毕业设计英文翻译

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英文论文翻译

1 前言在汽车三大总成之中，汽车车身代表着汽车开发的水平，在汽车开发中占有主体地位。

由于在车辆行驶过程中，车身结构会在各种振源的激励下产生振动，若这些振源的激励频率接近了车身整体或局部的固有频率，便会发生共振现象，产生剧烈振动和噪声，甚至造成结构破坏。

因此，为了提高汽车的安全性、稳定性和舒适性，就必须对车身结构的固有频率进行分析，并可以通过对其结构的设计来避开各种振源的激励。

文中就是采用有限元分析的方法，对某车型的车身地板进行模态分析，分析其固有频率及振型，为实际生产提供参考依据。

2 车身地板有限元模型的建立车身地板是典型的凹凸槽板结构，而对其的模拟建模有两种方法，一是按凹凸槽的真实形状建模；二是按照文献中提到的方法，即用在凹凸槽处加加强梁的平板结构来模拟，使加强梁的截面参数与实际结构相一致，文中原始模型采用第一种方法。

2.1建模2.1.1平面问题及薄板弯曲车身地板的CAD模型是在Catia软件里创建完成的。

车身的大部分零件是薄板冲压件，板材的厚度h远小于其平面尺寸。

薄板的变形与载荷的作用方式有关，当载荷平行于中面（平分薄板厚度的平面）且沿厚度方向不变，可认为是平面应力问题；若载荷垂直于中面，则将引起薄板的弯曲变形。

以薄板的中面为x-y平面，垂直于中面的轴为z轴。

在平面应力问题中只有平行于x-y平面的三个应力分量：σσττ=,,x y xy yz这三个分量沿厚度h不变，它们只是x和y的函数，与坐标z无关，而其余分量为零。

平面应力的物理方程为：薄板弯曲变形后，中面由平面变成曲面，称为弹性曲面。

中面内各点在垂直于中面的方向的位移w称为挠度。

当w远小于厚度t时，即满足时，可以认为中面无线应变也无角应变，此时称为薄板弯曲的小挠度问题。

若挠度w接近厚度t的量级，就不能再认为弹性曲面内纤维的长度不变，问题将变为非线性的，这种情况称为薄板弯曲的大挠度问题。

工程中的大部分问题是将薄板的弯曲视为小挠度问题，这样可使问题大大简化。

采矿工程毕业设计_外文翻译英译汉中英文

ROOM-AND-PILLAR METHOD OF OPEN-STOPE MINING空场采矿法中的房柱采矿法Chapter 1.A Classification of the Room-and-Pillar Method of Open-Stope Mining第一部分，空场采矿的房柱法的分类OPEN STOPING空场采矿法An open stope is an underground cavity from which the initial ore has been mined. Caving of the opening is prevented (at least temporarily) by support from the unmined ore or waste left in the stope,in the form of pillars,and the stope walls (also called ribs or abutments). In addition to this primary may also be required using rockbolts , reinforcing rods, split pipes ,or shotcrete to stabilize the rock surface immediately adjacent to the opening. The secondary reinforcement procedure does not preclude the method classified as open stoping.露天采场台阶是开采了地下矿石后形成的地下洞室。

通过块矿或采场的支柱和（也称为肋或肩）采场墙形式的废料的支持来（至少是暂时的）预防放顶煤的开幕。

除了这个，可能还需要使用锚杆，钢筋棒，分流管，或喷浆，以稳定紧邻开幕的岩石表面。

办公楼毕业设计英文翻译(外文翻译)

办公楼毕业设计英文翻译（外文翻译）原文：The future of the tall buildingAnd structure of buildingsZoning effects on the density of tall buildings and solar design may raise ethical challenge.A combined project of old and new buildings may bring back human scale to our cities. Owners and conceptual designers will be challenged in the 1980s to produce economically sound, people-oriented buildings.In 1980 the Level House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merril1 (SOM) received the 25-year award from the American Institut e of Architects “in recognition of architectural design of enduring significance”. This award is given once a year for a building between 25and 35 years old .Lewis Mumford described the Lever House as “the first office building in which modern materials, m odern construction, modern functions have been combined with a modern plan”. At the time, this daring concept could only be achieved by visionary men like Gordon Bunshaft , the designer , and Charles Luckman , the owner and then-president of Lever Brothers . The project also included a few “first” : (1) it was the first sealed glass tower ever built ; (2) it was the first office building designed by SOM ;and (3) it was the first office building on Park Avenue to omit retail space on the first floor. Today, after hundreds of look-alike and variations on the grid design, we have reached what may be the epitome of tall building design: the nondescript building. Except for a few recently completed buildings that seem to be people-oriented in their lower floors, most tall buildings seem to be a repletion of the dull, graph-paper-like monoliths in many of our cities. Can this be the end of the design-line for tall buildings? Probably not. There are definite signs that are most encouraging. Architects and owners have recently begun to discuss the design problem publicly. Perhaps we are at the threshold of a new era. The 1980s may bring forth some new visionaries like Bunshaft and Luckman. If so, what kinds of restrictions or challenges do they face?译文：高层建筑展望及建筑结构区域规划对高层建筑物的密度和对自然采光设计可能引起道德问题将产生影响。

java毕业设计中英文翻译

java毕业设计中英文翻译篇一：JAVA外文文献+翻译Java and the InternetIf Java is, in fact, yet another computer programming language, you may question why it is so important and why it is being promoted as a revolutionary step in computer programming. The answer isn’t immediately obvious if you’re coming from a traditional programming perspective. Although Java is very useful for solving traditional stand-alone programming problems, it is also important because it will solve programming problems on the World Wide Web.1. Client-side programmingThe Web’s initial server-browser design provided for interactive content, but the interactivity was completely provided by the server. The server produced static pages for the client browser, which would simply interpret and display them. Basic HTML contains simple mechanisms for data gathering: text-entry boxes, check boxes, radio boxes, lists and drop-down lists, as well as a button that can only be programmed to reset the data on the form or “submit” the data on the form backto the server. This submission passes through the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) provided on all Web servers. The text within the submission tells CGI what to do with it. The most common action is to run a program located on the server in a directory that’s typically called “cgi-bin.” (If you watch the address window at the top of your browser when you push a button on a Web page, you can sometimes see “cgi-bin” within all the gobbledygook there.) These programs can be written in most languages. Perl is a common choice because it is designed for text manipulation and is interpreted, so it can be installed on any server regardless of processor or operating system. Many powerful Web sites today are built strictly on CGI, and you can in fact do nearly anything with it. However, Web sites built on CGI programs can rapidly become overly complicated to maintain, and there is also the problem of response time. The response of a CGI program depends on how much data mustbe sent, as well as the load on both the server and the Internet. (On top of this, starting a CGI program tends to be slow.) The initial designers of the Web didnot foresee how rapidly this bandwidth would be exhausted for the kinds of applications people developed. For example, any sort of dynamic graphing is nearly impossible to perform with consistency because a GIF file must be created and moved from the server to the client for each version of the graph. And you’ve no doubt had direct experience with something as simple as validating the data on an input form. You press the submit button on a page; the data is shipped back to the server; the server starts a CGI program that discovers an error, formats an HTML page informing you of the error, and then sends the page back to you; you must then back up a page and try again. Not only is this slow, it’s inelegant.The solution is client-side programming. Most machines that run Web browsers are powerful engines capable of doing vast work, and with the original static HTML approach they are sitting there, just idly waiting for the server to dish up the next page. Client-side programming means that the Web browser is harnessed to do whatever work it can, and the result for the user is a much speedier and more interactive experience atyour Web site.The problem with discussions of client-side programming is that they aren’t very different from discussions of programming in general. The parameters are almost the same, but the platform is different: a Web browser is like a limited operating system. In the end, you must still program, and this accounts for the dizzying array of problems and solutions produced by client-side programming. The rest of this section provides an overview of the issues and approaches in client-side programming.2.Plug-insOne of the most significant steps forward in client-side programming is the development of the plug-in. This is a way for a programmer to add new functionality to the browser by downloading a piece of code that plugs itself into the appropriate spot in the browser. It tells the browser “from now on you can perform this new activity.” (You need to download the plug-in only once.) Some fast and powerful behavior is added to browsers via plug-ins, but writing a plug-in is not a trivial task, and isn’t something you’d wantto do as part of the process of building a particular site. The value of the plug-in for client-side programming is that it allows an expert programmer to develop a new language and add that language to a browser without the permission of the browser manufacturer. Thus, plug-ins provide a “back door”that allows the creation of new client-side programming languages (although not all languages are implemented as plug-ins).3.Scripting languagesPlug-ins resulted in an explosion of scripting languages. With a scripting language you embed the source code for your client-side program directly into the HTML page, and the plug-in that interprets that language is automatically activated while the HTML page is being displayed. Scripting languages tend to be reasonably easy to understand and, because they are simply text that is part of an HTML page, they load very quickly as part of the single server hit required to procure that page. The trade-off is that your code is exposed for everyone to see (and steal). Generally, however, you aren’t doing amazingly sophisticatedthings with scripting languages so this is not too much of a hardship.This points out that the scripting languages used inside Web browsers are really intended to solve specific types of problems, primarily the creation of richer and more interactive graphical user interfaces (GUIs). However, a scripting language might solve 80 percent of the problems encountered in client-side programming. Your problems might very well fit completely within that 80 percent, and since scripting languages can allow easier and faster development, you should probably consider a scripting language before looking at a more involved solution such as Java or ActiveX programming.The most commonly discussed browser scripting languages are JavaScript (which has nothing to do with Java; it’s named that way just to grab some of Java’s marketing momentum), VBScript (which looks like Visual Basic), andTcl/Tk, which comes from the popular cross-platform GUI-building language. There are others out there, and no doubt more in development.JavaScript is probably the most commonly supported. It comes built into both Netscape Navigator and the Microsoft Internet Explorer (IE). In addition, there are probably more JavaScript books available than there are for the other browser languages, and some tools automatically create pages using JavaScript. However, if you’re already fluent in Visual Basic or Tcl/Tk, you’ll be more productive using those scripting languages rather than learning a new one. (You’ll have your hands full dealing with the Web issues already.)4.JavaIf a scripting language can solve 80 percent of the client-side programming problems, what about the other 20 percent—the “really hard stuff?” The most popular solution today is Java. Not only is it a powerful programming language built to be secure, cross-platform, and international, but Java is being continually extended to provide language features and libraries that elegantly handle problems that are difficult in traditional programming languages, such as multithreading, database access, network programming, and distributed computing. Java allowsclient-side programming via the applet.An applet is a mini-program that will run only under a Web browser. The applet is downloaded automatically as part of a Web page (just as, for example, a graphic is automatically downloaded). When the applet is activated it executes a program. This is part of its beauty—it provides you with a way to automatically distribute the client software from the server at the time the user needs the client software, and no sooner. The user gets the latest version of the client software without fail and without difficult reinstallation. Because of the way Java is designed, the programmer needs to create only a single program, and that program automatically works with all computers that have browsers with built-in Java interpreters. (This safely includes the vast majority of machines.) Since Java is a full-fledged programming language, you can do as much work as possible on the client before and after making requests of theserver. For example, you won’t need to send a request form across the Internet to discover that you’ve gotten a date or some other parameter wrong, and yourclient computer can quickly do the work of plotting data instead of waiting for the server to make a plot and ship a graphic image back to you. Not only do you get the immediate win of speed and responsiveness, but the general network traffic and load on servers can be reduced, preventing the entire Internet from slowing down.One advantage a Java applet has over a scripted program is that it’s in compiled form, so the source code isn’t available to the client. On the other hand, a Java applet can be decompiled without too much trouble, but hiding your code is often not an important issue. Two other factors can be important. As you will see later in this book, a compiled Java applet can comprise many modules and take multiple server “hits” (accesses) to download. (In Java 1.1 and higher this is minimized by Java archives, called JAR files, that allow all the required modules to be packaged together and compressed for a single download.) A scripted program will just be integrated into the Web page as part of its text (and will generally be smaller and reduce server hits). This could be important to the responsiveness of your Website. Another factor is the all-important learning curve. Regardless of what you’ve heard, Java is not a trivial language to learn. If you’re a Visual Basic programmer, moving to VBScript will be your fastest solution, and since it will probably solve most typical client/server problems you might be hard pressed to justify learning Java. If you’re experienced with a scripting language you will certainly benefit from looking at JavaScript or VBScript before committing to Java, since they might fit your needs handily and you’ll be more productive sooner.to run its applets withi5.ActiveXTo some degree, the competitor to Java is Microsoft’s ActiveX, although it takes a completely different approach. ActiveX was originally a Windows-only solution, although it is now being developed via an independent consortium to become cross-platform. Effectively, ActiveX says “if your program connects to篇二：JAVA思想外文翻译毕业设计文献来源：Bruce Eckel. Thinking in Java [J]. Pearson Higher Isia Education,XX-2-20.Java编程思想 (Java和因特网)既然Java不过另一种类型的程序设计语言，大家可能会奇怪它为什么值得如此重视，为什么还有这么多的人认为它是计算机程序设计的一个里程碑呢？如果您来自一个传统的程序设计背景，那么答案在刚开始的时候并不是很明显。

毕设翻译英文

轨道交通学院毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目：列车车载的直流恒流源的设计专业电子信息工程班级10115111学号1011511137姓名赵士伟指导教师陈文2014 年3 月 3 日本文摘自：IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS VOL. IGA-2, NO.5 SEPT/OCT 1966Highly Regulated DC Power Supplies Abstract-The design and application of highly regulated dc power supplies present many subtle, diverse, and interesting problems. This paper discusses some of these problems (especially inconnection with medium power units) but emphasis has been placed more on circuit economics rather than on ultimate performance.Sophisticated methods and problems encountered in connection with precision reference supplies are therefore excluded. The problems discussed include the subjects of temperature coefficient,short-term drift, thermal drift, transient response degeneration caused by remote sensing, and switching preregualtor-type units and some of their performance characteristics.INTRODUCTIONANY SURVEY of the commercial de power supply field will uncover the fact that 0.01 percent regulated power supplies are standard types and can be obtained at relatively low costs. While most users of these power supplies do not require such high regulation, they never-theless get this at little extra cost for the simple reason that it costs the manufacturer very little to give him 0.01 percent instead of 0.1 percent. The performance of a power supply, however, includes other factors besides line and load regulation. This paper will discuss a few of these-namely, temperature coefficient, short-term drift, thermal drift, and transient response. Present medium power dc supplies commonly employ preregulation as a means of improving power/volume ratios and costs, but some characteristics of the power supply suffer by this approach. Some of the short-comings as well as advantages of this technology will be examined.TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTA decade ago, most commercial power supplies were made to regulation specifications of 0.25 to 1 percent. The reference elements were gas diodes having temperature coefficients of the order of 0.01 percent [1]. Consequently, the TC (temperature coefficient) of the supply was small compared to the regulation specifications and often ignored. Today, the reference element often carries aTC specification greater than the regulation specification.While the latter may be improved considerably at little cost increase, this is not necessarily true of TC. Therefore,the use of very low TC zener diodes, matched differential amplifier stages, and low TC wire wound resistors must be analyzed carefully, if costs are to be kept low.A typical first amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 1. CRI is the reference zener diode and R, is the output adjustment potentiometer.Fig. 1. Input stage of power supply.Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of zener reference.Let it be assumed that e3, the output of the stage, feedsadditional differential amplifiers, and under steady-state conditions e3 = 0. A variation of any of the parameters could cause the output to drift; while this is also true of the other stages, the effects are reduced by the gain of all previous stages. Consequently, the effects of other stages will be neglected. The following disculssion covers the effects of all elements having primary and secondary influences on the overall TC.Effect of R3The equivalent circuit of CRI -R3 branch is shown in Fig. 2. The zener ha's been replaced with its equivalent voltage source E/' and internal impedance R,. For high gain regulators, the input of the differential amplifier will have negligible change with variations of R3 so thatbefore and after a variation of R3 is made.If it is further assumed that IB << Iz; then from (1)Also,Eliminating I, from (2b),andNow, assuming thatthen,Equation (2b) can also be writtenThe Zener DiodeThe zener diode itself has a temperature coefficient andusually is the component that dominates the overall TCof the unit. For the circuit of Fig. 1, the TC ofthe circuit describes, in essence, the portion of the regulator TC contributed by the zener. If the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 1 were used in conjunction with a dropping resistor so that only a portion of the output voltage appeared across the bridge circuit shown, the TC of the unit and the zener would be different. Since the characteristic of zeners is so well known and so well described in the literature, a discussion will not be given here [2].Variation of Base-Emitter VoltagesNot only do the values of V,, of the differential am-plifier fail to match, but their differentials with tem perature also fail to match. This should not, however,suggest that matched pairs are required. The true reference voltage of Fig. 1 is not the value E,, but E, + (Vie, -Vbe2)-Since, for most practical applicatioinsthe TC of the reference will be the TC of the zener plusConsidering that it is difficult to obtain matched pairs that have differentials as poor as 50 V/°C, it becomes rather apparent that, in most cases, a matched pair bought specifically for TC may be overdesigning.Example 2: A standard available low-cost matched pair laims 30AV/°C. In conjunction with a 1N752, the ontribution to the overall TC would beTests, performed by the author on thirteen standard germanium signal transistors in the vicinity of room temperature and at a collector current level of 3 mA,indicated that it is reasonable to expect that 90 to 95 percent of the units would have a base-emitter voltage variation of -2.1 to -2.4 mV/°C. Spreads of this magnitude have also been verified by others (e.g., Steiger[3]). The worst matching of transistors led to less than 400 ,V/°C differential. In conjunction with a 1N752,even this would give a TC of better than 0.007%/0C.Variation of Base CurrentsThe base current of the transistors is given byA variation of this current causes a variation in signal voltage at the input to the differential amplifier due to finite source impedances. Matching source impedances is not particularly desirable, since it reduces the gain of the system and requires that transistors matched for I,o and A be used. Hunter [4 ] states that the TC of a is in the range of +0.2%/0C to -0.2%7/'C and that 1,, may be approximated bywhere Ao is the value at To.β is also temperature dependent and Steiger [3] experimentally determined the variation to be from about 0.5%/°C to 0.9%/0C.And，Fig. 3. Input circuit of Q2.The current AIB flows through the source impedance per Fig. 3. The drops in the resistance string, however, are subject to the constraint that EB (and AEB) are determined by the zener voltage and the base-emitter drops of Q1 and Q2. Consequently, if in going from temperature T1to T2 a change AEB occurs,The change in output voltage isAndExample 3: For Q2 (at 25°C)(see Example 1)∴Variation of R,The effects of a variation of the TC between RIA and RIB is sufficiently self-evident so that a discussion of the contribution is not included.SHORT-TERM DRIFTThe short-term drift of a supply is defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) as "a change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input, environment, or load [5]."Much of the material described in the section on temperature coefficient is applicable here as well. It has been determined experimentally, however, that thermal air drafts in and near thevicinity ofthe powersupplycontributesenormouslyto theshort-termcharacteristics. Thecooling effects of moving air are quite well known, but it is not often recognized that even extremely slow air movements over such devices as zeners and transistors cause the junction temperature of these devices to change rapidly. If the TC of the supply is large compared to the regulation, then large variations in the output will be observed. Units having low TC's achieved by compensation-that is, by canceling out the effects of some omponents by equal and opposite effects of others may still be plagued by these drafts due to the difference in thermal time constants of the elements.Oftentimes, a matched transistor differential amplifier in a common envelope is used for the first amplifier just to equalize and eliminate the difference in cooling effects between the junctions. Approximations to this method include cementing or holding the transistors together, imbedding the transistors in a common metal block, etc. Excellent results were achieved by the author by placing the input stage and zener reference in a separate enclosure. This construction is shown in Fig. 4. The improvement in drift obtained by means of the addition of the metal cover is demonstrated dramatically in Fig. 5.Fig. 5. Short-term drift of a power supply similar to the one shown in Fig. 4 with and without protective covers. The unit was operated without the cover until time tl, when the cover was attached. The initial voltage change following t, is due to a temperaturerise inside the box.Fig. 5. Short-term drift of a power supply similar to the one shown n Fig. 4 withand without protective covers. The unit was operated without the cover until time tl, when the cover was attached. The initial voltage change following t, is due to atemperature rise inside the box.If potentiometers are used in the supply for output adjustment (e.g., RI), care should be used in choosing the value and design. Variations of the contact resistance can cause drift. It is not always necessary, however, to resort to the expense of high-resolution multiturn precision units to obtain low drift. A reduction in range of adjustment, use of low-resistance alloys and low-resolution units which permit the contact arm to rest firmly between turns, may be just as satisfactory. Of course, other considerations should include the ability of both the arms and the wire to resist corrosion. Silicone greases are helpful here. Periodic movement of contact arms has been found helpful in "healing" corroded elements.THERMAL DRIFTNEMA defines thermal drift as "a change in output over a period of time, due to changes in internal ambient temperatures not normally related to environmental changes. Thermal drift is usually associated with changes in line voltage and/or load changes [5]."Thermal drift, therefore, is strongly related to the TC of the supply as well as its overall thermal design. By proper placement of critical components it is possible to greatly reduce or even eliminate the effect entirely. It is not uncommon for supplies of the 0.01 percent(regulation) variety to have drifts of between 0.05 to 0.15 percent for full line or full load variations. In fact, one manufacturer has suggested that anything better than 0.15 percent is good. Solutions to reducing thermal drift other than the obvious approach of improving the TC and reducing internal losses include a mechanical design that sets up a physical and thermal barrier between the critical amplifier components and heat dissipating elements. Exposure to outside surfaces with good ventilation is recommended. With care, 0.01 to 0.05 percent is obtainable.TRANSIENT RESPONSEMost power supplies of the type being discussed have a capacitor across the load terminals. This is used for stabilization purposes and usually determines the dominant time constant of the supply. The presence of this capacitor unfortunately leads to undesirable transient phenomena when the supply is used in the remote sensing mode①. Normally, transistorized power supplies respond in microseconds, but as the author has pointed out [6], the response can degenerate severely in remote sensing .The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6. The leads from the power supply to the load introduce resistance r. Is is the sensing current of the supply and is relatively constant.Under equilibrium conditions,A sudden load change will produce the transient of Fig. 7. The initial "spike" is caused by an inductive surge Ldi/dt; the longer linear discharge following is the resultof the capacitor trying to discharge (or charge). The discharge time iswhereandThe limitations of I,, are usually not due to available drive of the final amplifier stages but to other limitations, current limiting being the most common. Units using pre regulators of the switching type (transistor or SCR types) should be looked at carefully if the characteristics mentioned represent a problem.①Remote sensing is the process by which the power supply senses voltage directly at the load.Fig. 6. Output equivalent circuit at remote sensing.Fig. 7. Transient response, remote sensing.Fig. 8. Block diagram.Preregulated supplies are used to reduce size and losses by monitoring and controlling the voltage across the class-A-type series passing stage (Fig. 8). Since the main regulator invariably responds much quicker than the preregulator, sufficient reserve should always be built into the drop across the passing stage. Failure to provide this may result in saturation of the passing stage when load is applied, resulting in a response time which is that of the preregulator itself.SWITCHING PREREGULATOR-TYPE UNITS The conventional class-A-type transistorized power supply becomes rather bulky, expensive, and crowded with passing stages, as the current and power level of the supply increases. The requirement of wide output adjustment range, coupled with the ability of the supply to be remotely programmable, aggravates the condition enormously. For these reasons the high-efficiency switching regulator has been employed as a preregulator in commercial as well as military supplies for many years. The overwhelming majority of the supplies used silicon controlled rectifiers as the control element. For systems operating from 60-cycle sources, this preregulator responds in 20 to 50 ms.Recent improvements in high-voltage, high-power switching transistors has made the switching transistor pproach more attractive. This system offers a somewhat lower-cost, lower-volume approach coupled with a submillisecond response time. This is brought about by a high switching rate that is normally independent of line frequency. The switching frequency may be fixed, a controlled variable or an independent self-generated (by the LC filter circuit) parameter [7], [8]. Faster response time is highly desirable since it reduces the amount of reserve voltage required across the passing stage or the amount of (storage) capacity required in the preregulator filter.A transistor suitable for operating as a power switch has a high-current, high-voltage rating coupled with low leakage current. Unfortunately, these characteristics are achieved by a sacrifice in thermal capacity, so that simultaneous conditions of voltage and current leading to high peak power could be disastrous. It therefore becomes mandatory to design for sufficient switch drive during peak load conditions and also incorporate current-limiting or rapid overload protection systems.Commercial wide-range power supplies invariably have output current limiting, but this does not limit the preregulator currents except during steady-state load conditions (including short circuits). Consider, for example, a power supply operating at short circuit and the short being removed suddenly. Referring to Fig. 8, the output would rise rapidly, reduce the passing stage voltage, and close the switching transistor. The resulting transient extends over many cycles (switching rate) so that the inductance of the preregulator filter becomes totally inadequate to limit current flow. Therefore, the current will rise until steady state is resumed, circuit resistance causes limiting, or insufficient drive causes the switch to come out of saturation. The latter condition leads to switch failure.Other operating conditions that would produce similar transients include output voltage programming and initial turn-on of the supply. Momentary interruption of input power should also be a prime consideration.One solution to the problem is to limit the rate of change of voltage that can appear across the passing stage to a value that the preregulator can follow. This can be done conveniently by the addition of sufficient output capacitance. This capacitance inconjunction with the current limiting characteristic would produce a maximum rate of change ofwhereC0 = output capacity.Assuming that the preregulator follows this change and has a filter capacitor Cl, then the switch current isDuring power on, the preregulator reference voltage rise must also be limited. Taking this into account,whereER = passing stage voltageTl = time constant of reference supply.The use of SCR's to replace the transistors would be a marked improvement due to higher surge current ratings, but turning them off requires large energy sources. While the gate turn-off SCR seems to offer a good compromise to the overall problem, the severe limitations in current ratings presently restrict their use.REFERENCES[1] J. G. Truxal, Control Engineer's Handbook. New York: McGrawHill, 1958, pp. 11-19.[2] Motorola Zener Diode/Rectifier Handbook, 2nd ed. 1961.[3] W. Steiger, "A transistor temperature analysis and its applica-tion to differential amplifiers," IRE Trans. on Instrumentation,vol. 1-8, pp. 82-91, December 1959.[4] L. P. Hunter, Handbook of Semi-Conductor Electronics. NewYork: McGraw Hill, 1956, p. 13-3.[5] "Standards publication for regulated electronic dc powersupplies," (unpublished draft) Electronic Power Supply Group,Semi-Conductor Power Converter Section, NEMA.[6] P. Muchnick, "Remote sensing of transistorized power sup-plies," Electronic Products, September 1962.[7] R. D. Loucks, "Considerations in the design of switching typeregulators," Solid State Design, April 1963.[8] D. Hancock and B. Kurger, "High efficiency regulated powersupply utilizing high speed switching," presented at the AIEEWinter General Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 27-February 1, 1963.[9] R. D. Middlebrook, Differential Amplifiers. New York: Wiley,1963.[10] Sorensen Controlled Power Catalog and Handbook. Sorensen,Unit of Raytheon Company, South Norwalk, Conn.With the rapid development of electronic technology, application field of electronic system is more and more extensive, electronic equipment, there are more and more people work with electronic equipment, life is increasingly close relationship. Any electronic equipment are inseparable from reliable power supply for power requirements, they more and more is also high. Electronic equipment miniaturized and low cost in the power of light and thin, small and efficient for development direction. The traditional transistors series adjustment manostat is continuous control linear manostat. This traditional manostat technology more mature, and there has been a large number of integrated linear manostat module, has the stable performance is good, output ripple voltage small, reliable operation, etc. But usually need are bulky and heavy industrial frequency transformer and bulk and weight are big filter.In the 1950s, NASA to miniaturization, light weight as the goal, for a rocket carrying the switch power development. In almost half a century of development process, switch power because of its small volume, light weight, high efficiency, wide range, voltage advantages in electric, control, computer, and many other areas of electronic equipment has been widely used. In the 1980s, a computer is made up of all of switch power supply, the first complete computer power generation. Throughout the 1990s, switching power supply in electronics, electrical equipment, home appliances areas to be widely, switch power technology into the rapid development. In addition, large scale integrated circuit technology, and the rapid development of switch power supply with a qualitative leap, raised high frequency power products of, miniaturization, modular tide.Power switch tube, PWM controller and high-frequency transformer is an indispensable part of the switch power supply. The traditional switch power supply is normally made by using high frequency power switch tube division and the pins, such as using PWM integrated controller UC3842 + MOSFET is domestic small power switch power supply, the design method of a more popularity.Since the 1970s, emerged in many function complete integrated control circuit, switch power supply circuit increasingly simplified, working frequency enhances unceasingly, improving efficiency, and for power miniaturization provides the broad prospect. Three end off-line pulse width modulation monolithic integrated circuit TOP (Three switch Line) will Terminal Off with power switch MOSFET PWM controller one package together, has become the mainstream of switch power IC development. Adopt TOP switch IC design switch power, can make the circuit simplified, volume further narrowing, cost also is decreased obviouslyMonolithic switching power supply has the monolithic integrated, the minimalist peripheral circuit, best performance index, no work frequency transformer can constitute a significant advantage switching power supply, etc. American PI (with) company in Power in the mid 1990s first launched the new high frequency switching Power supply chip, known as the "top switch Power", with low cost, simple circuit, higher efficiency. The first generation of products launched in 1994 represented TOP100/200 series, the second generation product is the TOPSwitch - debuted in 1997 Ⅱ. The above products once appeared showed strong vitality and he greatly simplifies thedesign of 150W following switching power supply and the development of new products for the new job, also, high efficiency and low cost switch power supply promotion and popularization created good condition, which can be widely used in instrumentation, notebook computers, mobile phones, TV, VCD and DVD, perturbation VCR, mobile phone battery chargers, power amplifier and other fields, and form various miniaturization, density, on price can compete with the linear manostat AC/DC power transformation module.Switching power supply to integrated direction of future development will be the main trend, power density will more and more big, to process requirements will increasingly high. In semiconductor devices and magnetic materials, no new breakthrough technology progress before major might find it hard to achieve, technology innovation will focus on how to improve the efficiency and focus on reducing weight. Therefore, craft level will be in the position of power supply manufacturing higher in. In addition, the application of digital control IC is the future direction of the development of a switch power. This trust in DSP for speed and anti-interference technology unceasing enhancement. As for advanced control method, now the individual feels haven't seen practicability of the method appears particularly strong,perhaps with the popularity of digital control, and there are some new control theory into switching power supply.（1）The technology: with high frequency switching frequencies increase, switch converter volume also decrease, power density has also been boosted, dynamic response improved. Small power DC - DC converter switch frequency will rise to MHz. But as the switch frequency unceasing enhancement, switch components and passive components loss increases, high-frequency parasitic parameters and high-frequency EMI and so on the new issues will also be caused.（2）Soft switching technologies: in order to improve the efficiency ofnon-linearity of various soft switch, commutation technical application and hygiene, representative of soft switch technology is passive and active soft switch technology, mainly including zero voltage switch/zero current switch (ZVS/ZCS) resonance, quasi resonant, zero voltage/zero current pulse width modulation technology (ZVS/ZCS - PWM) and zero voltage transition/zero current transition pulse width modulation (PWM) ZVT/ZCT - technical, etc. By means of soft switch technology can effectively reduce switch loss and switch stress, help converter transformation efficiency （3）Power factor correction technology (IC simplifies PFC). At present mainly divided into IC simplifies PFC technology passive and active IC simplifies PFC technology using IC simplifies PFC technology two kinds big, IC simplifies PFC technology can improve AC - DC change device input power factor, reduce the harmonic pollution of power grid.（4）Modular technology. Modular technology can meet the needs of the distributed power system, enhance the system reliability.（5）Low output voltage technology. With the continuous development of semiconductor manufacturing technology, microprocessor and portable electronic devices work more and more low, this requires future DC - DC converter can provide low output voltage to adapt microprocessor and power supply requirement of portable electronic devicesPeople in switching power supply technical fields are edge developing related power electronics device, the side of frequency conversion technology, development of switch between mutual promotion push switch power supply with more than two year growth toward light, digital small, thin, low noise and high reliability, anti-interference direction. Switching powersupply can be divided into the AC/DC and DC/DC two kinds big, also have AC/AC DC/AC as inverter DC/DC converter is now realize modular, and design technology and production process at home and abroad, are mature and standardization, and has approved by users, but the AC/DC modular, because of its own characteristics in the process of making modular, meet more complex technology and craft manufacture problems. The following two types of switch power supply respectively on the structure and properties of this.Switching power supply is the development direction of high frequency, high reliability, low consumption, low noise, anti-jamming and modular. Because light switch power, small, thin key techniques are changed, so high overseas each big switch power supply manufacturer are devoted to the development of new high intelligent synchronous rectifier, especially the improvement of secondary devices of the device, and power loss of Zn ferrite (Mn) material? By increasing scientific and technological innovation, to enhance in high frequency and larger magnetic flux density (Bs) can get high magnetic under the miniaturization of, and capacitor is a key technology. SMT technology application makes switching power supply has made considerable progress, both sides in the circuitboard to ensure that decorate components of switch power supply light, small, thin. The high frequency switching power supply of the traditional PWM must innovate switch technology, to realize the ZCS ZVS, soft switch technology has becomethe mainstream of switch power supply technical, and greatly improve the efficiency of switch power. For high reliability index, America's switch power producers, reduce by lowering operating current measures such as junction temperature of the device, in order to reduce stress the reliability of products made greatly increased.Modularity is of the general development of switch power supply trend can be modular power component distributed power system, can be designed to N + 1 redundant system, and realize the capacity expansion parallel. According to switch power running large noise this one defect, if separate the pursuit of high frequency noise will increase its with the partial resonance, and transform circuit technology, high frequency can be realized in theory and can reduce the noise, but part of the practical application of resonant conversion technology still have a technical problem, so in this area still need to carry out a lot of work, in order to make the technology to practional utilization.Power electronic technology unceasing innovation, switch power supply industry has broad prospects for development. To speed up the development of switch power industry in China, we must walk speed of technological innovation road, combination with Chinese characteristics in the joint development path, for I the high-speed development of national economy to make the contribution. The basic principle and component functionAccording to the control principle of switch power to classification, we have the following 3 kinds of work mode:1) pulse width adjustment type, abbreviation Modulation PulseWidth pulse width Modulation (PWM) type, abbreviation for. Its main characteristic is fixed switching frequency, pulse width to adjust by changing voltage 390v, realize the purpose. Its core is the pulse width modulator. Switch cycle for designing filter circuit fixed provided convenience. However, its shortcomings is influenced by the power switch conduction time limit minimum of output voltage cannot be wide range regulation; In addition, the output will take dummy loads commonly (also called pre load), in order to prevent the drag elevated when output voltage. At present, most of the integrated switch power adopt PWM way.2) pulse frequency Modulation mode pulse frequency Modulation (, referred to PulseFrequency Modulation, abbreviation for PFM) type. Its characteristic is will pulse width fixed by changing switch frequency to adjust voltage 390v, realize the purpose. Its core is the pulse frequency modulator. Circuit design to use fixed pulse-width generator to replace the pulse width omdulatros and use sawtooth wave generator voltage? Frequency converter (for example VCO changes frequency VCO). It on voltage stability principle is: when the output voltage Uo rises, the output signal controller pulse width unchanged and cycle longer, make Uo 390v decreases, and reduction. PFM type of switch power supply output voltage range is very wide, output terminal don't meet dummy loads. PWM way and way of PFM respectively modulating waveform is shown in figure 1 (a), (b) shows, tp says pulse width (namely power switch tube conduction time tON), T represent cycle. It can be easy to see the difference between the two. But they have something in common: (1) all use time ratio control (TRC) on voltage stability principle, whether change tp, finally adjustment or T is。

毕业设计中英文翻译

Bridge Waterway OpeningsIn a majority of cases the height and length of a bridge depend solely upon the amount of clear waterway opening that must be provided to accommodate the floodwaters of the stream. Actually, the problem goes beyond that of merely accommodating the floodwaters and requires prediction of the various magnitudes of floods for given time intervals. It would be impossible to state that some given magnitude is the maximum that will ever occur, and it is therefore impossible to design for the maximum, since it cannot be ascertained. It seems more logical to design for a predicted flood of some selected interval ---a flood magnitude that could reasonably be expected to occur once within a given number of years. For example, a bridge may be designed for a 50-year flood interval; that is, for a flood which is expected (according to the laws of probability) to occur on the average of one time in 50 years. Once this design flood frequency, or interval of expected occurrence, has been decided, the analysis to determine a magnitude is made. Whenever possible, this analysis is based upon gauged stream records. In areas and for streams where flood frequency and magnitude records are not available, an analysis can still be made. With data from gauged streams in the vicinity, regional flood frequencies can be worked out; with a correlation between the computed discharge for the ungauged stream and the regional flood frequency, a flood frequency curve can be computed for the stream in question. Highway CulvertsAny closed conduit used to conduct surface runoff from one side of a roadway to the other is referred to as a culvert. Culverts vary in size from large multiple installations used in lieu of a bridge to small circular or elliptical pipe, and their design varies in significance. Accepted practice treats conduits under the roadway as culverts. Although the unit cost of culverts is much less than that of bridges, they are far more numerous, normally averaging about eight to the mile, and represent a greater cost in highway. Statistics show that about 15 cents of the highway construction dollar goes to culverts, as compared with 10 cents for bridge. Culvert design then is equally as important as that of bridges or other phases of highway and should be treated accordingly.Municipal Storm DrainageIn urban and suburban areas, runoff waters are handled through a system of drainage structures referred to as storm sewers and their appurtenances. The drainage problem is increased in these areas primarily for two reasons: the impervious nature of the area creates a very high runoff; and there is little room for natural water courses. It is often necessary to collect the entire storm water into a system of pipes and transmit it over considerable distances before it can be loosed again as surface runoff. This collection and transmission further increase the problem, since all of the water must be collected with virtually no ponding, thus eliminating any natural storage; and though increased velocity the peak runoffs are reached more quickly. Also, the shorter times of peaks cause the system to be more sensitive to short-duration, high-intensity rainfall. Storm sewers, like culverts and bridges, are designed for storms of various intensity –return-period relationship, depending upon the economy and amount of ponding that can be tolerated.Airport DrainageThe problem of providing proper drainage facilities for airports is similar in many ways to that of highways and streets. However, because of the large and relatively flat surface involved the varying soil conditions, the absence of natural water courses and possible side ditches, and the greater concentration of discharge at the terminus of the construction area, some phases of the problem are more complex. For the average airport the overall area to be drained is relatively large and an extensive drainage system is required. The magnitude of such a system makes it even more imperative that sound engineeringprinciples based on all of the best available data be used to ensure the most economical design. Overdesign of facilities results in excessive money investment with no return, and underdesign can result in conditions hazardous to the air traffic using the airport.In other to ensure surfaces that are smooth, firm, stable, and reasonably free from flooding, it is necessary to provide a system which will do several things. It must collect and remove the surface water from the airport surface; intercept and remove surface water flowing toward the airport from adjacent areas; collect and remove any excessive subsurface water beneath the surface of the airport facilities and in many cases lower the ground-water table; and provide protection against erosion of the sloping areas. Ditches and Cut-slope DrainageA highway cross section normally includes one and often two ditches paralleling the roadway. Generally referred to as side ditches these serve to intercept the drainage from slopes and to conduct it to where it can be carried under the roadway or away from the highway section, depending upon the natural drainage. To a limited extent they also serve to conduct subsurface drainage from beneath the roadway to points where it can be carried away from the highway section.A second type of ditch, generally referred to as a crown ditch, is often used for the erosion protection of cut slopes. This ditch along the top of the cut slope serves to intercept surface runoff from the slopes above and conduct it to natural water courses on milder slopes, thus preventing the erosion that would be caused by permitting the runoff to spill down the cut faces.12 Construction techniquesThe decision of how a bridge should be built depends mainly on local conditions. These include cost of materials, available equipment, allowable construction time and environmental restriction. Since all these vary with location and time, the best construction technique for a given structure may also vary. Incremental launching or Push-out MethodIn this form of construction the deck is pushed across the span with hydraulic rams or winches. Decks of prestressed post-tensioned precast segments, steel or girders have been erected. Usually spans are limited to 50～60 m to avoid excessive deflection and cantilever stresses , although greater distances have been bridged by installing temporary support towers . Typically the method is most appropriate for long, multi-span bridges in the range 300 ~ 600 m ,but ,much shorter and longer bridges have been constructed . Unfortunately, this very economical mode of construction can only be applied when both the horizontal and vertical alignments of the deck are perfectly straight, or alternatively of constant radius. Where pushing involves a small downward grade (4% ~ 5%) then a braking system should be installed to prevent the deck slipping away uncontrolled and heavy bracing is then needed at the restraining piers.Bridge launching demands very careful surveying and setting out with continuous and precise checks made of deck deflections. A light aluminum or steel-launching nose forms the head of the deck to provide guidance over the pier. Special teflon or chrome-nickel steel plate bearings are used to reduce sliding friction to about 5% of the weight, thus slender piers would normally be supplemented with braced columns to avoid cracking and other damage. These columns would generally also support the temporary friction bearings and help steer the nose.In the case of precast construction, ideally segments should be cast on beds near the abutments and transferred by rail to the post-tensioning bed, the actual transport distance obviously being kept to the minimum. Usually a segment is cast against the face of the previously concerted unit to ensure a good fit when finally glued in place with an epoxy resin. If this procedure is not adopted , gaps of approximately 500mm shold be left between segments with the reinforcements running through andstressed together to form a complete unit , but when access or space on the embankment is at a premium it may be necessary to launch the deck intermittently to allow sections to be added progressively .The correponding prestressing arrangements , both for the temporary and permanent conditions would be more complicated and careful calculations needed at all positions .The pricipal advantage of the bridge-launching technique is the saving in falsework, especially for high decks. Segments can also be fabricated or precast in a protected environment using highly productive equipment. For concrete segment, typically two segment are laid each week (usually 10 ~ 30 m in length and perhaps 300 to 400 tonnes in weight) and after posttensioning incrementally launched at about 20 m per day depending upon the winching/jacking equipment.Balanced Cantiulever ConstructionDevelopment in box section and prestressed concrete led to short segment being assembled or cast in place on falsework to form a beam of full roadway width. Subsequently the method was refined virtually to eliminate the falsework by using a previously constructed section of the beam to provide the fixing for a subsequently cantilevered section. The principle is demonsrated step-by-step in the example shown in Fig.1.In the simple case illustrated, the bridge consists of three spans in the ratio 1:1:2. First the abutments and piers are constructed independently from the bridge superstructure. The segment immediately above each pier is then either cast in situ or placed as a precast unit .The deck is subsequently formed by adding sections symmetrically either side.Ideally sections either side should be placed simultaneously but this is usually impracticable and some inbalance will result from the extra segment weight, wind forces, construction plant and material. When the cantilever has reached both the abutment and centre span,work can begin from the other pier , and the remainder of the deck completed in a similar manner . Finally the two individual cantilevers are linked at the centre by a key segment to form a single span. The key is normally cast in situ.The procedure initially requires the first sections above the column and perhaps one or two each side to be erected conventionally either in situ concrete or precast and temporarily supported while steel tendons are threaded and post-tensioned . Subsequent pairs of section are added and held in place by post-tensioning followed by grouting of the ducts. During this phase only the cantilever tendons in the upper flange and webs are tensioned. Continuity tendons are stressed after the key section has been cast in place. The final gap left between the two half spans should be wide enough to enable the jacking equipment to be inserted. When the individual cantilevers are completed and the key section inserted the continuity tendons are anchored symmetrically about the centre of the span and serve to resist superimposed loads, live loads, redistribution of dead loads and cantilever prestressing forces.The earlier bridges were designed on the free cantilever principle with an expansion joint incorporated at the center .Unfortunately，settlements , deformations , concrete creep and prestress relaxation tended to produce deflection in each half span , disfiguring the general appearance of the bridge and causing discomfort to drivers .These effects coupled with the difficulties in designing a suitable joint led designers to choose a continuous connection, resulting in a more uniform distribution of the loads and reduced deflection. The natural movements were provided for at the bridge abutments using sliding bearings or in the case of long multi-span bridges, joints at about 500 m centres.Special Requirements in Advanced Construction TechniquesThere are three important areas that the engineering and construction team has to consider:(1) Stress analysis during construction: Because the loadings and support conditions of the bridge are different from the finished bridge, stresses in each construction stage must be calculated to ensurethe safety of the structure .For this purpose, realistic construction loads must be used and site personnel must be informed on all the loading limitations. Wind and temperature are usually significant for construction stage.(2) Camber: In order to obtain a bridge with the right elevation, the required camber of the bridge at each construction stage must be calculated. It is required that due consideration be given to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. This kind of the concrete. This kind of calculation, although cumbersome, has been simplified by the use of the compiters.(3) Quality control: This is important for any method construction, but it is more so for the complicated construction techniques. Curing of concrete, post-tensioning, joint preparation, etc. are detrimental to a successful structure. The site personnel must be made aware of the minimum concrete strengths required for post-tensioning, form removal, falsework removal, launching and other steps of operations.Generally speaking, these advanced construction techniques require more engineering work than the conventional falsework type construction, but the saving could be significant.大桥涵洞在大多数情况中桥梁的高度和跨度完全取决于河流的流量，桥梁的高度和跨度必须能够容纳最大洪水量.事实上，这不仅仅是洪水最大流量的问题,还需要在不同时间间隔预测不同程度的水灾。

有关零售超市毕业设计外文翻译

有关零售超市毕业设计外文翻译毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目对零售超市数据进行最优产品选择的数据挖掘框架：广义PROFSET模型专业网络工程附录英文原文A Data Mining Framework for OptimalProduct Selection in Retail Supermarket Data:The Generalized PROFSET Model1 IntroductionSince almost all mid to large size retailers today possess electronic sales transaction Systems, retailers realize that competitive advantage will no longer be achieved by the mere use of these systems for purposes of inventory management or facilitating customer check-out. In contrast, competitive advantage will be gained by those retailers who are able to extract the knowledge hidden in the data, generated by those systems, and use it to optimize their marketing decision making. In this context, knowledge about how customers are using the retail store is of critical importance and distinctive competencies will be built by those retailers who best succeed in extracting actionable knowledge from these1data. Association rule mining [2] can help retailers to efficiently extract this knowledge from large retail databases. We assume some familiarity with the basic notions of association rule mining.In recent years, a lot of effort in the area of retail market basket analysis has been invested in the development of techniques to increase the interestingness of association rules. Currently, in essence three different research tracks to study the interestingness of association rules can be distinguished. First, a number of objective measures of interestingness have been developed in order to filter out non-interesting association rules based on a number of statistical properties of the rules, such as support and confidence [2], interest [14], intensity of implication [7], J-measure [15], and correlation [12]. Other measures are based on the syntactical properties of the rules [11], or they are used to discover the least-redundant set of rules [4]. Second, it was recognized that domain knowledge may also play an important role in determining the interestingness of association rules. Therefore, a number of subjective measures2of interestingness have been put forward, such as unexpectedness [13], action ability [1] and rule templates [10]. Finally, the most recent stream of research advocates the evaluation of the interestingness of associations in the light of themicro-economic framework of the retailer [9]. More specifically, a pattern in the data is considered interesting only to the extent in which it can be used in the decision-making process of the enterprise to increase its utility.It is in this latter stream of research that the authors have previously developed a model for product selection called PROFSET [3], that takes into account both quantitative and qualitative elements of retail domain knowledge in order to determine the set of products that yields maximum cross-selling profits. The key idea of the model is that products should not be selected based on their individual profitability, but rather on the total profitability that they generate, including profits from cross-selling. However, in its previous form, one major drawback of the model was its inability to deal with3supermarket data (i.e., large baskets). To overcome this limitation, in this paper we will propose an important generalization of the existing PROFSET model that will effectively deal with large baskets. Furthermore, we generalize the model to include category management principles specified by the retailer in order to make the output of the model even more realistic. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we will focus on the limitations of the previous PROFSET model for product selection. In Section 3, we will introduce the generalized PROFSET model. Section 4 will be devoted to the empirical implementation of the model and its results on real-world supermarket data. Finally, Section 5 will be reserved for conclusions and further research.2 The PROFSET ModelThe key idea of the PROFSET model is that when evaluating the business value of a product, one should not only look at the individual profits generated by that product (the naive approach), but one must also4take into account the profits due tocross-selling effects with other products in the assortment. Therefore, to evaluate product profitability, it is essential to look at frequent sets rather than at individual product items since the former represent frequently co-occurring product combinations in the market baskets of the customer. As was also stressed by Cabena et al. [5], one disadvantage of associations discovery is that there is no provision for taking into account the business value of an association. The PROFSET model was a first attempt to solve this problem. Indeed, in terms of the associations discovered, the sale of an expensive bottle of wine with oysters accounts for as much as the sale of a carton of milk with cereal. This example illustrates that, when evaluating the interestingness of associations, themicro-economic framework of the retailer should be incorporated. PROFSET was developed to maximize cross-selling opportunities by evaluating the profit margin generated per frequent set of products, rather than per product. In the next Section we will discuss the limitations5of the previous PROFSET model. More details can be found elsewhere [3].2.1 LimitationsThe previous PROFSET model was specifically developed for market basket data from automated convenience stores. Data sets of this origin are characterized by small market baskets (size 2 or 3) because customers typically do not purchase many items during a single shopping visit. Therefore, the profit margin generated per frequent purchase combination (X) could accurately be approximated by adding the profit margins of the market baskets (Tj) containing the same set of items, i.e. X = Tj. However, for supermarket data, the existing formulation of the PROFSET model poses significant problems since the size of market baskets typically exceeds the size of frequent item sets. Indeed, in supermarket data, frequent item sets mostly do not contain more than 7 different products, whereas the size of the average market basket is typically 10 to 15. As a result, the existing profit allocation heuristic cannot be used anymore since it would cause the6model to heavily underestimate the profit potential from cross-selling effects between products. However, getting rid of this heuristic is not trivial and it will be discussed in detail in Section 3.1.A second limitation of the existing PROFSET model relates to principles of category management. Indeed, there is an increasing trend in retailing to manage product categories as separate strategic business units [6]. In other words, because of the trend to offer more products, retailers can no longer evaluate and manage each product individually. Instead, they define product categories and define marketing actions (such as promotions or store layout) on the level of these categories. The generalized PROFSET model takes this domain knowledge into account and therefore offers the retailer the ability to specify product categories and place restrictions on them.3 The Generalized PROFSET ModelIn this section, we will highlight the improvements being made to the previous7PROFSET model [3].3.1 Profit AllocationAvoiding the equality constraint X = Tj results in different possible profit allocation systems. Indeed, it is important to recognize that the margin of transaction Tj can potentially be allocated to different frequent subsets of that transaction. In other words, how should the margin m (Tj) be allocated to one or more different frequent subsets of Tj?The idea here is that we would like to know the purchase intentions of the customer who bought Tj . Unfortunately, since the customer has already left the store, we do not possess this information. However, if we can assume that some items occur more frequently together than others because they are considered complementary by customers, then frequent item sets may be interpreted as purchase intentions of customers. Consequently, there is the additional problem of finding out which and how many purchase intentions are represented in a particular transaction Tj . Indeed, a transaction may contain several8frequent subsets of different sizes, so it is not straightforward to determine which frequent sets represent the underlying purchase intentions of the customer at the time of shopping. Before proposing a solution to this problem, we will first define the concept of a maximal frequent subset of a transaction.Definition 1. Let F be the collection of all frequent subsets of a sales transaction Tj . Then YX∈is called maximal, denoted as X max , if and only if.F∀: Y X≤.Y∈Using this definition, we will adopt the following rationale to allocate the margin m(Tj) of a sales transaction Tj .If there exists a frequent set X = Tj, then we allocate m(Tj) to M(X), just as in the previous PROFSET model. However, if there is no such frequent set, then one maximal frequent subset X will be drawn from all maximal frequent subsets according to the probability distribution Tjθ, withAfter this, the margin m(X) is assigned toM(X) and the process is repeated for Tj \ X. In summary:Table 1 contains all frequent subsets of T for a particular transaction database. Inthis example, there is no unique maximal frequent subset of T. Indeed, there are two maximal frequent subsets of T, namely {cola, peanuts} and {peanuts, cheese}. Consequently, it is not obvious to which maximal frequent subset the profit margin m(T) should be allocated. Moreover, we would not allocate the entire profit margin m(T) to the selected item set, but rather the proportion m(X) that corresponds to the items contained in the selected maximal subset.Now how can one determine to which of both frequent subsets of T this marginshould be allocated? As we have already discussed, the crucial idea here is that it really depends on what has been the purchase intentions of the customer who purchased T. Unfortunately, one can never know exactly since we haven't asked the customer at the time of purchase. However, the support of the frequent subsets of T may provide some probabilistic estimation. Indeed, if the support of a frequent subset is an indicator for the probability of occurrence of this purchase combination, then according to the data, customers buy the maximal subset {cola, peanuts} two times more frequently than the maximal subset {peanuts, cheese}. Consequently, we can say that it is more likely that the customer's purchase intention has been {cola, peanuts} instead of {peanuts, cheese}. This information is used to construct the probability distribution Tjθ, reflecting the relative frequencies of the frequent subsets of T. Now, each time a sales transaction {cola, peanuts, cheese} is encountered in the data, a random draw from the probability distribution Tjθwill provide the most probable purchase intention (i.e. frequentsubset) for that transaction. Consequently, on average in two of the three times this transaction is encountered, maximal subset {cola, peanuts} will be selected and m({cola; peanuts}) will be allocated to M({cola; peanuts}). After this, T is split up as follows: T := T \{cola; peanuts}and the process of assigning the remaining margin is repeated as if the new T were a separate transaction, until T does not contain a frequent set anymore.3.2 Category Management RestrictionsAs pointed out in Section 2.1, a second limitation of the previous PROFSET model is its inability to include category management restrictions. This sometimes causes the model to exclude even all products from one or more categories because they do not contribute enough to the overall profitability of the optimal set. This often contradicts with the mission of retailers to offer customers a wide range of products, even if some of those categories or products are not profitable enough. Indeed, customers expect supermarkets to carry a wide variety of products and cutting away categories / departments would be against the customers' expectations about the supermarket and would harm the store's image. Therefore, we want to offer the retailer the ability to include category restrictions into the generalized PROFSET model.This can be accomplished by adding an additional index k to theQ to account for category membership, and by adding product variableiconstraints on the category level. Several kinds of category restrictions can be introduced: which and how many categories should be included in the optimal set, or how many products from each category should be included. The relevance of these restrictions can be illustrated by the following common practices in retailing. First, when composing a promotion leaflet, there is only limited space to display products and therefore it is important to optimize the product composition in order to maximize cross-selling effects between products and avoid product cannibalization. Moreover, according to the particular retail environment, the retailer will include or exclude specific products or product categories in the leaflet. For example, the supermarket in this study attempts to differentiate from the competition by the following image components: fresh, profitable and friendly. Therefore, the promotion leaflet of the retailer emphasizes product categories that support this image, such as fresh vegetables and meat, freshly-baked bread, ready-made meals, and others. Second, product category constraints may reflect shelf space allocations to products. For instance, large categories have more product facings than smaller categories. These kind of constraints can easily be included in the generalized PROFSET model as will be discussed hereafter.中文翻译对零售超市数据进行最优产品选择的数据挖掘框架：广义PROFSET模型第一章引言当今几乎所有的中大型零售商拥有电子销售交易系统，零售商认识到，竞争优势将不再仅仅取决于使用这些系统管理目的的库存或便利客户退房。

毕业设计(英文翻译)

附录G：英文翻译参考（要求学生完成与论文有关的外文资料中文字数5000字左右的英译汉，旨在培养学生利用外文资料开展研究工作的能力，为所选课题提供前沿参考资料。

）毕业设计（英文翻译）题目系别：专业：班级：学生姓名：学号：指导教师：一位从事质量管理的人约瑟夫·朱兰出生于圣诞夜,1904 在罗马尼亚的喀尔巴阡山脉山中。

他青年时期的村庄中贫穷、迷信和反犹太主义甚是猖獗。

1912年朱兰家搬到了明尼阿波尼斯州，虽然充满了危险，但是它却让一个男孩充满信心和希望。

从如此多了一个在质量观念的世界最好改革者之一。

在他90年的生活中，朱兰一直是一个精力充沛的思想者倡导者，推动着传统的质量思想向前走。

因为九岁就被雇用,朱兰表示在他的生活工作上永不停止。

记者:技术方面如何讲质量?朱兰:技术有不同方面:一、当然是精密。

物的对精密的需求像电子学、化学…我们看来它们似乎需要放大来说,和重要的原子尘的有关于质量。

要做到高精密具有相当大的挑战，而且我们已经遇见非常大的挑战。

另外的一个方面是可信度－没有失败。

当我们举例来说建立一个系统，同类空中交通管制的时候,我们不想要它失败。

我们必须把可信度建入系统。

因为我们投入很大的资金并依赖这些系统，系统非常复杂，这是逐渐增加的。

除此之外,有对公司的失败费用。

如果事物在领域中意外失败,可以说，它影响民众。

但是如果他们失败在内部,然后它影响公司的费用,而且已经试着发现这些费用在哪里和该如何免除他们。

因此那些是相当大的因素:精密、可信度和费用。

还有其它的,当然，但是我认为这些是主要的一些。

记者:据说是质量有在美国变成一种产业的可能?朱兰:资讯科技当然有。

已经有大的变化。

在世纪中初期当质量的一个想法到一个检验部门的时候，这有了分开的工作，东西被做坏之后。

检验是相当易错的程序,实际上。

而且无论如何，资讯科技在那天中相当花时间，直到某事已经被认为是否资讯科技是正确的。

应该强调计划，如此它不被错误首先订定。

电子商务网络安全毕业设计英文原文及翻译-论文[管理资料]

电子商务网络安全毕业设计英文原文及翻译-论文电子商务网络安全毕业设计英文原文及翻译|计算机专业全套免费毕业设计论文网|任务书|本科毕业设计课题目作品下载附录Ａ---英文原文Web Security Privacy & CommerceThe running battle between hackers and network security professionals has moved beyond the perimeter firewall to hand-to-hand combat at individual Web and corporate servers．And new security weapons have emerged that use ingenious methods to protect Web sites and corporate networks from external and internal security threats．Here are some of the latest tools at your disposal.No exitGillian G-Server doesn’t care how the hacker got in or what changes they may have made to your Web site．Gillian Exit Control technology prevents the world from seeing the consequences of a security breach．Gillian G-Server sits between the Web server and the router or firewall that connects the Web server to the Internet, inspecting every piece of content that goes out. The Exit Control G-Server contains a collection of digital signatures made from authorized Web content during the publication process．Each time the site content producers publish a new or revised object，the G-Server saves a digital backup of the object along with a digital signature.Signatures that don match send up a red flag which triggers the G-Server to immediately replace a bogus page with a secure archived copy of the original，while simultaneously alerting appropriate personnel．Tripwire，Inc. Tripwire for Servers is a similar data and network integrity product．However，Tripwire for Servers takes a different approach ——its software is loaded onto the server that you want to protect．It monitors all file changes，whether they originate from inside or outside the company，and reports back if a change violates predetermined policies.Honeypots or decoysHoneypots are designed to lure and contain an intruder on the network．Honeypots are decoy devices that can divert attacks from production systems and let security administrators study or understand what happening on the network．ManTrap，from Recourse，is a powerful honeypot that deployed next to data servers，if it being used to deflect internal attacks，and located off the firewall in the demilitarized zone (DMZ) if it being used against external threats．The majority of users deploy it internally to get suspicious activity under control.In that scenario，a ManTrap server would be set up to look like a file server that stores intellectual property or business plans．A successful deployment of ManTrap depends on a variety of factors including quality，naming scheme，placement and security policy．For example，deceptive defenses are most effective when deployed in quantities equal to or greater than that of the production system．Honeypots can get expensive which is why companies must pick and choose the critical servers they want to protect.What attracts an attacker to ManTrap is configuring it to make it look more vulnerable than other servers．Once the hacker is on the decoy server，security managers can log the hacker activity and gain insight into what the intruder is trying to accomplish. Fall into the gapAir gap technology provides a physical gap between trusted and untrusted networks, creating an isolated path for moving files between an external server and a company internal network and systems. Vendors include RVT Technologies, Spearhead Technology and Whale Communications.Whale e-Gap Web Shuttle is a nonprogrammable device that switches a memory bank between two computer hosts. The e-Gap Web Shuttle creates an air gap between the Internet and a company back-office systems. Companies might use e-Gap Web Shuttle between an external service running e-commerce applications, such as online banking, and internal databases that might be queried by external users.The e-Gap system consists of the e-Gap appliance that is attached to two PC hosts, one internal and one external. The internal host connects to the company internal network and the external host sits in the DMZ in front of the firewall.All URLs to Web pages are directed to a mock location on the external host. Pages do not actually reside on this host. The external host strips off the protocol headers, extracts only the content of the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) traffic and passes it to the e-Gap Web Shuttle. The e-Gap Web Shuttle transports the encrypted data to the internal host using a toggling e-disk. The e-Gap internal host decrypts SSL traffic, authenticates the user and filters the URL content. It then passes the URL request to the company production Web server that resides on the back-office network.The fix is inSecurity and vulnerability assessment tools, designed to be used in-house, can detect weaknesses in an organization systems before problems occur and can fix those problems.Retina , from eEye, scans, monitors, alerts and automatically fixes network security vulnerabilities. The product works on Windows NT SP3 or higher and Windows 2000.The software is installed on any machine within the network. The network administrator types in a range of IP addresses to scan and pushes a button. The product scans the network for vulnerabilities, software flaws and policy problems and reports any vulnerabilities.The product “fix it” feature provides network administrator with a description of any found vulnerabilities, information on how to fix it, or access to a fix it button that can repair the vulnerability locally or remotely.Demolishing DoS attacksPerhaps one of the newest categories of security is products that target denial-of-service (DoS) attacks and more. By definition, DoS attacks make computer systems inaccessible by exploiting software bugs or overloading servers or networks so that legitimate users can no longer access those resources. The product category is so new that some products are still in beta test or on the cusp of entering the marketplace. Going after one of the most malicious types of computer vandalism, the DoS attack, are Arbor Networks, of Waltham, Mass.; Mazu Networks, of Cambridge, Mass.; and Asta Networks in Seattle.Mazu’s solution to distributed DoS attacks works via intelligent traffic analysis and filtering across the network. A monitoring device, such as a packet sniffer or packet analyzer, evaluates packets on the network at speeds up to 1G bit/sec. A monitoring device then determines which traffic needs to be filtered out.The good, the bad and the uglyThe good news about all of these new security techniques is that they theoretically offer companies additional layers of security protection, providing better overall security. What this ultimately means to businesses is that additional security mechanisms can succeed where others have failed. Another plus about some of the new products is that they are optimized for a particular application, such as integrity of the Web servers.However, as with any technology, there are pros and cons to consider. In fact, there are some downsides to implementing these new security products. For example: They are all incremental solutions, not replacements.They require a certain amount of expertise.Many vendors are start-ups and there a risk as to how long theyl be around.There a concern, in many IT shops, about adding preventive controls because of associated overhead——a concern that can be easily remedied by investing in additional horsepower.What too much? When does a company run the risk because of having too many products to manage?The bottom line is that security is never a done deal. It a continuing process that a new crop of innovative vendors are making more interesting.Benevolent WormsAlthough the prospect of using virus technology to simplify the task of delivering patches and software updates is tempting, the dangers can outweigh the benefits when the process is too automated. For example, the improved Windows Update feature in Windows XP now allows patches and updates to be downloaded automatically,altho ugh installation is still at the user’s discretion.Trojan horses, worms, and other malicious code forms have proven to be incredibly successful at paralyzing e-mail systems and Internet providers. It is therefore only logical to conceive of ways to use them for productive purposes, much as the Bible exhorts its readers to beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks.Granted, it would be wonderful if IT administrators could distribute patches and software updates to desktops and servers as quickly as an e-mail virus can spread from one machine to the next. But is such a magic wand really a good idea?Well, maybe not exactly. After all, unlike the human immune system, which produces defenses, or antibodies, automatically, the computer must wait for a human to analyze samples of a computer virus, prepare antidotes and vaccines for that specific situation, and only then apply the cure.This observation alone would seem to discredit the idea of a “digital immune system” that the sec urity community has tossed around during the past few years, but there’s an even more important point to consider. Similar to the way that autoimmune diseases turn the body’ s own defenses against itself, so could one turn a viruslike software delivery system against its own computers. Although it would be difficult to monkey with the digital certificates that would conceivably be used to identify trusted patches, it’s not impossible to subvert the certificate issuing system, as Microsoft and VeriSign found to their dismay last March.Ultimately, a viruslike software delivery system would require software publishers to deliberately put a back door into their systems, and few customers will tolerate that practice, even under shrinkwrap licensing terms. Becau se there’s no guarantee thatsuch a tempting target wouldn’t be exploited by hackers, any IT manager deploying such a system would be foolhardy in the extreme.Virus behavior that standpoint go to see from the operate system, is some normal behaviors, and say for the operate system that don't break the law , therefore at kill the virus software to check to kill the virus, usually meeting because operate system of obstruction-" the document was take upped by system and can't change the code at system "," virus the inside to circulate" etc. reason, but can't clean the virus , we at kill the virus of time also want to speak to investigate some techniques, and go to the round over the operate system's obstruction, from success of virus is from the system Speak here of kill the virus method is:Kill the virus with the tool under the safe mode to kill the virus under the pure DOS mode.Why want the pure DOS mode to down kill the virus?Because the virus procedure is under the operate system explain the mode to circulate o, such as:Script virus" new and happiness time", virus etc., they can't circulate in the inside memory, and system also argue all legal procedures but as to it's take in to protect, and guarantee it continue to circulate, prohibition against in the movement procedure right proceed modification, this result ined virus can't quilt the clearance's result for aegis for having under the pure DOS mode, connecting the Windows operate system all don't can quilt circulating, virus more impossible movement, for this reason this hour as to it's checking killing, round over system, attaining cleanly killing the virus.The usage special tool under the safe mode to kill the virusThe each of Windows operate system for edition all contain a safe mode to circulate the way, and here circulate the way bottom can only circulate the most basic procedure, again this mode bottom, you can cancel all of from start the item,avoid the virus's special tool is small and very shrewd, and use it can under the safe mode normal weakness is a result for can aim atting the popular virus of some comparisons, can't attaining completely killing the virus.For attain to kill the clean virus result, we can synthesize to use these two kinds of methods.Kill the virus not equal to defend the virus, and hard work should be protected . Privacy-Protecting techniquesIn this chapter, we will look at some proven techniques to protect your privacy when you use the Internet. Most of these techniques are simple, commonsense rules that you can put into effect immediately-choosing a good service provider, using good password, cleaning up after yourself online, avoiding Spam and junk email, and protecting yourself from identity theft.Choosing a good service providerThe first and most important technique for protecting your privacy is to pick service providers who respect your privacy.Here are some things to consider when you choose an ISP:. Unless you take special measures to obscure the content and destinations of your Internet usage, your ISP can monitor every single web page that you visit, every email message that you send, every email message that you receive, and many others about your Internet usage.. If you have a dialup ISP ,your ISP can also infer when you are at home ,when you go on vacation, and other aspects of your schedule.. If you check your email from work ,your ISP can learn where you work.. Many ISPs routinely monitor the actions of their subscribers for the purposes of testing equipment, learning about their user population, or collecting per-user demographics.. Some ISPs will monitor the web sites that you visit and sell this information for the purpose of increasing their revenue. In some cases, the ISPs clearly state this policy and, in fact ,use the sale of the data as a way of subsidizing the cost of Internet access .Other ISPs silently engage in this practice.. Equipment is now on the market that allows ISPs to monitor the advertisements that are downloaded to your computer and ,in some case, replace the advertisements with different ones. This equipment is also capable of generating detailed user-level statistics.. Some ISPs have strict policies regarding which employees have access to user data and how that data must be protected .Other ISPs have no policies at all.. Many policies that are in use basically say “we can monitor anything that we want.”However,not all ISPs that have these policies actually monitor their users. Picking a Great PasswordPasswords are the simplest from of authentication. Passwords are a secret that you share with the you log in, you type your password to prove to the computer that you are who you claim to be. The computer ensures that the password you type matches the account that you have specified. If they match, you allowed to proceed.Using good passwords for your Internet service is a first line of defense for your privacy. If you pick a password that is easy to guess, then somebody who is targeting you will find it easier to gain access to your personal information. If you use the same password on a variety of different services ,then a person who is able to discover the password for one of your services will be able to access other services.Good Passwords: locked DoorsGood passwords are passwords that are difficult to guess. The best passwords are difficult to guess because they:-Have both uppercase and lowercase letters-Have digits and/or punctuation characters as well as letters-May include some control characters and /of spaces-Are easy to remember, so they do not have to be written down-Are at least seven of eight characters long-Can be typed quickly ,so somebody cannot determine what you type by watching over your shoulderIt is easy to pick a good password. Here are some suggestions:.Take two short words and combine them with a special character or a number, like robot4my or eye-con..Put together an acronym that is special to you, like Notfsw(None of this fancy stuff works),auPEGC(All Unix programmers eat green cheese),orTtl*Hiww(Twinkle,twinkle,little star. How I w onder what…).Cleaning Up After YourselfWhen you use the Internet, you leave traces of the web sites that you visit and the information that you see on your computer. Another person can learn a lot about the web sites that you have visited by examining your computer for these electronic footprints. This process of computer examination is called computer forensics, and it has become a hot area of research in recent years. Special-purpose programs can also examine your computer and either prepare a report, or transmit the report over the Internet to someone else.Although it can be very hard to remove all traces of a web site that you have seen or an email message that you have downloaded, you can do a good job of cleaning up your computer with only a small amount of work. There are also a growing number of programs that can automatically clean up your computer at regular intervals as we will see in the next chapter.Avoiding Spam and Junk EmailUnwanted electronic mail is the number one consumer complaint on the Internet today. A 1999 study by BrightMail,a company that develops antispam technology, found that 84 percent of Internet users had received Spam;42 percent loathed the time it takes to handle Spam;30 percent found it to be a “significant invasion of privacy;”15 percent found it offensive; and ISPs suffered account churn rates as high as percent as a direct result of Spam.Protect Your Email AddressTo send you junk mail, a spammer must have your email address. By understanding how spammers get email addresses, you can keep your mailbox relatively Spam-free: Do not put your email address on your home page, Take your name out of online directories, Do not post to public mailing lists, Do not post to Usenet, Pick an unusual username.附录Ｂ---中文翻译网络上的个人和商业安全原文见于，请对照参考。

土木工程-毕业设计-论文-外文翻译-中英文对照

英文原文：Concrete structure reinforcement designSheyanb oⅠWangchenji aⅡⅠFoundation Engineering Co., Ltd. Heilongjiang DongyuⅡHeilongjiang Province, East Building Foundation Engineering Co., Ltd. CoalAbstract：structure in the long-term natural environment and under the use environment's function, its function is weaken inevitably gradually, our structural engineering's duty not just must finish the building earlier period the project work, but must be able the science appraisal structure damage objective law and the degree, and adopts the effective method guarantee structure the security use, that the structure reinforcement will become an important work. What may foresee will be the 21st century, the human building also by the concrete structure, the steel structure, the bricking-up structure and so on primarily, the present stage I will think us in the structure reinforcement this aspect research should also take this as the main breakthrough direction.Key word：Concrete structure reinforcement bricking-up structure reinforcement steel structure reinforcement1 Concrete structure reinforcementConcrete structure's reinforcement divides into the direct reinforcement and reinforces two kinds indirectly, when the design may act according to the actual condition and the operation requirements choice being suitable method and the necessary technology.1.1the direct reinforcement's general method1）Enlarges the section reinforcement lawAdds the concretes cast-in-place level in the reinforced concrete member in bending compression zone, may increase the section effective height, the expansion cross sectional area, thus enhances the component right section anti-curved, the oblique section anti-cuts ability and the section rigidity, plays the reinforcement reinforcement the role.In the suitable muscle scope, the concretes change curved the component right section supporting capacity increase along with the area of reinforcement and the intensity enhance. In the original component right section ratio of reinforcement not too high situation, increases the main reinforcement area to be possible to propose the plateau component right section anti-curved supporting capacity effectively. Is pulled in the section the area to add the cast-in-place concrete jacket to increase the component section, through new Canada partial and original component joint work, but enhances the component supporting capacity effectively, improvement normal operational performance.Enlarges the section reinforcement law construction craft simply, compatible, and has the mature design and the construction experience; Is suitable in Liang, the board, the column, the wall and the general structure concretes reinforcement; But scene construction's wet operating time is long, to produces has certain influence with the life, and after reinforcing the building clearance has certain reduction.2) Replacement concretes reinforcement lawThis law's merit with enlarges the method of sections to be close, and after reinforcing, does not affect building's clearance, but similar existence construction wet operating time long shortcoming; Is suitable somewhat low or has concretes carrier's and so on serious defect Liang, column in the compression zone concretes intensity reinforcement.3) the caking outsourcing section reinforcement lawOutside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement is wraps in the section or the steel plate is reinforced component's outside, outside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforces reinforced concrete Liang to use the wet outsourcing law generally, namely uses the epoxy resinification to be in the milk and so on methods with to reinforce the section the construction commission to cake a whole, after the reinforcement component, because is pulled with the compressed steel cross sectional area large scale enhancement, therefore right section supporting capacity and section rigidity large scale enhancement.This law also said that the wet outside Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement law, the stress is reliable, the construction is simple, the scene work load is small, but is big with the steel quantity, and uses in above not suitably 600C in the non-protection's situation the high temperature place; Is suitable does not allow in the use obviously to increase the original component section size, but requests to sharpen its bearing capacity large scale the concrete structure reinforcement.4) Sticks the steel reinforcement lawOutside the reinforced concrete member in bending sticks the steel reinforcement is (right section is pulled in the component supporting capacity insufficient sector area, right section compression zone or oblique section) the superficial glue steel plate, like this may enhance is reinforced component's supporting capacity, and constructs conveniently.This law construction is fast, the scene not wet work or only has the plastering and so on few wet works, to produces is small with the life influence, and after reinforcing, is not remarkable to the original structure outward appearance and the original clearance affects, but the reinforcement effect is decided to a great extent by the gummy craft and the operational level; Is suitable in the withstanding static function, and is in the normal humidity environment to bend or the tension member reinforcement.5) Glue fibre reinforcement plastic reinforcement lawOutside pastes the textile fiber reinforcement is pastes with the cementing material the fibre reinforcement compound materials in is reinforced the component to pull the region, causes it with to reinforce the section joint work, achieves sharpens the component bearing capacity the goal. Besides has glues the steel plate similar merit, but also has anticorrosive muddy, bears moistly, does not increase the self-weight of structure nearly, durably, the maintenance cost low status merit, but needs special fire protection processing, is suitable in each kind of stress nature concrete structure component and the general construction.This law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.6) Reeling lawThis law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.7) Fang bolt anchor lawThis law is suitable in the concretes intensity rank is the C20~C60 concretes load-bearing member transformation, the reinforcement; It is not suitable for already the above structure which and the light quality structure makes decent seriously. 1.2The indirect reinforcement's general method1)Pre-stressed reinforcement law(1)Thepre-stressed horizontal tension bar reinforces concretes member in bending,because the pre-stressed and increases the exterior load the combined action, in the tension bar has the axial tension, this strength eccentric transmits on the component through the pole end anchor (, when tension bar and Liang board bottom surface close fitting, tension bar can look for tune together with component, this fashion has partial pressures to transmit directly for component bottom surface), has the eccentric compression function in the component, this function has overcome the bending moment which outside the part the load produces, reduced outside the load effect, thus sharpened component's anti-curved ability. At the same time, because the tension bar passes to component's pressure function, the component crack development can alleviate, the control, the oblique section anti-to cut the supporting capacity also along with it enhancement.As a result of the horizontal lifting stem's function, the original component's section stress characteristic by received bends turned the eccentric compression, therefore, after the reinforcement, component's supporting capacity was mainly decided in bends under the condition the original component's supporting capacity 。

毕业设计英文翻译中英文对照版

Feasibility assessment of a leading-edge-flutter wind power generator前缘颤振风力发电机的可行性评估Luca Caracoglia卢卡卡拉克格里亚Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington A venue, Boston, MA 02115, USA美国东北大学土木与环境工程斯内尔工程中心400，亨廷顿大道360，波士顿02115This study addresses the preliminary technical feasibility assessment of a mechanical apparatus for conversion of wind energy. 这项研究涉及的是风能转换的机械设备的初步技术可行性评估。

The proposed device, designated as ‘‘leading-edge-fl utter wind power generator’’, employs aeroelastic dynamic instability of a blade airfoil, torsionally rotating about its leading edge. 这种被推荐的定义为“前缘颤振风力发电机”的设备，采用的气动弹性动态不稳定叶片翼型，通过尖端旋转产生扭矩。

Although the exploitation of aeroelastic phenomena has been proposed by the research community for energy harvesting, this apparatus is compact, simple and marginally susceptible to turbulence and wake effects.虽然气动弹性现象的开发已经有研究界提出可以通过能量采集。

课程名称英文翻译

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Theory概率论与数理统计Probability Theory & Mathematical Statistics概率论与随机过程Probability Theory & Stochastic Process钢笔画Pen Drawing钢的热处理Heat-Treatment of Steel钢结构Steel Structure钢筋混凝土Reinforced Concrete钢筋混凝土及砖石结构Reinforced Concrete & Brick Structure钢砼结构Reinforced Concrete Structure高层建筑基础设计Designing bases of High Rising Buildings高层建筑结构设计Designing Structures of High Rising Buildings高等材料力学Advanced Material Mechanics高等代数Advanced Algebra高等教育管理Higher Education Management高等教育史History of Higher Education高等教育学Higher Education高等数学Advanced Mathematics高电压技术High-V oltage Technology高电压测试技术High-V oltage Test Technology高分子材料High Polymer Material高分子材料及加工High Polymer Material & Porcessing高分子化学High Polymer Chemistry高分子化学实验High Polymer Chemistry Experiment高分子物理High Polymer Physics高分子物理实验High Polymer Physics Experiment高级英语听说Advanced English Listening & Speaking高能密束焊High Energy-Dense Beam Welding高频电路High-Frenquency Circuit高频电子技术High-Frenquency Electronic Technology高频电子线路High-Frenquency Electronic Circuit高压测量技术High-Voltage Measurement Technology高压测试技术High-Voltage Testing Technology高压电场的数值计算Numerical Calculation in High-V oltage Electronic Field 高压电器High-Voltage Electrical Appliances高压绝缘High-Voltage Insulation高压实验High-Voltage Experimentation高压试验技术High-Voltage Experimentation Technology工程材料的力学性能测试Mechanic Testing of Engineering Materials工程材料及热处理Engineering Material and Heat Treatment工程材料学Engineering Materials工程测量Engineering Surveying工程测试技术Engineering Testing Technique工程测试实验Experiment on Engineering Testing工程测试信息Information of Engineering Testing工程动力学Engineering Dynamics工程概论Introduction to Engineering工程概预算Project Budget工程经济学Engineering Economics工程静力学Engineering Statics工程力学Engineering Mechanics工程热力学Engineering Thermodynamics工程项目评估Engineering Project Evaluation工程优化方法Engineering Optimizational Method工程运动学Engineering Kinematics工程造价管理Engineering Cost Management工程制图Graphing of Engineering工业分析Industrial Analysis工业锅炉Industrial Boiler工业会计学Industrial Accounting工业机器人Industrial Robot工业技术基础Basic Industrial Technology工业建筑设计原理Principles of Industrial Building Design工业经济理论Industrial Economic Theory工业经济学Industrial Economics工业企业财务管理Industrial Enterprise Financial Management工业企业财务会计Accounting in Industrial Enterprises工业企业管理Industrial Enterprise Management工业企业经营管理Industrial Enterprise Adminstrative Management 工业社会学Industrial Sociology工业心理学Industrial Psychology工业窑炉Industrial Stoves工艺过程自动化Technics Process Automation公差Common Difference公差技术测量Technical Measurement with Common Difference公差与配合Common Difference & Cooperation公共关系学Public Relations公文写作Document Writing古代汉语Ancient Chinese古典文学作品选读Selected Readings in Classical Literature固体激光Solid State Laser固体激光器件Solid Laser Elements固体激光与电源Solid State Laser & Power Unit固体物理Solid State Physics管理概论Introduction to Management管理经济学Management Economics管理数学Management Mathematics管理系统模拟Management System Simulation管理心理学Management Psychology管理信息系统Management Information Systems光波导理论Light Wave Guide Theory光电技术Photoelectric Technology光电信号处理Photoelectric Signal Processing光电信号与系统分析Photoelectric Signal & Systematic Analysis光辐射探测技术Ray Radiation Detection Technology光谱Spectrum光谱分析Spectral Analysis光谱学Spectroscopy光纤传感Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器基础Fundamentals of Fibre Optical Sensors光纤传感器及应用Fibre Optical Sensors & Applications光纤光学课程设计Course Design of Fibre Optical光纤技术实验Experiments in Fibre Optical Technology光纤通信基础Basis of Fibre Optical Communication光学Optics光学测量Optical Measurement光学分析法Optical Analysis Method光学计量仪器设计Optical Instrument Gauge Designing光学检测Optical Detection光学设计Optical Design光学信息导论Introduction of Optical Infomation光学仪器设计Optical Instrument Designing光学仪器与计量仪器设计Optical Instrument & Gauge Instrument Designing 光学仪器装配与校正Optical Instrument Installation & Adjustment广播编辑学Broadcast Editing广播新闻Broadcast Journalism广播新闻采写Broadcast Journalism Collection & Composition广告学Advertisement锅炉燃烧理论Theory of Boiler Combustion锅炉热交换传热强化Boiler Heat Exchange,Condction & Intensification锅炉原理Principles of Boiler国际金融International Finance国际经济法International Economic Law国际贸易International Trade国际贸易地理International Trade Geography国际贸易实务International Trade Affairs国际市场学International Marketing国际市场营销International Marketing国民经济计划National Economical Planning国外社会学理论Overseas Theories of Sociology过程(控制)调节装置Process(Control) Adjustment Device过程调节系统Process Adjustment System过程控制Process Control过程控制系统Process Control System海洋测量Ocean Surveying海洋工程概论Introduction to Ocean Engineering函数分析Functional Analysis焊接方法Welding Method焊接方法及设备Welding Method & Equipment焊接检验Welding Testing焊接结构Welding Structure焊接金相Welding Fractography焊接金相分析Welding Fractography Analysis焊接冶金Welding Metallurgy焊接原理Fundamentals of Welding焊接原理及工艺Fundamentals of Welding & Technology焊接自动化Automation of Welding汉语Chinese汉语与写作Chinese & Composition汉语语法研究Research on Chinese Grammar汉字信息处理技术Technology of Chinese Information Processing毫微秒脉冲技术Millimicrosecond Pusle Technique核动力技术Nuclear Power Technology合唱与指挥Chorus & Conduction合金钢Alloy Steel宏观经济学Macro-Economics宏微观经济学Macro Micro Economics红外CCD Infrared CCD红外电荷耦合器Infrared Electric Charge Coupler红外探测器Infrared Detectors红外物理Infrared Physics红外物理与技术Infrared Physics & Technology红外系统Infrared System红外系统电信号处理Processing Electric Signals from Infrared Systems厚薄膜集成电路Thick & Thin Film Integrated Circuit弧焊电源Arc Welding Power弧焊原理Arc Welding Principles互换性技术测量基础Basic Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性技术测量Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性与技术测量Elementary Technology of Exchangeability Measurement互换性与技术测量实验Experiment of Exchangeability Measurement Technology 画法几何及机械制图Descriptive Geometry & Mechanical Graphing画法几何与阴影透视Descriptive Geometry,Shadow and Perspective化工基础Elementary Chemical Industry化工仪表与自动化Chemical Meters & Automation化工原理Principles of Chemical Industry化学Chemistry化学反应工程Chemical Reaction Engineering化学分离Chemical Decomposition化学工程基础Elementary Chemical Engineering化学计量学Chemical Measurement化学文献Chemical Literature化学文献及查阅方法Chemical Literature & Consulting Method化学粘结剂Chemical Felter环境保护理论基础Basic Theory of Environmental Protection环境化学Environomental Chemistry环境行为概论Introduction to Environmental Behavior换热器Thermal Transducer回旧分析与试验设计Tempering Analysis and Experiment Design回转式压缩机Rotary Compressor回转压缩机数学模型Mathematical Modeling of Rotary Compressors会计学Accountancy会计与财务分析Accountancy & Financial Analysis会计与设备分析Accountancy & Equipment Analysis会计原理及外贸会计Principles of Accountancy & Foreign Trade Accountancy 会计原理与工业会计Principles of Accountancy & Industrial Accountancy活力学Energy Theory活塞膨胀机Piston Expander活塞式制冷压缩机Piston Refrigerant Compreessor活塞式压缩机Piston Compressor活塞式压缩机基础设计Basic Design of Piston Compressor活塞压缩机结构强度Structural Intensity of Piston Compressor活赛压机气流脉动Gas Pulsation of Piston Pressor货币银行学Currency Banking基本电路理论Basis Theory of Circuit基础写作Fundamental Course of Composition机床电路Machine Tool Circuit机床电器Machine Tool Electric Appliance机床电气控制Electrical Control of Machinery Tools机床动力学Machine Tool Dynamics机床设计Machine Tool design机床数字控制Digital Control of Machine Tool机床液压传动Machinery Tool Hydraulic Transmission机电传动Mechanical & Electrical Transmission机电传动控制Mechanical & electrical Transmission Control机电耦合系统Mechanical & Electrical Combination System机电系统计算机仿真Computer Simulation of Mechanic/Electrical Systems机电一体化Mechanical & Electrical Integration机构学Structuring机器人Robot机器人控制技术Robot Control Technology机械产品学Mechanic Products机械产品造型设计Shape Design of Mechanical Products机械工程控制基础Basic Mechanic Engineering Control机械加工自动化Automation in Mechanical Working机械可靠性Mechanical Reliability机械零件Mechanical Elements机械零件设计Course Exercise in Machinery Elements Design机械零件设计基础Basis of Machinery Elements Design机械设计Mechanical Designing机械设计基础Basis of Mechanical Designing机械设计课程设计Course Exercise in Mechanical Design机械设计原理Principle of Mechanical Designing机械式信息传输机构Mechanical Information Transmission Device机械原理Principle of Mechanics机械原理和机械零件Mechanism & Machinery机械原理及机械设计Mechanical Designing机械原理及应用Mechanical Principle & Mechanical Applications机械原理课程设计Course Exercise of Mechanical Principle机械原理与机械零件Mechanical Principle and Mechanical Elements机械原理与机械设计Mechanical Principle and Mechanical Design机械噪声控制Control of Mechanical Noise机械制造概论Introduction to Mechanical Manufacture机械制造工艺学Technology of Mechanical Manufacture机械制造基础Fundamental of Mechanical Manufacture机械制造基础(金属工艺学) Fundamental Course of Mechanic Manufacturing (Meta 机械制造系统自动化Automation of Mechanical Manufacture System机械制造中计算机控制Computer Control in Mechanical Manufacture机制工艺及夹具Mechanical Technology and Clamps积分变换Integral Transformation积分变换及数理方程Integral Transformation & Mathematical Equations积分变换控制工程Integral Transformation Control Engineering积分变换与动力工程Integral Transforms & Dynamic Engineering激光电源Laser Power Devices激光焊Laser Welding激光基础Basis of Laser激光技术Laser Technology激光加工Laser Processing激光器件Laser Devices激光器件与电源Laser Devices & Power Source激光原理Principles of Laser激光原理与技术Laser Principles & Technology极限分析Limit Analysis。

各种荣誉证书的英文翻译

英文简历里需要用到的奖项、比赛、荣誉等的翻译一、国家及校级奖项、称号国家奖学金—— National Scholarship国家励志奖学金National Encouragement scholarship校一等奖：The First Prize Scholarship校二等奖：The Second Prize Scholarship校三等奖：The Third Prize Scholarship单项奖学金：Individual Scholarship三好学生标兵—— Pacemaker to Merit Student三好学生—— Merit Student学习优秀生—— Model Student of Academic Records突出才能奖—— Model Student of Outstanding Capacity先进个人—— Advanced Individual/Outstanding Student优秀工作者—— Excellent staff优秀学生干部—— Excellent Student Cadre优秀共青团员—— Excellent League Member优秀毕业生—— Outstanding Graduates优秀志愿者—— Outstanding Volunteer先进班集体—— Advanced Class优秀团干—— Outstanding League Cadres学生协会优秀干部—— Outstanding cadres of Student Association学生协会工作优秀个人Outstanding Individual of Student Association精神文明先进个人—— Spiritual Advanced Individual社会工作先进个人—— Advanced Individual of Social Work文体活动先进个人—— Advanced Individual of Cultural and sports activities 道德风尚奖———— Ethic Award精神文明奖———— High Morality Prize最佳组织奖———— Prize for The Best Organization突出贡献奖———— Prize for The Outstanding Contribution工作创新奖———— Prize for The Creative Working团队建设奖———— Prize for The Team Contribution国家奖学金—— National Scholarship国家励志奖学金National Encouragement scholarship校一等奖：The First Prize Scholarship校二等奖：The Second Prize Scholarship校三等奖：The Third Prize Scholarship单项奖学金：Individual Scholarship三好学生标兵—— Pacemaker to Merit Student三好学生—— Merit Student学习优秀生—— Model Student of Academic Records突出才能奖—— Model Student of Outstanding Capacity先进个人—— Advanced Individual/Outstanding Student优秀工作者—— Excellent staff优秀学生干部—— Excellent Student Cadre优秀共青团员—— Excellent League Member优秀毕业生—— Outstanding Graduates优秀志愿者—— Outstanding Volunteer先进班集体—— Advanced Class优秀团干—— Outstanding League Cadres学生协会优秀干部—— Outstanding cadres of Student Association学生协会工作优秀个人Outstanding Individual of Student Association精神文明先进个人—— Spiritual Advanced Individual社会工作先进个人—— Advanced Individual of Social Work文体活动先进个人—— Advanced Individual of Cultural and sports activities 道德风尚奖———— Ethic Award精神文明奖———— High Morality Prize最佳组织奖———— Prize for The Best Organization突出贡献奖———— Prize for The Outstanding Contribution工作创新奖———— Prize for The Creative Working团队建设奖———— Prize for The Team Contribution二、各系比赛与奖项外语系Foreign Language Department:话剧比赛———— Drama competition英语演讲比赛—— English Speech Contest八系辩论赛———— Eight Departments Invitational Debate Competition 黑板报设计大赛—— Blackboard Poster Design ContestPPT设计大赛—— CoursewareDesign Competition文明宿舍———— Outstanding DormitoryOK杯篮球比赛—— OK Cup forBasketball Game我心飞扬歌唱比赛——“My Heart Flies” Singing Comp etition中文系Department of Chinese Language and Literature：诗歌朗诵比赛—— Poetry Recitation Contest诗歌创作比赛—— Poetry Creation Contest摄影大赛———— Photography Competition金话筒比赛————“Golden Microphone” Competition兴我中华演讲比赛—— Speech Competition on Revitalizing China课件比赛———— Courseware Design Contest报刊比赛———— Press Writing Contest足球比赛———— Football Match三笔比赛———— Essay Contest冬日环保针织比赛—— Knitting Contest on Winter Environmental Protection 数学系Department of Mathematics ：登山比赛———— Mountain-climbing Competition网络工程师———— Network Engineer Certification全国建模比赛—— National Mathematical Modeling Contest知识风采比赛—— Knowledge CompetitionPPT 课件制作大赛—— CoursewareDesign Competition经济管理系The Department of Economics & Management：辩论赛———— Debate Competition创业大赛———— Venture Contest政法系Politics and Law Department：党团知识竞赛———— Knowledge Contest on the Party and the League政法论坛———— Political and Legal Forum金秋系列活动————Series of Activities in “Golden Season模拟法庭———— Moot Court演讲比赛———— Speech Competition征文比赛———— Essay Competition计算机科学系Computer Science Department：网页设计大赛———— Web Page Design Competition辩论赛—————— Debate Competition软件设计大赛———— Software Design Competition多媒体课件设计大赛—— Multimedia Courseware Design Competition 网站设计竞赛———— Web Design Competition电子科学系Electronic Science Department：演讲比赛———— Speech Contest电子设计大赛———— Electronic Design Contest服装系Textile and Fashion Department：服装创意设计大赛—— Garment Design Competition毕业设计大赛———— Graduation Design Competition发表论文———— Publications专利证书———— Patent服装设计大赛———— Garment Design Contest泳衣大赛———— Swimming Suit Design Competition手提包设计大赛—— Handbag Design Competition服装创意设计大赛Creative Garment Design Competition生命科学系Department of Life Science：实验技能操作大赛—— Experiment Skill and Operation Contest广东大学生生物化学实验技能大赛——The Biochemical Experiments Contest for College Student in Guangdong建筑与土木工程系Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering：建筑文化节———— Architectural Culture Festival建筑设计竞赛———— Architectural Design Competition钢笔画比赛———— Ink Drawing Contest节徽设计大赛———— Festival Logo Design Contest“五佳”歌手活动————“Best Five” Singer Activities友谊篮球赛———— Friendship Cup Basketball Match工程测量比赛———— Engineering Survey Competition班际足球赛———— Inter-class Football Match省大学生科技竞赛—— Science and Technology Contest for Province College Students 十佳学生活动组织—— Top Ten Student Activities Organization十大学生修身楷模—— Ten Model Students of Self-cultivation学生科研创新奖———— Student Award for Research and Innovation棋王大赛—————— Chess Competition电子社飞思杯电脑建筑效果图设计大赛———— E-Society Feisi Cup Architectural Renderings Computer DesignContest化学工程系Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology：“飞狐杯”八系辩论赛—— Flying Fox Cup 8 departments Invitational Debate Competition 女子篮球赛———— Women's Basketball Match广东省高校化学化工实验技能大赛—— Chemistry and Chemical Experiment Skills Competition for Collegesin Guangdong旅游管理系Tourism and Management Department:导游技能大赛———— Tourist Skills Contest导游路线设计大赛—— Tourist Route Design Competition党团知识竞赛———— Knowledge Contests about the CPC and the CYLC礼仪风采大赛———— Manner and Etiquette Contest体育系Department of Sports:体育文化节———— Physical Culture Festival音乐系Music Department相声小品大赛———— Crosstalk and Sketch Contest班际篮球赛———— Inter-class Basketball Match三、证书大学英语四级—— CET4 College English Test Band 4 Certificate大学英语六级———— CET6 College English Test Band 6 Certificate英语专业四级———— TEM4 Test for English Major Grade 4 Certificate英语专业八级———— TEM8 Test for English Major Grade 8 Certificate普通话等级考试———— National Mandarin Test Level 1; 2; 3; Grade A;B;C日语能力考试———— Japanese Language Proficiency Test Level 1; ２; ３; ４商务日语能力考试—— Business Japanese Proficiency Test商务英语证书———— Business English Certificate雅思—————— IELTS International English Language Testing System托福—————— TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign LanguageBEC初级—————— BECPreliminary Level;缩略为BEC Pre.BEC中级—————— BEC VantageLevel;缩略为BEC Van.BEC高级—————— BEC HigherLevel;缩略为BEC Hi.全国计算机等级考试—— National Computer Rank Examination NCRERank I: DOS、WINDOWSRankⅡ: VISUAL BASIC;VISUALFOXPRO;QBASIC;FORTRAN;C; FOXBASERankⅢ: PC technology、Informationmanagement、Internet technology、Data base RankⅣ: Ability to systemsanalysis and systems project全国计算机一级证书First-level Certificate for National Computer全国计算机二级证书Second-level Certificate for National Computer全国计算机三级证书Third-level Certificate for National Computer全国计算机四级证书Fourth-level Certificate for National Computer导游证—————— Guide ID Card Guide Identity of Identification Card导游资格证书———— Guide Certificate秘书证—————— Secretary Card中级涉外秘书证———— Intermediate Foreign Secretary Card会计证—————— Accounting Certificate会计从业资格证书:—— Certificate of Accounting Professional初级职务助理会计证书Sub-accountant Certificate Preliminary Level中级职称—————— Intermediate Certificate管理会计师证书:———— Certificate in Management Accounting注册会计师证书:———— CPA CertificateCertificate of Certified Public Accountant 注册金融分析师————CFAChartered Financial Analyst特许公认会计师————ACCAThe Association of Chartered AccountantsCAD工程师认证证书—— CADEngineer Certification电工证—————— Electrician certificate技工证书—————— Technician Certificate教师资格证—————— Teacher Certification心理辅导教师资格证书—— Psychological Counseling Teacher Certificate报关员资格证书———— Clerk for the Customs Declaration报关员证书—————— Customs Declaration Certificate人力资源从业资格证书—— Qualification of Human Resources Practitioners驾驶证——————Driver’s License国家司法考试证书———— National Judicial Examination certificatelawyer'squalification certificate律师资格证书————Attorney’s certificate企业法律顾问执业资格证书Enterprise Counsel Qualification Certificate法律顾问—————— Legal Adviser律师助理证—————— Assistant Lawyer Certificate会计从业资格证———— Certificate of Accounting Professional初级会计职称———— Junior Level Accountant中级会计职称———— Medium Level Accountant高级职称—————— Advanced Level Accountant注册会计师—————— Certified Public Accountant CPC注册税务师—————— Certified Tax AgentsCTA经济师—————— Economist精算师—————— Actuary审计师—————— Auditor统计师—————— Actuary物流师职业资格证书—— Certificate of International Logistics Specialist国际物流师—————— Certified International Logistics Specialist CILS国际电子商务师职业资格认证Certification of International E-Commerce Specialist 国际电子商务师———— Certified International E-Commerce SpecialistCIECS市场营销师—————— Marketing Manager特许市场营销师———— Certified Marketing Manager CMM初级营销职业证书———— Introductory Certificate in Marketing市场营销职业证书———— Certificate in Marketing国际商务谈判师———— Certificated International Professional Negotiator CIPN 投资咨询师—————— Investment Counselor人力资源管理———— Human Resource Management HRM中国职业经理人资格认证—— Certificate of Chinese Professional Manager中国职业经理人———— Chinese Professional Manager CPM注册国际投资分析师—— Certified International Investment Analyst CIIA注册金融分析师———— Chartered Financial Analyst CFA注册金融策划师———— Certified Financial PlannerCFP认证金融理财师———— Associate Financial Planner AFP金融风险管理师———— Financial Risk Manager FRM证券从业资格证书———— Certificate of Securities国际贸易单证员证书—— Certificate of International Commercial Documents报关员资格证书———— Certificate of Customs Specialist报检员资格证书———— Certificate of Inspection公务员考试—————— Civil Servants Exam计算机技术与软件专业技术水平资格考试—— Computer Technology and Software Expertise level QualificationExamination网络工程师—————— Network Engineer软件设计师—————— Software Architect数据库分析师———— Database Analyst网络管理员—————— Webmaster信息系统项目管理师—— Information Systems Project Management Division网络规划设计师———— Network Planning Designer多媒体应用设计师———— Multimedia designer电力工程证书———— Certificate in Electrical Engineering国际电子商务师———— Certified International E-Commerce Specialist CIECS 一、二级建造师———— Grade1/2 Constructor造价工程师—————— Cost Engineer注册房地产估价师———— Certified Real Estate Appraiser质量工程师—————— Quality Assurance Engineer城市规划师—————— Urban Planner公路造价师—————— Highway Cost Estimator工程造价师—————— Budgeting Specialist化学检验员—————— Chemistry Testing Laboratory Technician化学技能证书———— Chemical Skills Certificate药品检验员—————— Drug Inspector四、校运会第一名—————— The First Prize第二名—————— The Second Prize第三名—————— The Third Prize惠州学院健美操比赛—— Competition of Body-building Exercises校运会篮球比赛———— Basketball Matches in Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会男子100米——Men’s 100-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会女子100米——Women’s 100-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会男子200米——Men’s 200-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会女子200米——Women’s 200-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会男子1500米——Men’s 1500-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会女子800米——Women’s 800-metre Race in the Sports-meeting of Huizhou University校运会男女跳高比赛—— M en/Women’s High Jump Matches校运会男女三级跳比赛——Men/Women’s Triple Jump Matches校运会男子110米栏——Men’s 110-metre Hurdle Race校运会男女铅球————Men/Women’s Shot Put校运会男女标枪————Men/Women’s javelin throwing五、艺术节博客大赛—————— Blog Contest“金话筒”主持人大赛—— Golden Microphone Host 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Best Actor Award最佳剧本奖———— Best Script Award优秀会员—————— Excellent Member最佳辩手—————— Best Debater优秀辩手—————— Excellent Debater六、协会法律促进协会—— Law Promotion Association模拟法庭竞赛Moot Court Competition英语口语协会—— Oral English Institute交流会Exchange Meeting —— Make Our Voice Heard书法协会—— Calligraphy Association“亲近中国文化;了解汉字”Get Close to the Chinese culture; Get to Learn Chinese CharactersX－GAME协会X-GAMEAssociationX-GAME创新表演大赛X-GAMEInnovation contests心理健康促进协会Association of Advancement of Mental Health“心灵之交”—— Meeting Soul-mates峥嵘乒乓球协会Association of Zhengrong Table Tennis“我最有才”峥嵘乒乓球比赛Zhengrong Cup Table Tennis Contest足球协会—— Football Association“新生杯”足球争霸赛之各系荣耀大战Freshmen Cup Football Match of all Departments—Glory War毽球协会—— Shuttlecock Association毽球新风采”毽球大比拼New Style Shuttlecock Competition篮球协会—— Basketball Association“三人篮球赛”———— Three-player Basketball Match旅游爱好者协会Travel Enthusiasts Association创意风筝节—— Creative Kite Festival演讲与口才协会Speech and Eloquence Association“环境保护;重在行动”演讲比赛Take Action to Protect Environment 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Secretary of the Youth League Branch Committee副书记—————— Vice Secretary秘书长—————— Secretary-general学术部干事—————— a member of the Academic Department宿舍长—————— Head of the dormitory优秀团员—————— Excellent League Member班长———————— Monitor/ Class President副班长—————— Vice-monitor文体委员—————— Recreation & Sports Secretary学习委员—————— Study Secretary生活委员—————— Life Secretary宣传委员—————— Publicity Secretary生活委员—————— Organization Secretary勤工俭学—————— Work-study Program青年志愿者协会———— Youth Volunteers Association政治辅导员—————— Political Tutors晚会主持人—————— Host on the entertainment / evening party礼仪队———————— Reception Team/ Protocol Team三下乡—————— Volunteer Activities for the Country People综合测评—————— Comprehensive Evalu ation of Students’ Performance预备党员—————————— Probationary Party Member入党积极分子—————— Applicant for Party Membership综合素质优秀学生———— Excellent Student of Comprehensive Quality优秀青年志愿者———— Outstanding Young Volunteer校园十杰—————— Ten Prominent Youth on Campus / Top Ten Youth on Campus 品学兼优的学生———— Student of Good Character and Scholarship模拟招聘会—————— Mock Interviews军训———————— Military Training艺术团———————— Art Troupe义教———————— Voluntary Teaching迎新晚会—————— Welcome Party for the Freshmen招聘会———————— Job Fair广播站———————— Broadcasting Station学生处———————— Students Affairs Department舍管———————— houseparent社会活动—————— social/ public activities课外活动—————— extracurricular activities社会实践—————— social practice学术活动—————— academic activities籍贯———————— native place婚姻状况—————— marital status家庭状况—————— family status可到职时间—————— date of availability教育程度—————— educational background课程———————— curriculum职业目标—————— career objective主修———————— major工作目标—————— employment objective副修———————— minor希望职位—————— position wanted优良学风班—————— Class of Good Style Study 团结合作—————— Solidarity and Cooperation 创新能力—————— Creative Ability沟通能力—————— Communicational Ability兼职———————— Part-time Job促销员———————— Sales Promoter派传单———————— Deliver pamphlets市场调研—————— Marketing Research乒乓球协会—————— Table Tennis Association社团艺术节—————— Community 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毕业设计英文翻译(原文)

编号：毕业设计(论文)外文翻译（原文）院（系）：桂林电子科技大学专业：电子信息工程学生姓名： xx学号： xxxxxxxxxxxxx 指导教师单位：桂林电子科技大学姓名： xxxx职称： xx2014年x月xx日Timing on and off power supplyusesThe switching power supply products are widely used in industrial automation and control, military equipment, scientific equipment, LED lighting, industrial equipment,communications equipment,electrical equipment,instrumentation, medical equipment, semiconductor cooling and heating, air purifiers, electronic refrigerator, LCD monitor, LED lighting, communications equipment, audio-visual products, security, computer chassis, digital products and equipment and other fields.IntroductionWith the rapid development of power electronics technology, power electronics equipment and people's work, the relationship of life become increasingly close, and electronic equipment without reliable power, into the 1980s, computer power and the full realization of the switching power supply, the first to complete the computer Power new generation to enter the switching power supply in the 1990s have entered into a variety of electronic, electrical devices, program-controlled switchboards, communications, electronic testing equipment power control equipment, power supply, etc. have been widely used in switching power supply, but also to promote the rapid development of the switching power supply technology .Switching power supply is the use of modern power electronics technology to control the ratio of the switching transistor to turn on and off to maintain a stable output voltage power supply, switching power supply is generally controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM) ICs and switching devices (MOSFET, BJT) composition. Switching power supply and linear power compared to both the cost and growth with the increase of output power, but the two different growth rates. A power point, linear power supply costs, but higher than the switching power supply. With the development of power electronics technology and innovation, making the switching power supply technology to continue to innovate, the turning points of this cost is increasingly move to the low output power side, the switching power supply provides a broad space for development.The direction of its development is the high-frequency switching power supply, high frequency switching power supply miniaturization, and switching power supply into a wider range of application areas, especially in high-tech fields, and promote the miniaturization of high-tech products, light of. In addition, the development and application of the switching power supply in terms of energy conservation, resource conservation and environmental protection are of great significance.classificationModern switching power supply, there are two: one is the DC switching power supply; the other is the AC switching power supply. Introduces only DC switching power supply and its function is poor power quality of the original eco-power (coarse) - such as mains power or battery power, converted to meet the equipment requirements of high-quality DC voltage (Varitronix) . The core of the DC switching power supply DC / DC converter. DC switching power supply classification is dependent on the classification of DC / DC converter. In other words, the classification of the classification of the DC switching power supply and DC/DC converter is the classification of essentially the same, the DC / DC converter is basically a classification of the DC switching power supply.DC /DC converter between the input and output electrical isolation can be divided into two categories: one is isolated called isolated DC/DC converter; the other is not isolated as non-isolated DC / DC converter.Isolated DC / DC converter can also be classified by the number of active power devices. The single tube of DC / DC converter Forward (Forward), Feedback (Feedback) two. The double-barreled double-barreled DC/ DC converter Forward (Double Transistor Forward Converter), twin-tube feedback (Double Transistor Feedback Converter), Push-Pull (Push the Pull Converter) and half-bridge (Half-Bridge Converter) four. Four DC / DC converter is the full-bridge DC / DC converter (Full-Bridge Converter).Non-isolated DC / DC converter, according to the number of active power devices can be divided into single-tube, double pipe, and four three categories. Single tube to a total of six of the DC / DC converter, step-down (Buck) DC / DC converter, step-up (Boost) DC / DC converters, DC / DC converter, boost buck (Buck Boost) device of Cuk the DC / DC converter, the Zeta DC / DC converter and SEPIC, the DC / DC converter. DC / DC converters, the Buck and Boost type DC / DC converter is the basic buck-boost of Cuk, Zeta, SEPIC, type DC / DC converter is derived from a single tube in this six. The twin-tube cascaded double-barreled boost (buck-boost) DC / DC converter DC / DC converter. Four DC / DC converter is used, the full-bridge DC / DC converter (Full-Bridge Converter).Isolated DC / DC converter input and output electrical isolation is usually transformer to achieve the function of the transformer has a transformer, so conducive to the expansion of the converter output range of applications, but also easy to achieve different voltage output , or a variety of the same voltage output.Power switch voltage and current rating, the converter's output power is usually proportional to the number of switch. The more the number of switch, the greater the output power of the DC / DC converter, four type than the two output power is twice as large,single-tube output power of only four 1/4.A combination of non-isolated converters and isolated converters can be a single converter does not have their own characteristics. Energy transmission points, one-way transmission and two-way transmission of two DC / DC converter. DC / DC converter with bi-directional transmission function, either side of the transmission power from the power of lateral load power from the load-lateral side of the transmission power.DC / DC converter can be divided into self-excited and separately controlled. With the positive feedback signal converter to switch to self-sustaining periodic switching converter, called self-excited converter, such as the the Luo Yeer (Royer,) converter is a typical push-pull self-oscillating converter. Controlled DC / DC converter switching device control signal is generated by specialized external control circuit.the switching power supply.People in the field of switching power supply technology side of the development of power electronic devices, while the development of the switching inverter technology, the two promote each other to promote the switching power supply annual growth rate of more than two digits toward the light, small, thin, low-noise, high reliability, the direction of development of anti-jamming. Switching power supply can be divided into AC / DC and DC / DC two categories, AC / AC DC / AC, such as inverters, DC / DC converter is now modular design technology and production processes at home and abroad have already matured and standardization, and has been recognized by the user, but AC / DC modular, its own characteristics make the modular process, encounter more complex technology and manufacturing process. Hereinafter to illustrate the structure and characteristics of the two types of switching power supply.Self-excited: no external signal source can be self-oscillation, completely self-excited to see it as feedback oscillation circuit of a transformer.Separate excitation: entirely dependent on external sustain oscillations, excited used widely in practical applications. According to the excitation signal structure classification; can be divided into pulse-width-modulated and pulse amplitude modulated two pulse width modulated control the width of the signal is frequency, pulse amplitude modulation control signal amplitude between the same effect are the oscillation frequency to maintain within a certain range to achieve the effect of voltage stability. The winding of the transformer can generally be divided into three types, one group is involved in the oscillation of the primary winding, a group of sustained oscillations in the feedback winding, there is a group of load winding. Such as Shanghai is used in household appliances art technological production of switching power supply, 220V AC bridge rectifier, changing to about 300V DC filter added tothe collector of the switch into the transformer for high frequency oscillation, the feedback winding feedback to the base to maintain the circuit oscillating load winding induction signal, the DC voltage by the rectifier, filter, regulator to provide power to the load. Load winding to provide power at the same time, take up the ability to voltage stability, the principle is the voltage output circuit connected to a voltage sampling device to monitor the output voltage changes, and timely feedback to the oscillator circuit to adjust the oscillation frequency, so as to achieve stable voltage purposes, in order to avoid the interference of the circuit, the feedback voltage back to the oscillator circuit with optocoupler isolation.technology developmentsThe high-frequency switching power supply is the direction of its development, high-frequency switching power supply miniaturization, and switching power supply into the broader field of application, especially in high-tech fields, and promote the development and advancement of the switching power supply, an annual more than two-digit growth rate toward the light, small, thin, low noise, high reliability, the direction of the anti-jamming. Switching power supply can be divided into AC / DC and DC / DC two categories, the DC / DC converter is now modular design technology and production processes at home and abroad have already matured and standardized, and has been recognized by the user, but modular AC / DC, because of its own characteristics makes the modular process, encounter more complex technology and manufacturing process. In addition, the development and application of the switching power supply in terms of energy conservation, resource conservation and environmental protection are of great significance.The switching power supply applications in power electronic devices as diodes, IGBT and MOSFET.SCR switching power supply input rectifier circuit and soft start circuit, a small amount of applications, the GTR drive difficult, low switching frequency, gradually replace the IGBT and MOSFET.Direction of development of the switching power supply is a high-frequency, high reliability, low power, low noise, jamming and modular. Small, thin, and the key technology is the high frequency switching power supply light, so foreign major switching power supply manufacturers have committed to synchronize the development of new intelligent components, in particular, is to improve the secondary rectifier loss, and the power of iron Oxygen materials to increase scientific and technological innovation in order to improve the magnetic properties of high frequency and large magnetic flux density (Bs), and capacitor miniaturization is a key technology. SMT technology allows the switching power supply has made considerable progress, the arrangement of the components in the circuit board on bothsides, to ensure that the light of the switching power supply, a small, thin. High-frequency switching power supply is bound to the traditional PWM switching technology innovation, realization of ZVS, ZCS soft-switching technology has become the mainstream technology of the switching power supply, and a substantial increase in the efficiency of the switching power supply. Indicators for high reliability, switching power supply manufacturers in the United States by reducing the operating current, reducing the junction temperature and other measures to reduce the stress of the device, greatly improve the reliability of products.Modularity is the overall trend of switching power supply, distributed power systems can be composed of modular power supply, can be designed to N +1 redundant power system, and the parallel capacity expansion. For this shortcoming of the switching power supply running noise, separate the pursuit of high frequency noise will also increase, while the use of part of the resonant converter circuit technology to achieve high frequency, in theory, but also reduce noise, but some The practical application of the resonant converter technology, there are still technical problems, it is still a lot of work in this field, so that the technology to be practical.Power electronics technology innovation, switching power supply industry has broad prospects for development. To accelerate the pace of development of the switching power supply industry in China, it must take the road of technological innovation, out of joint production and research development path with Chinese characteristics and contribute to the rapid development of China's national economy.Developments and trends of the switching power supply1955 U.S. Royer (Roger) invented the self-oscillating push-pull transistor single-transformer DC-DC converter is the beginning of the high-frequency conversion control circuit 1957 check race Jen, Sen, invented a self-oscillating push-pull dual transformers, 1964, U.S. scientists canceled frequency transformer in series the idea of switching power supply, the power supply to the size and weight of the decline in a fundamental way. 1969 increased due to the pressure of the high-power silicon transistor, diode reverse recovery time shortened and other components to improve, and finally made a 25-kHz switching power supply.At present, the switching power supply to the small, lightweight and high efficiency characteristics are widely used in a variety of computer-oriented terminal equipment, communications equipment, etc. Almost all electronic equipment is indispensable for a rapid development of today's electronic information industry power mode. Bipolar transistor made of 100kHz, 500kHz power MOS-FET made, though already the practical switching power supply is currently available on the market, but its frequency to be further improved. Toimprove the switching frequency, it is necessary to reduce the switching losses, and to reduce the switching losses, the need for high-speed switch components. However, the switching speed will be affected by the distribution of the charge stored in the inductance and capacitance, or diode circuit to produce a surge or noise. This will not only affect the surrounding electronic equipment, but also greatly reduce the reliability of the power supply itself. Which, in order to prevent the switching Kai - closed the voltage surge, RC or LC buffers can be used, and the current surge can be caused by the diode stored charge of amorphous and other core made of magnetic buffer . However, the high frequency more than 1MHz, the resonant circuit to make the switch on the voltage or current through the switch was a sine wave, which can reduce switching losses, but also to control the occurrence of surges. This switch is called the resonant switch. Of this switching power supply is active, you can, in theory, because in this way do not need to greatly improve the switching speed of the switching losses reduced to zero, and the noise is expected to become one of the high-frequency switching power supply The main ways. At present, many countries in the world are committed to several trillion Hz converter utility.the principle of IntroductionThe switching power supply of the process is quite easy to understand, linear power supplies, power transistors operating in the linear mode and linear power, the PWM switching power supply to the power transistor turns on and off state, in both states, on the power transistor V - security product is very small (conduction, low voltage, large current; shutdown, voltage, current) V oltammetric product / power device is power semiconductor devices on the loss.Compared with the linear power supply, the PWM switching power supply more efficient process is achieved by "chopping", that is cut into the amplitude of the input DC voltage equal to the input voltage amplitude of the pulse voltage. The pulse duty cycle is adjusted by the switching power supply controller. Once the input voltage is cut into the AC square wave, its amplitude through the transformer to raise or lower. Number of groups of output voltage can be increased by increasing the number of primary and secondary windings of the transformer. After the last AC waveform after the rectifier filter the DC output voltage.The main purpose of the controller is to maintain the stability of the output voltage, the course of their work is very similar to the linear form of the controller. That is the function blocks of the controller, the voltage reference and error amplifier can be designed the same as the linear regulator. Their difference lies in the error amplifier output (error voltage) in the drive before the power tube to go through a voltage / pulse-width conversion unit.Switching power supply There are two main ways of working: Forward transformand boost transformation. Although they are all part of the layout difference is small, but the course of their work vary greatly, have advantages in specific applications.the circuit schematicThe so-called switching power supply, as the name implies, is a door, a door power through a closed power to stop by, then what is the door, the switching power supply using SCR, some switch, these two component performance is similar, are relying on the base switch control pole (SCR), coupled with the pulse signal to complete the on and off, the pulse signal is half attentive to control the pole voltage increases, the switch or transistor conduction, the filter output voltage of 300V, 220V rectifier conduction, transmitted through the switching transformer secondary through the transformer to the voltage increase or decrease for each circuit work. Oscillation pulse of negative semi-attentive to the power regulator, base, or SCR control voltage lower than the original set voltage power regulator cut-off, 300V power is off, switch the transformer secondary no voltage, then each circuit The required operating voltage, depends on this secondary road rectifier filter capacitor discharge to maintain. Repeat the process until the next pulse cycle is a half weeks when the signal arrival. This switch transformer is called the high-frequency transformer, because the operating frequency is higher than the 50HZ low frequency. Then promote the pulse of the switch or SCR, which requires the oscillator circuit, we know, the transistor has a characteristic, is the base-emitter voltage is 0.65-0.7V is the zoom state, 0.7V These are the saturated hydraulic conductivity state-0.1V-0.3V in the oscillatory state, then the operating point after a good tune, to rely on the deep negative feedback to generate a negative pressure, so that the oscillating tube onset, the frequency of the oscillating tube capacitor charging and discharging of the length of time from the base to determine the oscillation frequency of the output pulse amplitude, and vice versa on the small, which determines the size of the output voltage of the power regulator. Transformer secondary output voltage regulator, usually switching transformer, single around a set of coils, the voltage at its upper end, as the reference voltage after the rectifier filter, then through the optocoupler, this benchmark voltage return to the base of the oscillating tube pole to adjust the level of the oscillation frequency, if the transformer secondary voltage is increased, the sampling coil output voltage increases, the positive feedback voltage obtained through the optocoupler is also increased, this voltage is applied oscillating tube base, so that oscillation frequency is reduced, played a stable secondary output voltage stability, too small do not have to go into detail, nor it is necessary to understand the fine, such a high-power voltage transformer by switching transmission, separated and after the class returned by sampling the voltage from the opto-coupler pass separated after class, so before the mains voltage, and after the classseparation, which is called cold plate, it is safe, transformers before power is independent, which is called switching power supply.the DC / DC conversionDC / DC converter is a fixed DC voltage transformation into a variable DC voltage, also known as the DC chopper. There are two ways of working chopper, one Ts constant pulse width modulation mode, change the ton (General), the second is the frequency modulation, the same ton to change the Ts, (easy to produce interference). Circuit by the following categories:Buck circuit - the step-down chopper, the average output voltage U0 is less than the input voltage Ui, the same polarity.Boost Circuit - step-up chopper, the average output voltage switching power supply schematic U0 is greater than the input voltage Ui, the same polarity.Buck-Boost circuit - buck or boost chopper, the output average voltage U0 is greater than or less than the input voltage Ui, the opposite polarity, the inductance transmission.Cuk circuit - a buck or boost chopper, the output average voltage U0 is greater than or less than the input voltage Ui, the opposite polarity, capacitance transmission.The above-mentioned non-isolated circuit, the isolation circuit forward circuits, feedback circuit, the half-bridge circuit, the full bridge circuit, push-pull circuit. Today's soft-switching technology makes a qualitative leap in the DC / DC the U.S. VICOR company design and manufacture a variety of ECI soft-switching DC / DC converter, the maximum output power 300W, 600W, 800W, etc., the corresponding power density (6.2 , 10,17) W/cm3 efficiency (80-90)%. A the Japanese Nemic Lambda latest using soft-switching technology, high frequency switching power supply module RM Series, its switching frequency (200 to 300) kHz, power density has reached 27W/cm3 with synchronous rectifier (MOSFETs instead of Schottky diodes ), so that the whole circuit efficiency by up to 90%.AC / DC conversionAC / DC conversion will transform AC to DC, the power flow can be bi-directional power flow by the power flow to load known as the "rectification", referred to as "active inverter power flow returned by the load power. AC / DC converter input 50/60Hz AC due must be rectified, filtered, so the volume is relatively large filter capacitor is essential, while experiencing safety standards (such as UL, CCEE, etc.) and EMC Directive restrictions (such as IEC, FCC, CSA) in the AC input side must be added to the EMC filter and use meets the safety standards of the components, thus limiting the miniaturization of the volume of AC / DC power, In addition, due to internal frequency, high voltage, current switching, making the problem difficult to solve EMC also high demands on the internal high-density mountingcircuit design, for the same reason, the high voltage, high current switch makes power supply loss increases, limiting the AC / DC converter modular process, and therefore must be used to power system optimal design method to make it work efficiency to reach a certain level of satisfaction.AC / DC conversion circuit wiring can be divided into half-wave circuit, full-wave circuit. Press the power phase can be divided into single-phase three-phase, multiphase. Can be divided into a quadrant, two quadrant, three quadrants, four-quadrant circuit work quadrant.he selection of the switching power supplySwitching power supply input on the anti-jamming performance, compared to its circuit structure characteristics (multi-level series), the input disturbances, such as surge voltage is difficult to pass on the stability of the output voltage of the technical indicators and linear power have greater advantages, the output voltage stability up to (0.5)%. Switching power supply module as an integrated power electronic devices should be selected。

毕业设计的英文翻译----开放式控制器体系结构 - 过去,现在和未来

Open Controller Architecture - Past, Present and FutureGunter Pritschow (Co-ordinator), Yusuf Altintas, Francesco Jovane, Yoram Koren, Mamoru Mitsuishi, Shozo Takata, Hendrik van Brussel, Manfred Weck, Kazuo YamazakiAbstractOpen Control Systems are the key enabler for the realization of modular and re-configurable manufacturing systems. The large number of special purpose machines and the high level of automation have led to an increasing importance of open control systems based on vendor neutral standards. This paper gives an overview on the past, present and future of Open Controller Architecture. After reflecting on the different criteria, categories and characteristics of open controllers in general, the CNC products in the market are evaluated and an overview on the world-wide research activities in Europe, North America and Japan is given. Subsequently the efforts to harmonize the different results are described in order to establish a common world-wide standard in the future. Due to the “mix-and-match’’ nature of open controllers concentrated attention must be paid to testing mechanisms in the form of conformance and interoperability tests.Keywords: Open architecture control, CNC, Machine tool1 INTRODUCTIONOpen Architecture Control (OAC) is a well known term in the field of machine control. Since the early nineties several initiatives world-wide have worked on concepts for enabling control vendors, machine tool builders and end-users to benefit more from flexible and agile production facilities. The main aim was the easy implementation and integration of customer-specific controls by means of open interfaces and configuration methods in a vendor-neutral, standardized environment [13][19].The availability and broad acceptance of such systems result in reduced costs and increased flexibility. Software can be reused and user-specific algorithms or applications can be integrated. Users can design their controls according to a given configuration. This trend was forced both by the increasing number of special purpose machines with a high level of automation and the increasing development costs for software (Figure 1).Figure 1: CNC Hardware and software -Actual trend existingIn the past the CNC market was dominated by heterogeneous, device-oriented systems with proprietary hardware and software components. The tight coupling of application software, system software and hardware led to very complex and inflexible systems. Great efforts were made to maintain and further develop the products according to new market requirements. Modern CNC approaches, which comprise extensive functionality to achieve a high quality and flexibility of machining results combined with a reduced processing time, favor PC- based solutions with a homogenous, standardized environment (Figure 2). The structure is software- oriented and configurable due to defined interfaces and software platforms. Open control interfaces are necessary for continuously integrating new advanced functionality into control systems and are important for creating re-configurable manufacturing units [17]. Unbundling hardware and software allows profiting from the short innovation cycles of the semiconductor industry and information technology. With the possibility for reusing software components, the performance of the overall system increases simply by upgrading the hardware platform.Figure 2: PC-based, software-oriented Control SystemsThere are a lot of benefits for suppliers and users of open control systems (Figure 3) [7]. CNC designers and academics benefit from a high degree of openness coveringalso the internal interfaces of the CNC. For CNC users the external openness is much more important. It provides the methods and utilities for integrating user-specific applications into existing controls and for adapting to user-specific requirements, e.g. adaptable user interfaces or collection of machine and production data. The external openness is mainly based on the internal openness but has functional or performance Iimitations .2 STATE OF THE ART2.1 Control Systems and their interfacesControls are highly sophisticated systems due to very strict requirements regarding real-time and reliability. For controlling the complexity of these systems hardware and software interfaces are an essential means. The interfaces of control systems can be divided into two groups-external and internal interfaces (Figure4).External InterfacesThese interfaces connect the control system to superior units, to subordinate units and to the user. They can be divided into programming interfaces and communication interfaces. NC and PLC programming interfaces are harmonized by national or international standards, such as RS-274, DIN 66025 or IEC 61131-3. Communication interfaces are also strongly influenced by standards. Fieldbus systems like SERCOS, Profibus or DeviceNet are used as the interface to drives and 110s. LAN (Local Area Network) networks mainly based on Ethernet and TCP/lP do reflect the interfaces to superior systems.Internal InterfacesInternal interfaces are used for interaction and data- exchange between components that build up the control- system core. An important criterion in this area is the support of real-time mechanisms. To achieve a re-configurable and adaptable control the internal architecture of the control system is based on a platform concept. The main aims are to hide the hardware-specific details from the software components and to establish a defined but flexible way of communication between the software components. An application programming interface(API) ensures these requirements. The whole functionality of a control system is subdivided into several encapsulated, modular software components interacting via the defined API.2.2 Hardware and software structure of control systemsFigure 5 shows different variants for the hardware structures of control systems. Variant a) shows an analog drives interface with position controller in the control system core. Each module of this structure uses its own processor which leads to a large variety of vendor-specific hardware. Combining modules leads to a significant reduction of the number of processors. Variant b) shows intelligent digital drives with integrated control functionality, which result from higher capacity, miniaturization and higher performance of the processors. Variant c) shows a PC-based single processor solution with a real-time extension of the operating system. All control-functions run as software tasks in the PC-based real-time environment.2.3 Market overviewThe controls available in the market provide different levels of openness according to the criteria shown in Figure 6. An important criterion is the use of a standardized computing platform (i.e. hardware, operating system and middleware) as an environment to execute the HMI and CNC software. Besides this, the connectivity of the CNC to upper and lower factory levels must be guaranteed. Application Programming Interfaces (API) are used to integrate third party software in the CNC products. Al though most of today’s controls offer openness concerning the operator-related control functions (Human-Machine Interface, HMI) only few controls allow users to modify their low-level control algorithms to influence the machine-related control functions.Figure 7 gives an overview of the characteristics of today’s control s ystems regarding the degree of openness.Although many control systems provide open interfaces for software integration (e.g. OPC) there is still no common definition of data which is passed back and forth via the programming interface. Therefore, the control systems available on the market today do not implicitly support “plug-and-play” features. To improve this situation, the fieldbus systems can serve as a role model (see Figure 8). The variety of different fieldbus systems has led to the broad consensus that harmonizing the application-oriented interfaces is desirable in order to hide the plurality and the complexity of the systems from the user. Most fieldbus organizations are already using so-called device profiles in order to support the interchangeability of the devices of different vendors.For example, the SERCOS interface standard (IEC61491) for the cyclic and deterministic communication between CNC and drives has defined the semantics forapprox. 400 parameters describing drive and control functions which are used by the devices of different vendors.3 DEFINITIONS AND CATEGORIES OF OPENNESS3.1 DefinitionsThe “Technical Committee of Open Systems” of IEEE defines an open system as follows: “An open system provides capabilities that enable properly implemented applications to run on a variety of platforms from multiple vendors, interoperate with other system applications and present a consistent style of interaction with the user” (IEEE 1003.0).To estimate the openness of a controller the following criteria can be applied (Figure 9):Portability. Application modules (AM) can be used on different platforms without any changes, while maintaining their capabilities.Extendibility. A varying number of AM can run on a platform without any conflicts.Inferoperability. AM work together in a consistent manner and can interchange data in a defined way.Scalability. Depending on the requirements of the user, functionality of the AM and performance and size of the hardware can be adapted.To fulfill the requirements of the IEEE-definition and these criteria of openness, an open control system must be:vendor neutral. This guarantees independence of single proprietary interests.consensus-driven. It is controlled by a group of vendors and users (usually in the form of a user group or an interested group).standards-based. This ensures a wide distribution in the form of standards (national/international standards or de-facto standards).freely available. It is free of charge to any interested party.3.2 Categories of Open Control SystemsIf we speak of openness in control systems, the following categories can be identified (Figure 10):Open HMl: The openness is restricted to the non-real-time part of the control system. Adaptations can be made in user oriented applications.Kernel with restricted openness: The control kernel has a fixed topology, but offers interfaces to insert user-specific filters even for real-time functions.Open Control System: The topology of the control kernel depends on the process. It offers interchangeability, scalability, portability and interoperability.Open control systems that are available today mostly offer the possibility for modifications in the non-real-time part in a fixed software topology. They lack the necessary flexibility and are not based on vendor-neutral standards.3.3 RequirementsA vendor-neutral open control system can only be realized if the control functionality is subdivided in functional units and if well-defined interfaces between these units are specified (Figure 11). Therefore modularity can be identified as the key for an open system architecture. In determining the module complexity there is an obvious trade-off between the degree of openness and the cost of integration [6]. Smaller modules provide a higher level of openness and more options, but increase the complexity and integration costs. Furthermore such a low level of granularity can lead to much higher demands for resources and it may even deteriorate the real-time performance of the overall system.Combining modules in the manner of “mix-and-match’’ requires a comprehensive set of standard Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). For vendor-neutral open control systems the interfaces need to be standardized and broadly accepted. Due to the complexity of such modular systems the definition of a system architecture is recommendable and helpful. This leads to the introduction of so-called system platforms (Figure 12). These platforms encapsulate the specifics of a computing system by absorbing the characteristics of hardware, operating system and communication. The availability of such middleware systems facilitates the easy porting of application software and also the interoperability of application modules even in distributed heterogeneous environments.Due to the possibility to “mix-and-match’’ modules via standardized interfaces the quality of the overall system is determined by the degree of the interoperability between the single modules (see Section 5).4 SYSTEMS ON THE WAY TO THE MARKET4.1 Major international activitiesOSEC (Japan)The OSE (Open System Environment for Manufacturing) consortium was established in December 1994. Three project phases were carried out until March 1999 [1][2][3]. The OSEC Architecture was intended to provide end users, machine makers, control vendors, software vendors, system integrators, etc. a standard platform for industrial machine controllers, with which they can add their own unique values to the industrial machines, and hence promote the technical and commercial development of the industrial machines. The OSEC API is defined in the form of an interface protocol, which is used to exchange messages among controller software components representing the functionality and the real- time cycle. Each functional block can be encapsulated as an object so it is not necessary to deal with how a functional block processes messages to it at architecture level (Figure 13). Although the structure of functional blocks can be defined uniquely by the OSEC architecture from a logical point of view, the system is neither determined nor limited at its implementation phase because there are so many options for implementations. These options may include system contrivances such as device driver, interprocess communication, installation mechanisms such as static library and DLL, hardware factors like selection of controller card, and implementations of software modules added for execution control and/or monitoring of various software. In other words, the implementation model to realize the architecture model is not limited to a particular model. In this way, it is assured to incorporate various ideas in the implementation model depending on the system size or its hardware implementation and/or utilization.JOP (Japan)In parallel to the OSE consortium activities, MSTC formed the Open-Controller Technical Committee (OC- TC) from 1996 to 2000, under the umbrella of JOP (Japanese Open Promotion Group). The objectives of OC-TC were to provide the opportunities for various companies to discuss and work together on the standardization of open controller technologies. The OC- TC was also expected to act as liaison between domestic and international activities in this field. OC-TC was participated by approximately 50 members, which included major Japanese controller vendors, machine tool builders, integrators, users, and academics. Some of the members represented the other groups concerning open controllers such as the OSE consortium and the FA Intranet Promotion Group .One of the working groups was engaged in developing a standard API for interfacing between NC and PC-based HMI. It should be also effective for the communication between NC and an upper level management controller. The work was carried out based on the proposals from the major controller vendors and that from the OSE consortium. The developed specifications were named PAPI and released July, 1999 [4] [5]. PAPI was approved as a JIS (Japan Industrial Standard) technical report and published in October, 2000. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the specifications developed by OC-TC, in Nagoya in October 1999, two CNCs manufactured by different vendors were connected to a Windows NT machine in which the same HMI systems developed by the University of Tokyo were implemented (Figure 14). Since any specific controller architecture is not assumed, PAPI can be implemented in various types of existing CNC systems, such as PC + proprietary NC, PC + NC board, and Software NC on PC+110 board. The HMI system communicates with the CNCs via PAPI which is a function-oriented software library in the programming language C. The PAPI interface is neutralizing the vendor-specific interface by mapping the PAPI calls to the vendor-specific API and protocol.OMAC (USA)The Open Modular Architecture Controllers (OMAC) Users Group is an industry forum to advance the state of controller technology [l0]. An effort was undertaken within OMAC to define API specification for eventual submittal to an established standards body. The OMAC API adopted a component-based approach to achieve plug-and-play modularization, using interface classes to specify the API [11]. For distributed communication, component-based technology uses proxy agents to handle method invocations that cross process boundaries. OMAC API contains diffe rent “sizes” and “types” of reusab le plug-and-play components - component, module, and task - each with a unique Finite State Machine (FSM) model so that component collaboration is performed in a known manner. The term component applies to reusable pieces of software that serves as a building block within an application while the term module refers to a container of components. Tasks are components used to encapsulate programmable functional behavior consisting of a series of steps that run to completion, including support for starting, stopping, restarting, halting, and resuming, and may be run multiple times while a controller is running. Tasks can be used to build controller programs consisting of a series of Transient Tasks, with ability to restart and navigate, or as standalone Resident Tasks to handle specialized controller requirements, (e.g., axis homing or ESTOP).To integrate components, a framework is necessary to formalize the collaborations and other life cycle aspects in which components operate. The OMAC API uses Microsoft Component Object Model (COM) as the initial framework in which to develop components, with the expected benefit that control vendors could then concentrate on application-specific improvements that define their strategic market-share - as opposed to spending valuable programming resources reinventing and maintaining software “plumbing.”The primary problem with COM framework, specifically under the Windows 2000 operating system, is the lack of hard, real-time preemptive scheduling, but third party extensions to Windows 2000 can be used to overcome this requirement.Figure 15 illustrates a sketch of OMAC API controller functionality. The HMI module is responsible for human interaction with a controller including presenting data, handing commands, and monitoring events and in the OMAC API “mirrors” the actual controller with references to all the major modules and components via proxy agents. The Task Coordinator module is responsible for sequencing operations and coordinating the various modules in the system based on programmable Tasks. The Task Coordinator can be considered the highest level Finite State Machine in the controller. A Task Generator module translates an application-specific control program (e.g., RS 274 part program) into a series of application-neutral Transient Tasks. The Axis Group module is responsible for coordinating the motions of individual axes, transforming an incoming motion segment specification into a sequence of equi-time- spaced setpoints for the coordinated axes. The Axis module is responsible for servo control of axis motion, transforming incoming motion setpoints into setpoints for the corresponding actuators 10 points. The Control Law component is responsible for servo control loop calculations to reach specified setpoints. OSACA (Europe)In Europe the ESPRIT project OSACA (Open System Architecture for Controls within Automation Systems) was initiated in 1992 with the aim to unite European interests and to create a vendor-neutral standard for open control systems[9][16].It was supported by major European control vendor and machine tool builders. OSACA reached a mature state already in April 1996 having at its disposal a stable set of specifications and a tested pool for system software. Based on these results, several application-oriented projects were carried out. In 1988 two pilot demonstrators in the automotive industry proved the interoperability of OSACA-compliant controllers and applications. The OSACA association eth currently 35 members from all over the word is the lasting organization to keep and maintain the OSACA-related specifications.The basic technical approach of the OSACA architecture is the hierarchical decomposition of control functionality into so-called functional units (Figure 16).For each of these functional units (e.g. motion control, motion control manager, axescontrol, logic control, etc.) the interfaces are specified by applying object-oriented information models. This technique is similar to the approach of MAP/MMS but with a limited and manageable number of object classes.The data interface consists of several variable objects that support the read and/or write access to data structure(data flow).The data can be of a simple type or of a complex type(array, structure, union).By using formal templates(Figure17) all the characteristics of a single interface object are specified. These elements cover the name (e.g, “mc-active-feed-override”), the type (e.g. UNS32: 32-bit unsigned value), the scaling (e.g. 0.l%),the range and the access rights (read only, to all the major modules and components via proxy write only, read/write) of the data. An additional description is to avoid misinterpretations of the use of the data. The process interface consists of several process objects that are used to describe the dynamic behavior (control flow) of the application modules by means of finite state machine (FSM). The state machines are described by static states, dynamic states and transitions to change the states of a given state-machine. The transitions can handle input and output parameters to pass data between application modules via the communication platform. The formal template for such process interfaces consists of an unambiguous description and the following attributes: list of static states (identifier, list of possible transitions), list of dynamic states (identifier) and a list of transitions (input parameters, output parameters, return codes). The process interface can also be used to activate application-specific functions in form of procedure calls. The interoperability of distributed application modules is supported by an infrastructure (so-called OSACA platform) which comprises client-server principles, synchronous and asynchronous calls and event handling via any underlying communication protocol and media (e.g. by using the TCP/lP protocol). A dedicated configuration runtime system is handling the system’s startup and shutdown. Besides, it also allows an easy reconfiguration of the system.开放式控制器体系结构- 过去，现在和未来摘要开放式控制系统是用于模块化和可重新配置制造系统实现的关键推动者。

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The first dam for which there are reliable records was build on the Nile River sometime before 4000 B.C.It was used to divert the Nile and provide a site for the ancient city of Memphis.The oldest dam still in use is the Almanza Dam in Spain,which was constructed in the sixteenth ceentury.With the passage of time, materials and construction have improved, making possible the erection of such large dams as the Nurek Dam, which is being constructed in the U.S.S.R. On the vaksh River near the border of Afghanistan. This dam will be 1017ft(333m)high, of earth and rock fill. The failure of a dam may cause serious loss of life and property; consequently, the design and maintenance of dams are commonly under government surveillance. In the United States over 30000 dams are under the control of state authorities. The 1972 Federal Dam Safety Act (PL92-367) requires periodic inspections of dams by qualified experts. The failure of the Teton Dam in Idaho in June 1976 added to the concern for dam safety in the United States.
1.Type of Dams
Dams are classified on the basis of the type and materials of construction, as gravity, arch, buttress, and earth. The first three types are usually constructed of concrete. A gravity dam depends on its own weight for stability and it straight in plan although sometimes slightly curved. Arch dams transmit most of the horizontal thrust of the water behind them to the abutments by arch action and have thinner cross sections than comparable gravity dams. Arch dams can be used only in narrow canyons where the walls are capable of withstanding the thrust produced by the arch action. The simplest of the many types of buttresses. Earth dams are embankments of rock or earth with provision for controlling seepage by means of an impermeable core or upstream blanket. More than one type of dam may be included in a single structure. Curved dams may combine both gravity and arch action to achieve stability. Long dams often have a concrete river section containning spollway and sluice gates and earth or rock-fill wing dams for the remainder of their length.
The selection of the best type of dam for a given site is a problem in both engineering feasibility and cost. Feasibility is governed by topography, geology and climate. For example, because concrete spalls when subjected to alternate freezing and thawing, arch and buttress dams With thin concrete section are sometimes avoided in areas subject to extreme cold. The relative cost of the various type of dams depends mainly on the availability of construction materials near the site and the accessibility of transportation facilities. Dams are sometimes built in stages with the second or later stages constructed a decade or longer after the stage.
The height of a dam is defined as the difference in elevation between the roadway, or spillway crest, and the lowest part of the excayated foundation. However, figures quoted for heights of dams are often
detemined in other ways. Frequently the height is taken net height above the old riverbed.。