租赁international leasing community国际租赁界international registration requirement plan（飞机的）国际登记计划要求internationalization国际化Internet互联网interperiod tax allocation各期之间的税收分配invasion侵犯inventory盘存、存货清册investment company投资公司investment grade credit rating投资等级信用评级investment return投资回报investors投资人invoice发票IOSCO(International Organization of Securities Commissions)证券委员会国际组织IRC（Internal Revenue Code）（美国）国内税收法 irrevocable不可撤销的IRS(Internal Revenue Service)(美国)国内税务局 issue notes出立票据issuer发行人IT assets信息技术资产item项目job qualification sheet职业资格证judge法官judgement裁决judicial arena司法场所judicially-assisted repossession司法协助重新占有 junk bonds垃圾债券jurisdictions司法管辖区label标记landing gear（飞机的）起落架landing着陆language（合同中的）用语large ticket asset大额资产lease application租赁申请lease fee租赁费（对租金中所含收益部分的形容）lease for movables动产租赁协议lease inception起租日lease intended as security担保意向租赁lease liabilities租赁负债lease lines of credit租赁信贷限额lease manager租赁协议管理人lease portfolio租赁协议组合lease registry租赁协议登记lease tax租赁税lease termination payment（为）提前结束（租赁协议而作的）支付lease term租赁期限lease versus purchase租还是买leased assets租赁资产leased equipment 租赁设备leased items租赁物件leased property租赁财产leasehold租赁、租借lease-in/lease-out（美国特有的为享受税收待遇而在美国企业同外国企业之间订立的）租入租出租赁协议lease-purchase financing租购融资leases租赁协议Leaseurope欧洲租赁协会leasing activities租赁业务leasing agreement租赁协议leasing arrangement租赁安排leasing company租赁公司leasing professionals租赁专业人员leasing regulation对租赁的管制leasing systems（手工的或电脑的）租赁业务管理系统leasing’s share of GDP租赁占国内生产总值的份额 leasing租赁legal arrangement法律安排legal consequences法律后果legal entity法人legal fees法律费legal form法律形式legal issue法律课题legal ownership法定所有权legal owner法定所有权人legal right法定权利legal risk法律风险legal status法律地位legal title法定所有权legal treatment法律处理legally empowered法律授权的legitimate business purpose合法的营业目的lenders放款人lenient terms宽松条款lessee intent承租人的意向lessee承租人lessor’s internal staff出租人的内部人员lessor出租人letter of credit信用证level of collateral抵押水平leverage borrowings杠杆借款leverage ratio资本充足率leveraged lease杠杆租赁levy扣押liabilities负债liberal depreciation rules自由折旧规则license特许licensing agreements许可证协议licensing of lease activity对租赁业务的许可lien date留置日lien留置权life-limited parts（飞机上）限制其使用小时的部件 limitation of liability责任限度limited ability有限能力limited liability company有限责任公司liquidated damage损失赔偿金liquidator 清算人liquidity facility流动性融通liquidity support流动性支持liquidity现金支付能力litigation诉讼loans disguised as leases伪装成租赁的贷款loan-type financing贷款型融资loan贷款lobby effort游说努力local law当地法律local statues当地法规local tax地方税location所在地lock box account锁箱账户lock box collection and sweep arrangement（银行的）锁箱和自动转存安排locomotive（铁路）机车long term rental contract长期出租合同loss containment亏损防堵loss ratio赔付率losses损失lost sales losses出租人为了再处置收回的租赁物而失去出租新的租赁物的机会所带来的损失MACRS depreciation（美国的）加速成本回收的折旧maintain reserves（飞机租赁中承租人承担的）保养准备金maintenance contract维修保养合同maintenance interval（飞机发电机的）维修间隔期maintenance policies and procedures保养方针及程序make-whole premium凑整升水managerial reporting risk（财务报告导致的）管理层报告的风险 manipulation of accounting principles对会计准则的巧妙运用 manufacturer subsidy（来自）制造商（的）补贴marginal tax rate边际税率market friction市场摩擦market imperfection市场的不完善market participants市场参与者market penetration市场渗透率market rates of interest市场利率market share市场份额market size市场规模market stability市场稳定性marketplace市场环境master lease illustration租赁协议正文master lease主租赁协议material facts重要事实maturity到期日means手段measurement criteria衡量标准mechanism机制memory <I>function</I>备忘功能mercantile-type sale商业性销售merchantability适销性(经营租赁协议中的暗示保证)merges合并merit review process事实真相检查程序middle-market leasing中级市场租赁MIGA（Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency）多边投资担保署minimum capital最低资本minimum lease payments receivable应收最小租赁付款minimum lease terms最短租赁期限minimum rental rate最低租金费率mirror-in/mirror-out principle（飞机返还时的维修状况同交付时）一模一样的原则 mismatches不匹配mitigate缓解（风险）mobility移动性model模式modem“猫”（调制解调器）modification 更改monetary policy货币政策money-over-money lease钱到钱的租赁（租赁业内对融资租赁的俗称）monitoring监控monoline insurer单一险种保险人monopolies垄断部门monopoly垄断month-to-month rentals（期满但租赁物未退还时的）逐月收取的租金moratorium延缓履行mortgage loan placement抵押贷款安排motor carrier fee机动车费MPD(maintenance planning document)维修计划书MRI(magnetic resonance imaging)核磁共振成象multiple jurisdiction涉及多个司法管辖区的multi-years lease commitment多年的租赁款项承付municipal trade tax地方贸易税named owner指名的所有权人narrative report陈述式报告narrow-body aircraft窄机身飞机nascent幼稚的national independent full-service leasing rental firms全国性的独立全面服务租赁出租公司nationality国籍NCCUSL（The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws）（美国）统一州法律委员会全国会议negligence 过失nenrenewal penalties期末若不留购或不续租时的罚金net cash investment outstanding 净现金出资余额net collectible value可回收净额net earnings净收益net financed assets已融资资产净额net gain on sale of financing transactions融资交易出售的净利得net investment outstanding净出资余额net lease净租赁（指不附带任何技术服务的租赁）net margin净收益net of deferred taxes递延所得税后净额net taxable income净应税收入net value净值net worth tax净财富税network connection device网络联接器件networks网络new product family新产品系列niche market可填补空缺的市场noise 噪声nominal price 名义价格nominal purchase option名义价格购买任择权non-accrual status不应计的状态non-appropriation不得挪用non-cancellable lease不可撤销的租赁协议non-conforming equipment不合格设备non-contracting states非缔约国nondebt interest非债务利益non-delivery未交付nonexclusive remarketing firms综合性再处置公司nonexistent不存在的non-full-payout非全额支付nonlabeled program(卖主同出租人各归各的)销售计划nonoperating leasing非经营租赁non-ownership for balance sheet不在资产负债表上资本化nonpossessory pledge非占有的抵押non-recourse sale of lease receivable对租赁应收款的无追索出售。
21世纪的美国行政法(英文)
Administrative Law of the United States the twenty-first centuryRichard B. StewartAdministrative law in a free and democratic society, its own administrative rules and regulations will be subject to administrative regulations. Administrative law established executive in the entire political system in the framework of status; set to take a decision that the executive must follow the procedural requirements; provides for an independent judiciary may be to review the possibility of administrative acts and scope. It to the administration and the administrative regulations of the various key areas in the provision of the universal principles and procedural requirements. Traditionally, the essence of administrative law focuses on how the executive authorities in accordance with the fair and unbiased process,The statutory mandate and to respect the private rights of way to such acts to ensure the rule of law, protection of freedom. Here, the functions of administrative law is a negative sense of the (negative), that is designed to prevent the executive power with a mandatory private individuals for the illegal use or misuse.In the last decade, the United States administrative law is also some positive take on the mission. Adoption of new procedural requirements and judicial review of a new channel through which the executive authorities to ensure that a reasonable and thorough consideration of those decisions because it will be in the economic and social interests affected by a wide range of related interests ( including the provisions of the beneficiaries and be bound by the provisions and sanctions of the person) the way, we can make policy decisions.The current status of the U.S. administration: the management of weak laws and regulations (Fatigue) Today, we face a growing weakness in the administration of this acute problem. Increasing the public needs the protection of the law, but it seems more and more administrative bodies can not be an effective and efficient way of providing such protection. Generally speaking, the development and adoption of a new law takes a very long time, the implementation of this law is also very time-consuming. The outcome of management is often not only fail to achieve the desired objectives, but also led to more trouble. In my opinion,The main reason for this predicament is that we rely too much on command - control of the administrative model. In the past 50 years, the use of this model has enabled us to achieve the agreed objectives are met. However, in a large and multi-ethnic country where this model is still an attempt to regulate the system through the command in a rapidly changing and complex economic and social environment in the conduct of tens of thousands of people, it is bound to expose its inherent drawbacks exhaustive, especially in the adoption of uniform federal laws and regulations of the management time. As a result of intensive management, these issues will become increasingly more serious. Federal executive authorities developed a detailed action plan due to the lack of flexibility and easy to outdated(Obsolescence), and thus not only add to the burden and inefficiency. In addition to affecting the efficiency of administration, the rigid, unilateral control(unresponsive Controls) also affected the expansion of its legitimacy, and not conducive to accountability. With these questions need for public order due to management of federal expansion and intensification of the more serious.We now rely on two main organs for the development of administrative regulations and policies contained in the volume of the free right to the administrative law model of regulation will not solve the inherent drawbacks of the above. In fact, they are doing so they will become even worse, that is exacerbated by weak administration. Driven by the legal person (Lawyer-driven) models represent the interests of the administration process will delay the process too much. Spend the majority of laws and regulations at least 5 years to be passed. Judicial review is also time-consuming, but if the court finds that administrative regulations invalid, the executive body can also make a requirement.Of course, some basis for this understanding, that is, at the federal level in the regulation of the market has a serious problem, but our question is how to solve the problem?New management practices. The answer lies in the use of new management methods and means to resolve the past due to over-reliance on command - to control the problems brought about by the model. Practice in the administration, there are two new models began to appear that the Government - the network of stakeholders in the framework of (government-stakeholder network structures) and economic incentive systems (economy incentive systems).In order to avoid top-down (top-down) order management, as well as the required administrative procedures of the formal defects in children born as a new type of solution of the executive authorities - the network of stakeholders in various forms mode is to develop. Unlike past attempts to unilaterally decide the kind of behavior by managers, the executive authorities in the formulation and implementation of administrative regulations have been created in a variety of strategies to win, including commercial enterprises and non-profit groups, various government and non-governmental organizations support. Here are a few examples: the executive authorities in the establishment of formal administrative procedures and regulations to develop legislation,From the business with the public and representatives of state and local governments to reach agreement in consultation with each other; the administrative institutions in the provision of municipal services and administrative aspects of health care and governmental and non-governmental entities, collaborative arrangements; for "Endangered Species Protection Act" (Endangered species Act) of the strict rules governing the management of natural resources by the Federal agencies designated to protect local residents, land owners, developers and local government consultations between. In the above example, the federal executive authorities take the initiative in this process in order to occupy a dominant position, the result is the basis of consultations with the participants to reach a quasi -The contractual nature of the relationship between the administration and then to solve the problems. Production method is different from the centralized (centralized mass production), this approach believes in the development of post-industrial era strategies and regulations. The main features of its behavior in its wealth to the flexibility, innovation, with the benchmark procedure (benchmarking), transparency, and canmake each other informed. In the EU, this approach in the "public law consensus" (Open Method of Coordination) is widely used under implementation in the Member States in the management of social services programs. Administrative agencies seem to have many reasons to adopt this strategy so as to promote the achievement of its objectives: to reduce the result of a more formal procedures for the cost of doing business; to ensure the cooperation of the voters to support rather than hinder the achievement of the objectives of the executive authorities; take full advantage of voter knowledge and experience, and to ensure that their more effective participation in the implementation of the policy to. Non-governmental voters (Nongovernmental constituencies) have sufficient power to participate in this process. To study the interaction of participants as well as through the manner in which incentives can be designed so that different systems are widely recognized to be an extremely important issue.Some network management methods and even different from the command mode, which allows the executive directly from the substance of the relative links and a long-range exit strategy to manage the (government at a distance). For example, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) list of toxic substances emissions (TRI) information required to publisher monitoring, reporting and publication of various facilities by the emission of air pollutants. As a result of information disclosure from non-official pressure, thereby greatly reducing the emission of pollutants. Based on the method has been used to promote the field of health management, health care goals.Other examples include the Government-to-business initiative to track and improve the environmental management of pollution and regulatory system to encourage, as well as the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Energy (Energy Department) with the industry in reducing energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions by the voluntary cooperation agreement. These were referred to as the "anti-shenfa" (reflexive law) approach, the Government through the provision of means of reference standards and the exchange of non-governmental entities to promote self-management. In the securities, broadcasting, film the area of rules of self-management of this strategy is another classic.Secondly, the weak against the management of emerging issues and a completely different approach is the use of economic incentive systems. For example, allow the collection of pollution taxes, infrastructure and environmental protection costs. Unlike the past, people's behavior to make an order directly, the use of price leverage this approach (such as taxes on emissions units), this form so that people's behavior in accordance with established goals; but at the same time was left to managers to select the cost act the way the minimum flexibility. Pollution tax system to stimulate private sector R & D and the use of less polluting modes of production. Logically,Economic incentives is beyond the management of the existing budget process a step forward. It is not the use of economic instruments to regulate the system administrators have been authorized, but in order to reduce the authorized use of economic means to manage and re-market itself to the achievement of management objectives of the force. Do not misunderstand, this does not mean that state to go back to laissez-faire (Liaissez-faire). To make this approach effective, must be closelymonitored and strict implementation of these systems in order to prevent deception. With respect to the traditional command-based management, this system can be a reasonable design and implementation to reduce pollutant emissions while achieving substantial savings and costs (up to 50% or more) of double effect.In order to win wider recognition, the new management methods to provide better management results. They will also encounter the legitimacy of legal liability and policy issues. Network management strategy intended to form a joint collaboration of the vague traditional sense of the distinction between public and private. The premise of this approach is that it must be consistent with the representation of the management of the areas covered by the match, which is increasingly cross-jurisdictional phase. In response to a management network to participate in the formation of a person with expertise and experience of the team, but these participants represent different social strata and economic sectors, the interests and perspectives.These features make the management of emerging policies will have to spend a long time to work on. However, network management has deliberately detract from the formal laws and regulations to develop and implement behavior. However, as we know, this is the core of administrative law. In accordance with "anti-shenfa" point of view, the Government is like the Cheshire Cat (Cheshire Cat) It is almost not coming out of. When an important decision was to participation by non-governmental sector to the informal procedures, the law and how to prevent power from being abused by some people? How can we bound by the tyranny of experts (tyranny of expertise)? How to ensure that the final conclusion is that taking into account the interests of the public ones? Including how to ensure a fair distribution?This is not a network management has the legal accountability of the entity. However, in many cases, network management procedures relating to government eventually could have authorized a memorandum of mutual understanding, licensing, and even the official rules and regulations, including the formal legal arrangements. Thus, when the use of this power in clear violation of the Constitution, the law limits that they are subject to judicial review. Many involved in the process of government, no matter what level, should be reviewed by the relevant court. Even if it is passive, but the administrative function of the power of checks and balances can be maintained successfully. It is hard to tell,Decision-making based on the norms of the formal legal process on how to represent the interests of model can be successfully applied to network management. In addition, the decision how to make the network model can be successfully based on the mode of management and budget analysis of the mechanism on the review of legislation is quite problematic.Network model advocates argue that open and transparent notice and the clearing-house mechanism to provide a security guarantee, as well as procedures for review of a room to stay. However, this method has not been clearly explained. The federal government will be the benchmark in the formulation of procedures and management practices to ensure that the appropriate monitoring and reporting play a major role. Because it can enhance the visibility of the policy (visibility) and management obligations on the note. However, like other methods of administrativelaw, as in the efficiency of this method and that is the shift in the obligations of both (tradeoffs).The system of economic incentives to reduce the effectiveness of a range of administrative law, the main market through commission (Market actors), the role of price signals through to the implementation of government agencies are subject to judicial review in accordance with, and that formal procedures somewhat and make decisions. The results of the private sector due to the implementation of the decision of some adverse effects, such as pollution of the different regions of the standard fees may be limited only by the law. Thus, in the equal application of laws and regulations to ensure that when there are many problems that may exist. However, the strategy is different from the network system of economic incentives in the management and between managers maintained a fixed distance,And thus to draw a shared responsibility. Made by the executive authorities of the incentive system design goals and the decision-making process is subject to the adjustment of laws and regulations and the general procedures of judicial review. Through a significant reduction in the Government's decision will be economic incentive systems that promote the policy obligations. For example, in the sewage or charges paid under the system of pollution taxes, the Government has decided to boost the overall goal of improving the environment (such as in the permit system, the sewage of the whole area permit), and not to do business should be to do a lot of details of the work..。
美国行政法
• （2）《司法审查法》（Administration Orders Review Act） 制定于1950年，其 主要内容是有关司法审查的管辖、起诉、 审判地点、司法审查诉讼的参加人、诉讼 代理人、诉讼文书及诉讼程序等。
• （3）、《情报自由法》（Freedom of Information Act） 制定于1967年，现被 归入行政程序法中，其主要内容为政府情 报公开和公众向政府机构获取公共情报以 及在政府拒绝依法提供情报时请求其功能为命令政府官员授予公民 应享有的权利和恢复公民被侵害的权利， • 禁止令在于命令政府官员停止行使非属于 他们管辖的权力和停止对公民权利的侵害。 • 调卷令主要用于审查下级法院的裁决和用 于审查行政机构的决定和撤销其没有法律 依据或其他超越行政管辖权的决定。
美国行政法
第一章 美国行政法概述
• 一、美国行政法的概念 • 在美国，普遍被接受的定义是戴维斯的定 义，即：行政法是有关行政机关权力和程 序的法律，其中特别包括调整对行政行为 进行司法审查的法律。即美国行政法既有 实体法的内容，也有程序法的内容。 • 对此定义，可以从四个层次进行理解：
• （一）美国行政法制定机关包括国会、行政部门 和法院。 • （二）美国行政法的形式包括行政法律，行政规 章和行政判例。 • （三）美国行政法的内容包括调整行政机构的组 织、职权的规范和调整行政活动程序的规范及调 整监督、制约行政权行使、为被管理的组织、个 人提供权利保障和救济手段、途径的规范三大部 分。 • （四）美国行政法是指由各种法律规范文件中所 载的确行政法律规范所构成的法律规范系统，而 不具有统一的行政法典。
• （五）各州法规汇编，是各州行政法的主 要法源。 • （六）各州规章汇编（并非每一个州都有 其州规章汇编，只有38个州有） • （七）各州政府手册（State Manuals）和 州政介绍(The Book of the States)（一种介 绍每一个州政府的活动情况的、由州政府 理事会编辑出版的出版物）。
中美行政法差异
一、行政法基本概述
（二）行政法的特点
美国
1.美国行政程序法较完善
行政程序法在美国行政法中有特殊重要的地位行政程序法除了规 定行政机构实施的影响相对人权益的行政行为的基本程序和规则 外, 还规定了相对人权益受到行政行为侵害时请示行政救济和司法 救济的途径。
2.行政立法完善
美国的行政立法是判例法和成文法的融合，立法完善，美国每成 立一个行政机关, 国会都以法律明确规定其职权并确立其监督机制。
二、行政法主体
（一）行政法主体与行政组织 美国
行政法著作通常不设“行政组织”的专门编章，只在有关编章中 附带研究。
美国学者认为，行政组织问题（行政机关和公务员的有关问题属 于“公共行政（行政学）”而不属于行政法的范畴。行政法学的研 究对象应限于行政权力和对行政侵权的救济。
（二）公务员
美国 1.政务类：
4.行政规章
（行政机关根据国会授权制定）
5.判例法
（高级法院适用）
中国 1.制定法法源：
宪法与法律、地方性法规与 自治条例、单行条例、行政 立法、条约与协定
2.非制定法法源：
法律解释、判例、习惯和惯 例、行政法理
（四）行政自由裁量权
美国
对行政自由裁量权的司法审查较为宽松。极力构建的裁量控制模 式支点都是司法审查，而且这种司法审查的地位是相当坚固的。对司 法审查的一个主要限制是“无害错误” (harmlesserror)理论：即使行政 行为பைடு நூலகம்实体或程序上有瑕疵, 如果纠正瑕疵并不能改变结果，那么法 院仍将维持行政行为。
通过选举或任命产生，与相 应的政党共进退或是其他政 治性较强的职位的行政人员。
2.业务类：
通过竞争考试任职，政治上 中立，无重大过错即可长期 任职，并受一般公务员法调 整的公职人员。
美国行政程序法
美国联邦行政程序法王名扬译551节定义就本节的目的而言：（1）“机关”是指美国政府的各个机构，不问其是否隶属于另一机关，或受另一机关的审查，但是不包括：（A）国会。
（B）美国法院。
（C）美国领地或属地的政府。
（D）哥伦比亚特区的政府。
除适用本篇第552节的规定以外，不包括（E）由纠纷各方当事人的代表或其组织的代表所组成的以解决纠纷的机关。
（F）军事法院和军事委员会。
（G）战争时期在战区或占领地行使权力的军事当局。
（H）根据美国法典第12篇1738，1739，1743节和1744节；第41篇第2章；第50篇附录1662节，1884节，1891 —1902节，以及以前1641（b）（2）节行使职权的机关。
（2）“人”包括个人、合伙、公司、社团、机关以外的公私组织。
（3）“当事人”包括在机关裁决的程序中，被列名为或被承认为当事人的人或机关。
或者以正当方式提出请求并且有权被承认为当事人的人或机关，以及为了特定的目的被机关承认为当事人的人或机关。
（4）“法规”是指机关发布的具有普遍适用性或特殊适用性，并对将来生效的文件的全部或一部分。
目的在于实施、解释、规定法律或政策，或规定机关的组织、程序、或活动规则。
包括批准或规定将来的收费标准、工资、法人的或财经的体制及其变革、价格、设备、器具及其服务或分配、还包括批准或规定和上述各项有关的估价、费用、会计或手续。
（5）“制定法规”是指机关制定、修改或废除法规的行为。
（6 ）“裁定”是指机关除制定法规以外所作出的最后决定的全部或一部，可以采取肯定的、否定的、禁止的、确认的形式、包括批准许可证在内。
（7）“裁决”是指机关作出裁定的行为。
（8）“许可证”包括机关给予的执照、证书、批准、登记、特许状、成员资格、法定豁免或其它形式的许可的全部或一部。
（9）“审批许可证”包括机关对许可证的允许、延长、拒绝、撤销、暂停、废除、撤回、限制、修改、变更、附加条件等行为。
（10）“制裁”包括机关下列行为的全部或一部：（A）禁止、命令、限制、或其它影响个人自由的措施。
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二十一世纪的美国行政法理查德B.斯图尔特行政法在一个自由民主的社会里，行政法规本身亦要受到行政法的规制。
行政法确立了行政机关在整个政治体制中的构架地位；设定了行政机关做出决定时所必须遵循的程序要求；规定了可以被独立的司法机关予以审查的行政行为的可能性及范围。
它给行政管理和行政法规中的各个关键领域提供了普遍性的原则和程序规定。
传统上，行政法的要义主要集中于如何通过使行政机关按照公平无偏的程序，在法定的授权范围内且是尊重私人权利这样行为的方法来确保法治、保护自由。
在此，行政法的功能主要是消极意义上的（negative），即旨在防止具有强制性的行政权针对私人个体的非法使用或滥用。
在最近十年，美国行政法也担负起了一些积极的使命。
通过新的程序要求和新的司法审查途径，它确保行政机关要以一种合理的且是充分考虑了那些因它的决定而会在经济和社会利益上受到影响的广泛的相关人的利益（包括该规定的受益人和受该规定约束和制裁的人）的方式，才可以做出政策决定。
目前美国行政管理的现状：法规管理的疲软（Fatigue）今天，我们面临着日益严重的行政管理疲软这一尖锐问题。
公众需要越来越高的法律保护，但行政管理机构却似乎越来越不能以一种有效而且高效的方式提供这种保护了。
一般说来，制定和采用一个新的法规需要花费很长时间，执行这一法规亦相当费时。
管理的结果常常是不仅不能达到预期目标，反而还衍生出了更多麻烦。
我认为，出现这种困境的主要原因在于我们过分依赖命令——控制的行政模式。
在过去50年中，这一模式的运用曾使我们实现了既定目标。
但在一个大且多民族的国度里，这一模式仍企图通过命令来规制处于一个急剧变化且纷繁复杂的经济社会环境中的成千上万的人的行为，那势必会使其固有弊端暴露无遗，尤其是在通过联邦法规将管理统一化的时候。
由于管理的强化，上述问题也就越发越严重了。
联邦行政机关所制定的详细行动规划由于缺乏灵活性而且易过时（obsolescence），因而既增加了负担，又降低了效率。
除了对行政管理的效率有影响外，僵化的、单方性控制（unresponsive Controls）的扩张也影响了其合法性，而且不利于责任的承担。
这些问题随着针对公共需要而致的联邦命令性管理的扩张和加剧就更加严重了。
我们现在所依赖的两种主要是针对行政机关制定法规和政策的自由载量权进行规制的行政法模式并不能解决上述固有弊病。
事实上，它们反而会使问题变得更遭，即加剧行政管理的疲软。
由法律人推动的（Lawyer-driven）利益代表模式程序将会使行政管理过程过分迟延。
大多数法规至少要花上5年时间才能被通过。
司法审查也有费时的问题，而且假如法院认定行政法规无效的话，行政机构还可以重新作一个规定。
这样就会造成法规制定程序的“僵化”（ossification）。
预算和管理局的法规分析和其它对审查有影响的管理方法也会因分析而造成管理的瘫痪（paralysis by analysis）。
因而行政机关越来越倾向于采用不太正规的，且又不负说明责任的不透明的法规政策模式了。
对此，有观点认为，应当在联邦层面解除行政控制。
这种观点认为，比起市场本身的问题和存在于州和地方层面的管理问题来讲，联邦行政管理的失败更加严重。
虽然，这种认识有一定依据，即在联邦层面中对市场的规制有着严重问题，但我们的疑问是如何去解决问题？新管理方法。
答案在于运用新的管理方法和手段去化解过去因过分依赖命令——控制模式而带来的问题。
在行政管理实践中，有两种新模式开始出现，即政府——利益相关人网络构架（government-stakeholder network structures）和经济激励制度（economy incentive systems）。
为了避免由上而下（top-down）的命令型管理以及行政法所要求的正式化程序所生的缺陷，作为一种新型解决之道的行政机关——利益相关人网络模式正多种形式得以发展。
不同于过去的那种企图单方决定被管理者行为的方法，行政机关在制定和执行行政规章中业已创造了多种策略以赢得包括商业企业和非赢利团体在内的各种政府和非政府组织的支持。
下面就是几个例证：行政机关在行政法的法规制定正式程序之外制定法规时，通过与来自实业界、公众及州和地方政府代表的协商而相互达成一致；行政机构在提供市政服务和行政医疗保健方面与政府和非政府实体的协作安排；针对《濒临灭绝物种保护法》（Endangered species Act）的严格规定，被联邦自然资源管理机关划定的保护区内的居民、土地所有者、开发商及地方政府之间的协商。
在上述例子中，联邦行政机关主动出击，从而在这个程序中占据了主导地位，其结果便是在协商的基础上与各参加者达成一种准合同性质的关系，进而解决行政管理中所存在的问题。
不同于集中化的批量生产方法（centralized mass production），这一方法信奉后工业时代法规制定的策略。
它的主要特点在于其行为方式富于灵活性、创新性，具有基准程序性（benchmarking）、透明性，并且可以使相互之间知情。
在欧盟，这一方法在《协商公开法》（Open Method of Coordination）项下被广泛用以执行在成员国中的社会服务管理方案。
行政机构似乎也有许多理由来采用这一策略从而推动其目标的实现：减少因更正式程序而致的办事成本；确保选民的合作以支持而不是阻碍行政机关目标的实现；充分利用选民的知识和经验，并确保其更有效地参与到政策的执行中来。
非政府的选民（Nongovernmental constituencies）也有足够动力来参与这一过程。
去研究参加者的相互激励以及通过何种方式可以使不同的制度设计能被广泛认同都是极其重要的课题。
有些网络管理方法甚至与命令模式大相径庭，它使行政机关从与相对人直接的实质联系中抽身而以一种远距离式的策略来管理（government at a distance）。
比如环保局（EPA）的有毒物质排放目录（TRI）要求信息的发布者要监督、报告并且公布各个设施所排放的空气污染物。
由于来自信息公开的非官方压力，从而极大降低了污染物的排放。
基于信息之上的方法也被用于促进包括健康医疗领域管理在内的目标的实现。
其他的例子还包括政府对企业主动跟踪和改善污染行为的环境管理和监管制度的鼓励，以及环保局和能源部（Energy Department）与业界在降低能源消耗和二氧化碳排放方面所自愿达成的合作协议。
在这些被称为“反身法”（reflexive law）的方法中，政府通过提供参照标准和交流途径来促进非政府实体的自我管理。
在证券、广播、电影领域的自我管理规则是这一策略的另一种典型。
第二，针对管理疲软问题而正在出现的另外一个完全不同的方法是使用经济激励制度。
比如，允许征收污染税、基础建设及环境保护费。
不同于以往对人们的行为直接做出命令，这种方法利用价格杠杆（如对排污单位征税），这一形式来使人们的行为符合既定目标；但同时也留给被管理者以选择成本最低的方式行为的灵活性。
污染税制度也激励私人部门去研发和采用污染少的生产方式。
逻辑上讲，经济激励法是超越于现行的管理预算局程序的一种进步。
它并不是使用经济手段去规制被授权的管理者，而是以此来减少授权管理并运用经济手段重新恢复市场本身对实现管理目标的作用力。
不要误解，这并不是说要回到自由放任的状态（Liaissez-faire）。
为使这一方法行之有效，必须密切监视和严格实施这些制度以防止欺骗。
相对于传统的命令型管理，这一制度的合理设计和实施可以同时实现降低污染物排放和大量节约成本（可达50%或更多）的双重功效。
为了赢得更广泛的认可，新管理方法必须提供更好的管理成果。
它们同时也必定会遇到法律责任和政策合法性的难题。
网络管理策略故意以联合协作的形式模糊传统意义上公和私的区别。
这一方法的前提是它的代表资格必须与该管理问题所涉领域相匹配，而这一点正日益与司法权限相交叉。
针对某个管理问题，网络参加人组成一个具有专门知识与经验的团队，但这些参加者所代表的是不同的政府、社会阶层和经济部门的利益和视角。
这些特征会使刚刚出现的管理政策要费上很长时间才能奏效。
然而网络管理方法却故意减损正式的法规制定和执行行为的作用。
但像我们所知道的那样，这却是行政法的核心所在。
依“反身法”的观点，政府就如同柴郡猫（Cheshire Cat）它是几乎不用现身的。
当一个重要的决定被转为由非政府部门参与的非正式程序而做出时，法律又如何去防止权力被部分人所滥用？又如何去约束专家的暴政（tyranny of expertise）？又如何来确保最后的结论是考虑了公众的利益了的呢？包括如何确保分配的公平？这种网络管理并不是一个负有法律上的说明责任的实体。
但在很多情况下，网络管理程序最终可以产生涉及政府授权、互谅备忘录、发放许可证，甚至是正式的法规在内的正式法律安排。
因而，当这一权力的运用明显违反了宪法、法律的限制时，就要受到司法审查。
许多参与这一过程的政府单位，无论是哪个级别，都要受到相关法院的审查。
即使这是消极被动的，但行政法的权力制衡功能却可以被成功地保持。
很难讲，基于规范决策作出的正式法律程序之上的利益代表模式如何才能被成功地运用于网络管理。
另外，如何让网络决定模式能成功地受到基于管理和预算局模式上的法规分析机制的审查也是相当成问题的。
网络模式的拥护者们争辩道，公开透明的公告和交换机制为其提供了安全保障，也为程序审查留出了余地。
但这一方法仍未被阐述清楚。
联邦政府将在制定基准程序和确保对管理行为的恰当监管和报告中起主要作用。
因为这可以加强政策的能见度（visibility）和管理方法上的说明义务。
但就如同行政法的其它方法一样，在这一方法中效率和说明义务两者是此消彼长的（tradeoffs）。
经济激励制度也缩小了行政法的效力范围，通过委托市场主体（Market actors），经过价格信号的作用来执行政府机关依照要受司法审查的，且多少有些正式的程序而作出的决定。
结果会因私人部门的执行决定而产生一些不利影响，例如，有关不同地区污染费的征收标准，可能只能受到有限的法律调整。
因而，在确保法规平等地适用时就有可能存在诸多问题。
但是，不同于网络策略经济激励制度在管理和被管理者之间保持了一个固定的距离，并且由此而划清了责任的分担。
行政机关作出的有关激励制度的目标和设计的决定要受到法规制定程序的调整和普通程序上的司法审查。
通过大量减少政府所做出的决定，经济激励制度会促进政策上的说明义务的履行。
例如，在有偿排污或征收污染税制度下，政府决定的目标旨在激励整体环境的改善（如在许可证制度下，整个范围内的排污许可），而不是去做大量应由企业来做的细节工作。
Administrative Law of the United States the twenty-first centuryRichard B. StewartAdministrative law in a free and democratic society, its own administrative rules and regulations will be subject to administrative regulations. Administrative law established executive in the entire political system in the framework of status; set to take a decision that the executive must follow the procedural requirements; providesfor an independent judiciary may be to review the possibility of administrative acts and scope. It to the administration and the administrative regulations of the various key areas in the provision of the universal principles and procedural requirements. Traditionally, the essence of administrative law focuses on how the executive authorities in accordance with the fair and unbiased process,The statutory mandate and to respect the private rights of way to such acts to ensure the rule of law, protection of freedom. Here, the functions of administrative law is a negative sense of the (negative), that is designed to prevent the executive power with a mandatory private individuals for the illegal use or misuse.In the last decade, the United States administrative law is also some positive take on the mission. Adoption of new procedural requirements and judicial review of a new channel through which the executive authorities to ensure that a reasonable and thorough consideration of those decisions because it will be in the economic and social interests affected by a wide range of related interests ( including the provisions of the beneficiaries and be bound by the provisions and sanctions of the person) the way, we can make policy decisions.The current status of the U.S. administration: the management of weak laws and regulations (Fatigue) Today, we face a growing weakness in the administration of this acute problem. Increasing the public needs the protection of the law, but it seems more and more administrative bodies can not be an effective and efficient way of providing such protection. Generally speaking, the development and adoption of a new law takes a very long time, the implementation of this law is also very time-consuming. The outcome of management is often not only fail to achieve the desired objectives, but also led to more trouble. In my opinion,The main reason for this predicament is that we rely too much on command - control of the administrative model. In the past 50 years, the use of this model has enabled us to achieve the agreed objectives are met. However, in a large and multi-ethnic country where this model is still an attempt to regulate the system through the command in a rapidly changing and complex economic and social environment in the conduct of tens of thousands of people, it is bound to expose its inherent drawbacks exhaustive, especially in the adoption of uniform federal laws and regulations of the management time. As a result of intensive management, these issues will become increasingly more serious. Federal executive authorities developed a detailed action plan due to the lack of flexibility and easy to outdated(Obsolescence), and thus not only add to the burden and inefficiency. In addition to affecting the efficiency of administration, the rigid, unilateral control (unresponsive Controls) also affected the expansion of its legitimacy, and not conducive to accountability. With these questions need for public order due to management of federal expansion and intensification of the more serious.We now rely on two main organs for the development of administrative regulations and policies contained in the volume of the free right to the administrative law model of regulation will not solve the inherent drawbacks of the above. In fact, they are doing so they will become even worse, that is exacerbated by weak administration. Driven by the legal person (Lawyer-driven) models represent the interests of the administration process will delay the process too much. Spend themajority of laws and regulations at least 5 years to be passed. Judicial review is also time-consuming, but if the court finds that administrative regulations invalid, the executive body can also make a requirement.Of course, some basis for this understanding, that is, at the federal level in the regulation of the market has a serious problem, but our question is how to solve the problem?New management practices. The answer lies in the use of new management methods and means to resolve the past due to over-reliance on command - to control the problems brought about by the model. Practice in the administration, there are two new models began to appear that the Government - the network of stakeholders in the framework of (government-stakeholder network structures) and economic incentive systems (economy incentive systems).In order to avoid top-down (top-down) order management, as well as the required administrative procedures of the formal defects in children born as a new type of solution of the executive authorities - the network of stakeholders in various forms mode is to develop. Unlike past attempts to unilaterally decide the kind of behavior by managers, the executive authorities in the formulation and implementation of administrative regulations have been created in a variety of strategies to win, including commercial enterprises and non-profit groups, various government and non-governmental organizations support. Here are a few examples: the executive authorities in the establishment of formal administrative procedures and regulations to develop legislation,From the business with the public and representatives of state and local governments to reach agreement in consultation with each other; the administrative institutions in the provision of municipal services and administrative aspects of health care and governmental and non-governmental entities, collaborative arrangements; for "Endangered Species Protection Act" (Endangered species Act) of the strict rules governing the management of natural resources by the Federal agencies designated to protect local residents, land owners, developers and local government consultations between. In the above example, the federal executive authorities take the initiative in this process in order to occupy a dominant position, the result is the basis of consultations with the participants to reach a quasi -The contractual nature of the relationship between the administration and then to solve the problems. Production method is different from the centralized (centralized mass production), this approach believes in the development of post-industrial era strategies and regulations. The main features of its behavior in its wealth to the flexibility, innovation, with the benchmark procedure (benchmarking), transparency, and can make each other informed. In the EU, this approach in the "public law consensus" (Open Method of Coordination) is widely used under implementation in the Member States in the management of social services programs. Administrative agencies seem to have many reasons to adopt this strategy so as to promote the achievement of its objectives: to reduce the result of a more formal procedures for the cost of doing business; to ensure the cooperation of the voters to support rather than hinder the achievement of the objectives of the executive authorities; take full advantage of voter knowledge and experience, and to ensure that their more effective participation in the implementation of the policy to. Non-governmental voters (Nongovernmental。