lecture9语言学
语言学课件ppt课件
1. The sounds (pronunciation) and the meaning of a word are inseparable. This was pointed out by the 19th century Swiss linguistic Ferdinand de Saussure, who discussed the arbitrary union between the sounds (form) and meaning (concept) of the linguistic sign. In this sense every word is a linguistic sign.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.
Exceptions: Preposition is relatively open in English.
Expressions such as regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means of … are now recognized as
Prefixes and suffixes have traditionally been called bound morphemes.
Root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.
语言学09--Chapter 9 Language and Literature.ppt
Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.
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In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
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In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a
translation of the Czech aktualisace
(actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.
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The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left innumerable other lights o’ passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
语言学导论第8、9讲
语言学导论第8、9讲语言学导论第八讲Lexical ChangeNew words or expressions are created through the following processed, apart from compound and derivationInvention 新创词语Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Sony, Cadillac, Omega, Coke, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.Blending 混成法It is a process in which a compound is made by blending parts of two words.1) by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word.2) by joining the initial parts of the two words1) motel from motor+hotelbrunch from breakfast+lunchsmog from smoke+fogtelecast from television+broadcastpositron from positive+electrontransistor from transfer+resisterheliport from helicopter+airportcremains from cremated+remains2) telex from teleprinter+exchange(电传)modem from modulator+demodulator(调制解调器)anacom from analog+computer(分析计算机)digicom from digital+computer(数码计算机)glasphalt from glass+asphalt(玻璃沥青)insulac from insulating+lacquer(隔热漆)Abbreviation (Clipping) 缩写词It refers to the process whereby a word is shortened withouta change in the meaning and in the part of speech.1) the end of the word is removed.2) the beginning of the word is discarded.3) both ends of the word are dropped.1) ad from advertisementbike from bicycleexam from examinationfan from fanaticlab from laboratorymath from mathematicsprof from professortelly from television2) plane from aeroplanecopter from helicoptervan from caravanbus from omnibusphone from telephone3) flu from influenzafridge from refrigeratortec from detectiveAcronym 缩略语It is the process by which words are formed by putting the initial letters of several words together. 1）They are pronounced as a new word.TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTESOL Teaching English to the Speakers of Other Languages ELTS English Language Testing Service2) They are pronounced as a sequence of letters:BBCBritish Broadcasting CorporationVOAV oice of AmericaWTOWorld Trade OrganizationBack Formation 逆构词法It is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. It may be regarded as the opposite case of suffixation.difficult from difficultyhousekeep from housekeeperedit from editordonate from donationtelevise from televisiontypewrite from typewriterbabysit from babysitterhawk from hawkerenthuse from enthusiasmlase from laserAnalogical Creation 类推构词It is a process to apply already existed grammatical rules to all environments. This process can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(词型变化) of some English words.Examples:old newwork wrought workedbeseech besought beseechedslay slew slayedBorrowing 借词It is a process in which a language widens her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.Borrowing can be done directly or indirectlyMany English words of Greek origin are borrowed via Latin or French.1) loanwords(借词): The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.au pair, coup d’etat from French(平等的, 互惠的; 改变, 武力夺取政权)al fresco(露天的, 户外的) from Italiantea, Tai’chi from Chinese2) Loanblend (混合借词): It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.coconut (“coco” from Spanish, “nut” English)Chinatown (“China” from Chinese,“town” from English)) Loanshift (转移借词): It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.Bridge: English form, Italian meaning of a card gameartificial satellite: English form, but the meaning borrowed from Russian “sputnik”.4) Loan translation(翻译借词) or Calque(仿造词): It is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.English almighty from Latin omnipotensEnglish free verse from Latin verse libreEnglish Black humour from French humour noirPhonological Change(音位变化)It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form.1) Loss (脱落): It refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels.Addition(添加):Sounds may be added to the original sound sequence.Ra p scallion(流氓,恶棍): “p” was added inside the root “rascal”.Japanese language is good at adding a vowel to each of the consonants to form syllables. “sutoraiki” is from English”strike”.3) Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.“bird” from “brid” in O.E.“ask” from “/aks/” in O.E.“tax” and “task” were etymologically ralated.4) Assimilation (同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound. It can be explained by “the theory of least effort”.For example:im mobile, ir revocable, il legal, etc.Morphological Change (形态变化)Words may change their forms on the side of inflectional affixes(屈折词缀形式的形态变化) The present tense of third person singular in O.E. was “-eth”, and the second person singular w as “-est”. E.g. “do(e)th, goeth, findeth”; “do(e)st, playest, hearest”.(…s) form in O.E. (of phrase) in M.E.(tendency to restore old forms now.)e.g. the university?s campusChina?s modernizationSyntactical Change (句法变化)The syntactical features of words have changed much.Split infinitive:I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it.Postponed preposition:That person is impossible to work with.Objective case of relative pronoun:The girl who he talked about is a violinist.Semantic Change (语义变化)1)Broadening(词义扩大)It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)Narrowing (词义缩小)The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.1）2）3) Meaning Shift (词义转移)The meaning of the word changed as a result of its metaphorical usage(隐喻用法).e.g. bead: 祈祷—念珠—玻璃、金属、或木头的小圆珠子4) Class Shift (词性转换)The meaning of the word changed from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution by shifting the word class.(conversion变换, zero-derivation零派生）e.g. stump: 树桩—挑战5) Folk Etymology (俗词源)It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.e.g. wiz(wizard的缩写形式）:神汉，男巫—行家、能手—whiz极其聪明的人，奇才Counterpoint of Phonology and Morphology音位学和形态学的对立A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound.A morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.Morphophonology or Morphophonemics is the subject to study the “joint venture” of the two levels.1.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.a) boysb) boy?s phoneme /z/c) raisea) represents the plural morpheme, b) represents the morpheme of the possessive case, c) represents nothing at all.2. Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.A morpheme may be monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.3. The syllabic (phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic(grammatical) structure do not necessarily correspond.汉语新词的构词特点：一以汉语中既有的构词材料和构词方式作为语言基础。
语言学第九单元和第八单元
Chapter 8 Language and societySociolinguistics ---- aν sub-field of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.The relatedness between language and society----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships.ν (e.g. greeting)The use of language is in part determined by the user’sν social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both theν physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)Asνa social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Speech community and speech varietySpeechνcommunity---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.Speech variety orνlanguage variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesMacro sociolinguistics, i.e. aνbird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;Micro sociolinguistics,νi.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.Varieties of languageDialectal varietiesνRegisterνDegree of formalityνDialectal varietiesRegional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguisticν variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)νν Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----boombox)Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individualν speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of aν language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).RegisterRegister, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety ofνlanguage related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according toνHalliday, “languag e varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three socialνvariables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variablesField of discourse: whatν is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse: the role ofνrelationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse: theν means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Degree of formality----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)Intimate: Up you go, chaps!νCasual: Time youν all went upstairs now.Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs rightν away, please?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs atν once.Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor byν way of the staircase.----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).Standard dialectThe standard variety is aν superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Pidgin and CreoleA pidginνis a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speechν community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.Bilingualism and DiglossiaIn some speech communities, two languages are used side by sideν with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguisticν situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a lan guage exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9 Language and cultureWhat is culture?Inν a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the lifeof the human community.In a narrow sense,ν culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.νThe relationship between language and cultureThe same word may stir upν different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’sνattitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.The culture both emancipates andν constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.Culture alsoνaffects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.On the one hand, language as anν integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.Sapir-Whorf hypothesisEdward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structureν of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’sνperception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak versionStrong version believes that the language patternsν determine people’s thinking and behavior;Weak version holds that theν former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition thatν language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize howνimportant context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesDenotativeν meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.Connotativeν meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.Iconic meaning ---- theν image or icon invoked in mind by a word.For exam ple, “rose”.νSome cultural differences in language useGrThanks and complimentsColor wordsPrivacy and taboosRounding off numbersWords and cultural-specific connotationsCultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphorThe significance of cultural teaching and learningLearning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.Cultural overlapCultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Cultural diffusionThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Intercultural communicationIntercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.。
Lecture 9
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Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
This is called extra-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
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Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
In ①, Adam is compared-favorably with his father. Quick can be interpreted as meaning quick in developing. It is used in contrast to backward. In ②, ‘Adam’ is compared unfavorably with the group of other students. Therefore, quick must be interpreted as meaning ‘quick to understand the joke’. In this case, quick is used ironically to mean the opposite ‘s一个词在
词群、从句和句群出现的环境。这叫语言语境。语言语境可 以包换一段、一章，甚至整个一本书。广义地讲，语境还包 括物理环境。这叫非语言语境。非语言语境包括人物、时间、 地点，甚至整个文化背景。
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Lecture 9
Word Meaning and Context
As most words have more than one meaning, it is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in context. Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the linguistic context, and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.
lecture9语言学
Sense relations
• Synonymy
• Antonymy • Hyponymy
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Synonymy
• • • • • • • buy/purchase world/ universe brotherly/ fraternal thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/underground
• 古希腊哲学家柏拉图认为语言形式是语言中的一 个词，语义是它所代表、所指示、所表示的世界 上的实体——指称（referent）。比如dog这个词 代表了属于这一类的实体。
• There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And thห้องสมุดไป่ตู้t something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.
Relation of cooccurrence
Endocentric & exocentric
coordination &
subordination
NP,VP,AP
Subordinate clauses
S,PP,VO…
Syntactic function
• Subject, object, predicate
Category Phrase,clause,sent ence
语言学(Lecture Three)解析
II. Morpheme: the minimal units of meaning
A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Example: a word over 5 morphemes
Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism (国教废除论)
the final word: head-strong, pickpocket 3. compounds have different stress patterns from the
noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house 4. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat (在美国独 立战争中服役的英国士兵), bigwig (有重大影响的人), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Hu, Z. L., Liu, R. Q. & Li, Y. F. (1988). Linguistics: a course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
语言学ppt课件
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3.2 Duality
The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:
--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913):
Course in General Linguistics (1916)
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“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” --Edward Sapir (1884-1939):
Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)
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“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” --Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager
Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.
语言学Chapter 9
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9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Events belong to the string of plot are usually foregrounded while those used to provide related information are backgrounded. Deviation（偏离）and parallelism（平行） are usually used to show foregrounding events. The study of foregrounding is called patterning（模式/干扰背景模式）.
Language & Literature 4
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Some general features of the literary 2 language
•
9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Language & Literature 2
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Theoretical background 1
• 研究表明: 自20世纪60年代，建立起来了现代文体学， 从此该学科就飞速发展起来。但20世纪60年代，文体 学是形式主义formalism的十年，70年代是功能主义 functionalism的十年，80年代是语篇文体学discourse stylistics的十年，那么在90年代，是社会历史sociohistorical和社会文化socio-cultural文体学。 • 2000年后，文体学的发展趋势有两个主要特征。首先， 向着社会历史和社会文化文体学的研究深入。其次， 正兴起一种多元发展plural-heads development的趋势， 不同文体学学派竞相发展，新的学派不时涌现出来。
语言学ppt课件
文化对语言的影响
文化背景影响语言使用
不同的文化背景会影响人们的语言使用。例如，不同民族或社会对于礼貌、谦虚、尊重等方面的文化价值观 不同，因此在语言使用上也会有所不同。
语言学ppt课件
目录
CONTENTS
• 语言学概述 • 语音学 • 词法学 • 句法学 • 语用学与社会语言学 • 语言与文化的关系
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语言学概述
语言学的定义与研究对象
定义
语言学是研究人类语言的科学，探 讨语言的性质、结构、演变以及语 言与思维、文化、社会等的关系。
研究对象
语言学的研究对象包括语音、语法、 语义、语用等方面，以及语言在社 会文化背景下的运用和变化。
语言学的研究方法
田野调查法
通过实地观察和记录语言使用情 况，收集第一手语言材料。
文献研究法
利用历史文献和现代语言学著作， 对语言进行系统和深入的研究。
实验法
通过设计和实施语言实验，验证 语言学理论和假设。
比较法
对不同语言或同一语言的不同变 体进行比较，揭示语言的共性和
差异。
语言学的发展历史
结构主义语言学时期
会话含义的推导
通过合作原则、礼貌原则等推导会话含义。
社会语言学的研究对象与内容
社会语言学的研究对象
研究语言在社会中的使用、变化和发展的学科。
社会语言学的研究内容
包括语言变异、语言规划、语言与性别、语言 与年龄等。
社会语言学的研究方法
包括田野调查、语料分析、实验等。
语言变异与语言规划
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语言学教程Chapter Seven
language and culture, Language and society,
and language and cross-cultural communication.
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7.1 language and culture What is culture? Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language. In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. 7.1.1 The relationship between L & C There exists a close relationship between language and culture, generally, a relation of part to whole, for L is part of C. Language is an indispensible carrier of culture. The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L. Culture finds a better representation through language use. Language and culture correlate with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.
lecture_1_9-19-2011
有意识、外显学习 以明确陈述的陈述性知识 本质上属于元语言知识，也存储在 大脑的左半球，但不一定在语言区
习得的知识是隐性语言知识， 学得的知识是显性语言知识，是可
用于语言的自动加工，是语言 主要是用来控制语言的加工过程， 理解与生成的主要源头 用于语言输出的监控和调整
第二语言习得
• 第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或 者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母 语之外的另一种语言。 • “L 2 acqusition” can be difined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue，inside or outside of a classroom, and second language acquisition(SLA) as the study of this.
语言能力与语言表达
• 语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心 理语法。（母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断依据的就是
这种语言能力。）
• 语言表达指交际双方在语言的理解与生成过 程中对其内在语法的运用。 competence�knowledge about lanuage performance�knowldge about how to use language
SLA目前研究情况
第二语言习得作为独立的研究领域距今已有四 十多年的历史，40年来，第二语言习得理论从 产生到发展，逐渐走向成熟，其成熟的标准有 以下几项： 1、第二语言习得研究的范围越来越广阔； 2、第二语言习得研究的学者们更加关注语言学理论； 3、以理论为导向的研究越来越多； 4、研究方法不断丰富。
L1：沉没在天然的语言环境，每 天有10个小时接受语言的输入， 5年总共18000个小时，在语言基 础上提高语言能力 L2：每天1到5小时，5年总共 1000到4000小时，从语音、单词 开始
语言学精品课ppt-09
English, Chinese English, African English…
Major dialects of American English:
Language planning
• Certain authorities, such as the
Topic 9
Sociolinguistics
• Definition: the subdiscipline of linguistics that
studies language in social context.
• Scopes of study: language variation and
language uses in different speech communities including regional, ethnic and social groups.
• the impact of extralinguistic factors on
language use, such as age, gender, profession, and social status.
1.6. Idiolectal variation
• A speaker’s linguistic performance is
heterogeneous, rather than homogeneous. When an individual speaks, what is actually produced is a unique language system of the speaker, expressed within the overall system of a particular language. Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.
英语语言学lecturethree
英语语⾔学lecturethreeLecture three Speech Sound (Phonetics & Phonology)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.A speech sound goes through a three-step process.( speech production--------speech transmission----speech perception)( articulatory phonetics----acoustic phonetics------auditory phonetics)If we are investigating how individual sound segments are articulated, we can find answers in phonetics.But natural speech is a continuous process, the words streaming/ flowing from mouth. So sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languagesSound pattern: which sound units are used and how they are put together and aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patternse.g. the consonant clusters consist of a voiceless fricative摩擦⾳and a voiced plosive爆破⾳in English. In consonant clusters of plosives and fricatives, they usually share the same voice feature. The three variants of the plural form in English are applied in the following fashion:a.The [s] appears after voiceless sounds. [ t, k]b.The [z] appears after voiced sounds. [ l, n, b, d, g]c.The [iz] appears after sibilants.齿擦⾳[s, xi, qi]Sound pattern: the inventory of distinctive sounds that are phonemesHow speech sounds are made?1.Speech organs/ vocal organs发声器官Those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose and the mouth.V ocal tract: the pharynx咽, mouth, and nose (⿐腔nasal cavity, ⼝腔oral cavity) the resonating cavities.The manner of articulationthe actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract1.Stop (or plosive)爆发⾳: complete closure of the articulators is involves so that the airstreamcannot escape through the mouth. [ p, b, t, d, k, g]2.Nasal⿐⾳: if the air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that it can goout through the nasal cavity. [m. n. ]3.Fricative摩擦⾳: a fricative is produced when there is close approximation of two articulatorsso that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. [ f. v. . . s.z. . . h]4.Approximant近⾳: this is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another. The gapbetween the articulators is therefore larger than for a fricative and no turbulence (friction ) is generated. [w. r. j]As [j. w] can also be analyzed as vowels, it is an important point to note that this categoryoverlaps with that of vowel./doc/b718098838.htmlteral边⾳; the obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the certer of the oral tract, withincomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. [ l ]6.Affricate塞擦⾳: affricates involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that theyconsist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.[ , ]The place of articulationThe place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.1.Bilabial双唇⾳: bilabial consonants are made with the two lips. In English [ p. b. m]/doc/b718098838.htmlbiodental唇齿⾳: these are made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. [ f. v]3.Dental齿⾳: dental sounds are made by the tongue tip or blade( depending on the accent orlanguage) and the upper front teeth.[ , ]4.alveolar齿龈⾳: alveolars are made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar bridge. [ t. d. n.s. z. r. l ]5.Postalveolar齿龈后⾳: these are made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.[ , ]6.Palatal 硬腭⾳: palatal sounds are made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate. [j ]7.V elar软腭⾳: velars are made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. [k. g. ]Now the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricativeWhen the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. [ p, s t] When they are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. [b. z. d]vowelthe cardinal vowelsthe cardinal vowels diagram in IPA is a set of hypothetical position for vowels used as reference points. The system defines eight “primary”cardinal vowels, in relation to which a further set of “ secondary” cardinal vowels can be defined. By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: P33pure/ monophthong vowels & vowel glidespure vowels are those where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation.V owel glides are those where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthongs & triphthongsIf a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. [wei], [hau] [toi]A double movement produces triphthongs. [waie] [taue]RP (Received Pronunciation)标准发⾳& GA (General American)⼤众美语RP one form of English pronunciation is the most common model accent in the teaching of English as a foreign languge. Many people also call it BBC English, Oxford English, or King’s/ Queen’s English. It is also widely used in public schools and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers is often referred to as General American.The differences between RP and GA in consonants are much less noticeable than those of the vowels.P36 table and linesthe description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:P 37PHONOLOGYIn phonetics we know how individual sound segments are articulated, but speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.。
语言学教程第9章
第9章：Literary stylistics文学文体学p211: It deals with the relationship between language and literature; it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to literary style.Foregrounding前景化p211: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning,etc.In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.Simile明喻p214: It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor隐喻p214: It always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. )Metonymy借喻p214: It is a change of name, for example, “crown” represents “king”.Synecdoche提喻p215: It is a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.Rhyme押韵p217: It serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself. Alliteration头韵、双声p217: the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Assonance元音叠韵p217: the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:Consonance假韵、辅音叠韵p217: the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Reverse rhyme反韵、掉尾韵p218: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Pararhyme类尾韵p218: when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they Pararhyme.Repetition重复p218: the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency.Metre格p218: when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.Iamb抑扬格: an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllablefollowed by a stressed one:Trochee扬抑格: a trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable:Anapest抑抑扬格: an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones.Spondee扬扬格: a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of only spondaic feet:Couplet对句: two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme, and It consists of two lines that usually rhyme and have the same meter. Quatrain四行诗: stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry. Blank verse无韵诗: consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:Narrator:叙述者 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.Schemata图式p224: Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience. In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints.New information新信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new.Given information已知信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before.Direct speech直接引语p225: it contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks: “Am I too late?” she asked.Indirect speech间接引语p225: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.Free direct speech自由直接引语p226: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both: “Am I too late?”Free indirect speech自由间接引语p226: more of the narrator’s contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question. Was she too late? She asked.。
语言学 第九章
9.1 语音的演变
2.记录了语言的过去状态的文字（书面材料）。
1）文字是记录语言的书写符号，文字的读音和拼写规则要适应语言 的状况。文字具有保守性，语言起了变化，文字往往还是老样子，或 者虽然作了调整，但过了一些时候又会落在语言的后面。我们正好利 用文字的保守性去探索过去的语言面貌和它的演变线索。这在采用拼 音文字的语言中是行之有效的方法。英语“fight”“1ight”“height”等字 fight”“1ight”“height” 中的“gh-”不发音，根据拼法并参照现代方言的读音，我们可以知道 gh-” 它过去念[x]，后来消失了。 2）古代诗歌的押韵情况反映出语音的古今变迁。 3）汉语还可利用形声字的优势来发现语音的演变。如“工、红、虹、 鸿；江、豇、杢”，一分为二。 4）古代的借词是了解古今音变化的另一个方面。如梵语buddha译为 “佛陀”、“浮图”、“浮屠”，就知道“佛”的声母由b变为了清 音f（所谓的重唇变轻唇），韵母失去塞音d；“陀”声母dh是一个送 气的浊音，变为送气的清音t，韵母低元音a变为了一个高元音u。
9.1 语音的演变
日、朝、越的汉字音在相当程度上保留了借出方汉 语当时的语音特点，可以为重建那一时期汉语的语 音系统提供重要的材料。 借词用做语音史研究的材料一定要注意词语借贷的 时间和地域限制。如汉语中的佛教借词要区分是东 汉时借的（通过西域诸国传入），还是隋唐时借的 （通过玄奘天竺取经传入）。前者一般取自西域诸 国转抄的佛经（如巴利文），后者一般直接取自梵 文佛经，两者的语音系统不尽相同。再如英语的 sofa借到汉语中成了“沙发”，这是因为这个词是 由吴语先借进来的，吴语的“沙”的音是[so]。英 语的taxi[tæksi]借到汉语中成了“的士”，是因为它 是由广东话先借入的，广东话的“的”音是[tɑk]。
英语语言学 lecture eight
格赖斯会话含义理论的发展概述自从美国语言哲学家格赖斯( H. P. Grice) 于1967 年在哈佛大学所作的三次学术报告中提出了“为了保证会话的顺利进行,交际双方必须共同遵守一些基本原则”(后来形成格赖斯会话含义理论的核心内容, 见Cole and Morgan ,eds ,1975) 以来,西方语言学界对“会话含义”的研究一直表现出很大的兴趣,各种研究者蜂拥而起,各种研究成果不绝如缕,并经历了从“古典”到“新”格赖斯会话含义理论的发展过程。
这期间,许多西方学者如利奇(Leech) 、盖茨达( Gazdar) 、阿特拉斯(Atlas) 、荷恩(Horn) 、斯帕伯(Sperber) 、威尔逊(Wilson) 和列文森(Levinson) 在阐释、充实和发展格赖斯会话含义理论方面都有过独特的建树。
特别是列文森于1987 年发表了一篇有关“前指代”(anaphora) 的专论,提出了他的会话含义三原则,之后在1991 年,列文森又正式将自己的三原则定名为“新格赖斯语用学机制”( neo- Gricean pragmatic apparatus ,见Levinson ,1991 :108) 。
这样,就形成了“古典格赖斯会话含义理论”(Classic Gricean theory of conversational implicature)和“新格赖斯会话含义理论”( neo- Gricean theory of conversational implicature) 之说。
格赖斯认为,人们的言语交际总是互相合作的,谈话双方都怀着一个共同的愿望:双方话语都能互相理解、共同配合;因此,他们都遵守着某些合作的原则,以求实现这个愿望。
然而,既然人们在交际中一定要遵守合作原则,为什么常常又要故义违反合作原则呢? 换句话说,为什么人们在言语交际中常常不用直接的方式遣词达义,而总是用间接的方式声东击西? 为什么只让对方拐弯抹角地义会,而不愿向对方坦率地言传? 关于这些问题,格赖斯在他的“会话含义”理论中并未作出完满的解答。
【最新】英语语言学实用教程课件unit913
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Literal meaning, utterance meaning, speaker meaning
I met him yesterday. You’re really friendly.
A: Do you like Harry and John? B: I like Harry.
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Mean and Say
➢ ‘It wasn’t what he said, but what he meant.’
‘Then you should say what you mean’, the March Hare went on.
‘I do, Alice hastily replied; ‘at least – at least I mean what I say – that’s the same thing, you know.’
-the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance
-the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative
I love this game!
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-the central person is the speaker
-the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance
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(1) Gradable antonymy
good ----------- bad big ----------- small • Gradable
– Can be modified by very. – Can have comparative and superlative forms. – Can have intermediate ground like medium.
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• 4. Collocational synonyms
– Differ in their collocation, i. e. , in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage. – accuse … of, charge … with, rebuke … for
Antonymy
Types of antonyms: 1. Gradable antonyms 等级反义词 hot Vs. cold 2. Complementary antonyms 互补反义词 male Vs. female 3. Relational opposites 反向反义词 teacher Vs. pupil
Sense relations
• Synonymy
• Antonymy • Hyponymy
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Synonymy
• • • • • • • buy/purchase world/ universe brotherly/ fraternal thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/underground
Category Phrase,clause,sent ence
• Number, gender, case, agreement
• Finite & Non-finite clause • Structure & Function, 7 basic STs • Conjoining 连接 • Embedding 嵌入
Contents
• Meanings of “meaning”
• The referential theory 指称论
• Sense relations 意义关系
– Synonymy 同义关系 – Antonymy 反义关系 – Hyponymy 上下义关系
Meanings of “meaning”
fall elevator baggage truck gasoline apartment flashlight
• 2. Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style
– Some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. – Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent – Kid, child, offspring – Kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease – 去世，牺牲，翘辫子，呜呼，仙逝，去了
Types of synonyms
• 1. Dialectal synonyms:
– synonyms used in different regional dialects; British English and American English
autumn lift luggage lorry petrol flat torch
Associative meaning
The referential theory 指称论
• The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. • Words → Meaning: Words ‘name’ or ‘refer to’ things -- Platonic
Semantic triangle
• Proposed by Ogden & Richards
Concept word ---------- thing – They argue that the relation between the a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It’s mediated by concept.
(2) Complementary
antonymy alive : dead male : female
Complementary
– Can’t be modified by very. – Haven’t comparative and
superlative forms. – Haven’t intermediate ground.
Airplane
Sense and reference
• Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has. • The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs, at which one reads and writes • Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk. • Reference: the concrete entities • a particular dation of cooccurrence
Endocentric & exocentric
coordination &
subordination
NP,VP,AP
Subordinate clauses
S,PP,VO…
Syntactic function
• Subject, object, predicate
Recursiveness
Chapter 5 Meaning
Sandy
Through the Looking Glass “Don’t stand chattering to yourself like that,” Humpty Dumpty said, looking at her for the first time, “but tell me your name
• 古希腊哲学家柏拉图认为语言形式是语言中的一 个词，语义是它所代表、所指示、所表示的世界 上的实体——指称（referent）。比如dog这个词 代表了属于这一类的实体。
• There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.
• 3. Differing in emotive or evaluative meaning (e.g. Commendatory Vs. derogatory) tough-minded resolute, firm shrewd childlike man of usual talent stout, solid, plum slender, slim ruthless obstinate sly, crafty childish freak fleshy, fat, tubby lean, skinny
and your business.”
“My name is Alice, but--” “It’s a stupid name enough!” Humpty Dumpty interrupted impatiently. “What does it mean?” “Must a name mean something?” Alice asked doubtfully.
• Every word has a sense, i. e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference. • Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. • Words like unicorn, Santa Claus , God, ghost , fairy, demon and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality.
• Different norms
– A big car----a small plane.
Absolute norms
– Death in human and
animal
• Having a cover term;
– How old are you?
No cover term
– How male is it?
“Of course it must,” Humpty Dumpty said with a short laugh: