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本科毕业论文外文文献及译文Current situation of energy consumption and measures taken for energy saving in the iron and steel industry in China文献来源：期刊发表日期：2009.5.17学院：资源与冶金学院专业：冶金工程班级：冶金121姓名：孔博文学号：1206300131指导教师：梁铎强翻译日期：2016.6.23外文文献：Current situation of energy consumption and measures taken for energy saving in the iron and steel industry in China abstractA survey of the key issues associated with the development in the Chinese iron and steel industry and current situations of energy consumption are described in this paper. The apparent production of crude steel in China expanded to 418.78 million tonnes in 2006, which was about 34% share of the world steel production. The iron and steel industry in China is still one of the major high energy consumption and high pollution industries, which accounts for the consumption of about 15.2% of the national total energy, and generation of 14% of the national total waste water and waste gas and 6% of the total solid waste materials. The average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries due to its low energy utilization efficiency. However, the energy efficiency of the iron and steel industry in China has made significant improvement in the past few years and significant energy savings will be achieved in the future by optimizing end-use energy utilization. Finally, some measures for the industry in terms of the economic policy of China’s 11th five-year plan are also presented.1.IntroductionThe steel industry has for long played an important role in the development of China’s economy. Over the past decades, China’s steel industry has grown rapidly, overtaken Japan, and become the world’s largest steel producer in 1996. In 2006, China’s production of crude steel amounted to 418.78 million tonnes (Mt) [1] and, continued to remain first in rank. The share of output of crude steel of about 335.17 Mt of the key producers accounted for 80% of the aggregate national production and 83.61 Mt of local producers for 20% [2]. In this paper, these key producers are the main subjects of our study.Despite these achievements, China remains a steel producer whose energy efficiency is the lowest among the major steel-producing countries, although the overall technical level of its industry has been greatly improved in line with the developments in science and technology. One typical example is the rapid adop-tion of continuous casting technology. The share of continuous casting output has increased from about 30% of all steel produced in 1992 to 95.8% in 2004. In the meantime, many large firms replaced aging blast furnaces, open-hearth furnaces, and ingot casters with large-scale, modern blast furnaces, and casting and rolling facilities. Iron making may take place either through the blast furnace process or by direct reduction and the subsequent transformation of iron into steel may be carried out either in an oxygen-blown converter or in an electric arc furnace.With improvement of the overall technical level in the steel industry, the production of iron and steel has greatly expanded in the past decade, as shown in Fig. 1 [1–4]. The apparent production of crude steel in China grew from 95 million tonnes in 1995 to 418.78 million tonnes in 2006, which is about 4.5 times that in 1995 and more than three times that in 2000 [3]. As a result, China’s share of world steel production leaped from 13% in 1995 to 34% in 2006. This growth is expected to be sustained over the next few years due to the continued growth in domestic demand.As is well known, the iron and steel industry is the industry with the largest energy consumption in the world. Having become the world’s largest steel producer since 1996 China’s steel industry has grown rapidly following huge growth in domestic demand. This increase is consistent with the trend in the increase in its energy consumption.Iron and steel production consumes large quantities of energy, especially in developing countries and countries with economies in transition where outdated and inefficient technologies are often still used. Steel production in developing countries has grown at an average annual rate of 6.6% in recent years [5] and is expected to continue to grow at similar levels due to the current low per capita steel consumption levels in these countries. In industrialized countries, steel consumption averages over 425 kg/capita, whereas even key steel-producing developing countries have extremely low average per capita consumption levels of 80 kg/capita (in 1995).Fig. 1. Crude steel production of China and share of the world from 1995 to 2006.Most of China’s steel industry developed through a system of state-owned ‘enterprises’, in which an entire community was devoted to the production of steel. As a result, the data collected relating to the energy consumed to produce steel in China also contain energy used at the enterprise level for a variety of other functional departments, both directly and indirectly related to the production of steel. In addition, part of China’s steel is produced by small steel mills that do not report energy consumption data to government statistical sources. It is important to differentiate these data so that the consumption values of China’s energy can be fairly evaluated, especially when we compare the energy consumption and energy intensity of the Chinese steel industry to those of other countries or to particular ‘best practice’examples. We note that even with these adjustments, it is possible that the data still include inaccuracies due to the issues of statistical reports.The objective of this paper is to present a survey of some of the key issues associated withthe development in the Chinese steel industry, and describes the status of its energy consumption. The differences in steel consumption in major processes and China’s role in the scene of the international steel industry are analyzed, and the outlook and the measures to be instituted for China’s iron and steel industry are also presented in the paper. It is important for the world to better understand China’s energy consumption and the use of raw materials and for China to better understand the approaches that have been developed or are being developed in other countries for more efficient use of energy and raw materials. The authors hope this paper contributes to the improved under-standing of these aspects of the industry.2.Energy consumption structure of the iron and steel industry in ChinaIt is well known that electricity production in China mainly depends on coal, and coal is also the most important fuel used in China’s iron and steel industry. In 2004, the energy consumption mix of the Chinese steel industry consisted of 69.90% coal, 26.40% electricity, 3.2% fuel oil, and 0.5% natural gas, as shown in Fig. 2 [4]. Coal is not only the most widely used fuel but is also as necessary as raw material in the iron and steel industry as most of the rest is electricity. Such a fuel structure raises the energy consumption per unit of production and is unlikely to change greatly in the near future.Fig. 2. Energy consumption mix of the steel industry of China in 2004.3. Energy consumption situation in the steel industryThe key iron and steel producers in China play an important role in its manufacture of steel and in the consumption of energy. In 2003, China’s 10 largest steel firms produced more than a third of China’s steel output, with the top four firms producing more than 20% [6]. This implies that many advanced technologies have earlier existed in China’s steel industry, but the current industry’s concentration limits the application of these technologies lowering energy efficiency in general [7]. Therefore, the iron and steel industry remains one of the highest energy consumersand pollu-tion producers accounting for about 15.2% of the national total energy consumption, 14% of the national total waste water and waste gas, and 6% of the total solid waste materials generated.Fig. 3 shows the variations in energy consumption of the key enterprises in China from 1995 to 2006 [3,8–10]. The total energy consumption of the iron and steel industry rose rapidly along with rising steel production in the past decades. In the year 2004, the total steel production of China was 274.7 Mt, rising by 107.7% compared to 2000 and by 184.2% compared to 1995 [10]. The total energy consumption of the key enterprises in China soared from 96.30 Mtce in 2000 to 197.79 Mtce in 2006, which was over twice that for 2000. However, the rising trend in energy consumption weakened in 2006, when it was 8.8% lower than that of the year before.With the application of many new technologies and equipment, the index of energy consumption per tonne of steel decreased remarkably in the past decades. The overall energy consumption for China’s large and medium producers in 2005 was 741 kgce per tonne of steel, which was 20.3% lower than that in 2000 of 930 kgce per tonne. In 2006, the overall energy consumption per tonne of steel continued to decrease to 645 kgce per tonne of steel. The comparable energy consumption also took on a decreasing trend.Fig. 3. Variation of energy consumption of the key enterprises in China from 1995 to 2006.Fig. 4. Fresh water consumption per tonne of steel from 2000 to 2005.The variations in fresh water consumption per tonne of steel from 2000 to 2006 are shown in Fig. 4 [3,10]. The total quantity of fresh water used per tonne of steel in 2006 was 6.56 m3, which is 14.9% lower than that in 2005. Other data comparing energy saving, water saving, and environmental protection between 2000 and 2005 are presented in Table 1 [10]. It can be seen that the energy efficiency of China’s iron and steel industry has made significant improvement in the past few years.4.Energy consumption situation of several main processes in the steel industryFig. 5 shows the variations in energy consumption of several major processes in the steel industry from 1995 to 2005 [3,10]. The energy consumption of the blast furnace, electric furnace and steel rolling processes has decreased remarkably since 1995, and the corresponding values for the coking, sintering, and converter furnaces have also shown minor decreases. In contrast to the years before 2001, the current energy consumption of the blast furnace process presents an increasing trend that is attributed to cost increases since 2001 in raw materials for iron making, such as coke and coal.Fig. 5. Variation of energy consumption of several main processes in the steel industry in1995–2005.Among several major processes, the energy consumption of the iron making process is markedly higher than that of other processes. Taking the example of 2004 as shown in Fig. 6, the total energy consumption of the iron making system accounted for about 70% of the total process energy consumption, including 39% for the blast furnace, 11.9% for coking, 3.51% for balling and 5.55% for sin-tering. The remaining processes accounted for a small part of about 30%, which is comprised of 12.5% for power, 7.77% for rolling steel, 17.5% for the electric furnace, and 2.22% for the converter furnace. This means that the iron making system is a key part of any energy conservation effort in the steel industry.parisons of energy consumption of the steel industry in China with international levelsEnergy consumption per tonne of steel in China is higher than that of most advanced countries. One of the reasons for this is that the energy utilization efficiency in China is low. The average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries. Compared with Japan, for example, energy consumption for China’s large and medium firms in 2004 was 705 kgce per tonne of steel, 7.5% higher than that in Japan, which was 656 kgce per tonne. However, the energy consumption level of the small production units in Chinawas as high as 1045 kgce per tonne of steel.Fig. 6. Energy consumption structure of several main processes in the steel industry in 2004.Z.C. Guo, Z.X. Fu / Energy 35 (2010) 4356–4360The general energy efficiency of China’s steel industry is still relatively low. One of the important reasons is the existence of these small units. Table 2 shows that there is a vast difference in energy consumption between the advanced and small plants [8]. Only a few large-scale steel-makers have attained or have even exceeded the international levels. Since the output of these advanced plants cannot achieve market dominance, the average energy consumption level of China’s iron and steel industry is still embarrassing.The second reason is the existence of small-scale and decen-tralized industry in China. There are 18 plants with production capacities exceeding 5 Mt of crude steel, which accounted for 46.36% of the total national crude steel production in 2005. In Japan, the crude steel production of four largest plants accounted for 73.22% of the total national crude steel production in 2004, three of which accounted for 61.09%. Except for a few of the large-scale steel plants, China’s steel industry lags behind in technology, equipment, energy saving, environmental protection, etc. The third reason is that the low recovery and recycling efficiency of the secondary energy resources results in higher energy consumption.6.Measures and policy recommendations for the iron and steel industries of China6.1. To expand coke dry quenching technologyTraditionally, the sensible heat of hot coke, pushed from the coking chamber at the temperature of 950–1050 C, is almost equal to 35%–40% of the total amount of heat consumed in the coking process. Adopting coke dry quenching technology can enable recovery of about 80% of the sensible heat from hot coke. Besides, during dry quenching 1 tonne of hot coke can generate 0.45–0.60 tonne of steam at a pressure of about 3.9 MPa. The coke dry quenching process belongs to a technology that is energy saving, environmentally protective, and pollution-free. By using coke dry quenching, it is estimated that the rotary drum strength (M40) of coke increases by 3%–8% and the coke strength after CO2 reaction by 3%–4%. In addition, the quantity of weak binding coal input can be increased by 10% saving about 0.38 tonne of water for every tonne of coke.At the end of 2005, the proportion of coke dry quenching technology usage in China’s iron and steel industry was less than 30%. At the end of 2007, with the spread of this technology rein-forced by an independent innovation in the past two years, the proportion of usage rose to 45%. Now 34 sets of the coke dry quenching unit are under construction and the output share of coke of about 101.58 Mt produced by the coke dry quenching technology accounts for one-third of the total national production.6.2. To expand top gas pressure recovery turbine (TRT) technologyPower can be generated with the energy of pressure from the top of a blast furnace using a turbine generator group. Theoretically,the power generated from TRT equipment is equal to the power energy consumed when the coal gas pressure at the top of the blast furnace is 80 kPa. Economic returns may be obtained when the pressure of the coal gas reaches 100 kPa and even higher economic returns can be achieved, especially, if the coal gas pressure is greater than 120 kPa. In steel production by the blast furnace route, increasing the pressure at the top of the blast furnace is advanta-geous as it leads to recovery of energy resources. The amount of power generated increases by 30% if dry dust is removed at the coal gas purification stage and theturbine capacity by about 3% if the temperature of coal gas is raised by 10 C. If TRT equipment is adopted, it is estimated that 30% of energy can be recovered from the air blast for the furnace and the energy consumption in the steel making processes reduced by l l kgce/t.At the end of 2007, the blast furnaces of capacity greater than 2000 m3 in China that were equipped with TRT technology numbered 49. In future, the use of TRT technology large-scale blast furnaces in China will be widespread and vigorous.6.3. To expand the technology of pulverized coal injection for the blast furnaceUse of pulverized coal injection for blast furnaces is an impor-tant innovation for optimizing steel making systems using the blast furnace route. In addition, it is a powerful incentive to prompt the iron–steel industry to progress in many aspects such as optimizing energy structure, energy saving, reducing consumption of mate-rials, cost reduction, etc. Replacing coke by coal can ease the problem of coking coal shortage caused by energy saving measures. Besides, it can reduce environmental pollution from the coking process while also producing considerable economic returns resulting from the price difference between coal and coke.In 2007, the average quantity of pulverized coal injection employed for the blast furnace route by China’s large and medium producers was 137 kg per tonne of iron, which in 2000 was 118 kg per tonne of iron. The average quantity of injection has exceeded 200 kg per tonne of iron in some large-scale blast furnaces of China. The 4350 m3 capacity blast furnace in Bao-steel is an example. It is estimated that in 2010 the average pulverized coal injection quantity realized in China’s blast furnaces iron will be 160 kg per tonne.6.4. To eliminate low-level equipment and introduce and develop new technologyOver the past few years, the government of China made a strong effort to eliminate low-level equipment. The energy consumption of China’s small iron and steel units was 1.5 times higher than that of the large and medium producers. When China implemented its 11th five-year plan’s policy of energy saving and reducing discharge of pollutants the steel industry was restructured, its equipment capacities enhanced, and pace of modernization accelerated all ofwhich produced an enormous effect.In 2007, the number of blast furnaces with a capacity of 2000 m3 in China was 63, 17 more than that in 2005, and production capacity increased by 35%. The number of converters with a capacity of 100 tonnes was 98 in 2007, eight more than that in 2005, and production capacity increased by 8%. In 2007, the overall energy consumption, the fresh water consumption, the total emission of SO2, the total soot emission, and the total mill dust emission per tonne of steel declined by about 8%, 24%, 4.5%, 3% and 4.5%, respectively, when compared with that in 2005.In addition, China’s iron and steel industries introduced and developed actively new technologies, such as COREX and C300 melted-deoxidize technology.6.5. To create the recycling economy chain within the iron–steel industryIt is believed that three recycling economy chains could be developed in the iron–steel production process aiming at zero emission. First is recycling flue gas, which means that not only coal or coke but also flue gas will be recycled from blast furnaces, converters, or coke ovens to realize zero flue gas emission. The second is recycling industrial waste water, which means that the consumption of fresh water will be minimized and industrial waste water will be recycled using some treating equipment. The third is recycling solid waste materials. It is a comprehensive reuse process for some raw materials such as iron ores left over from the production process.China’s traditional development pattern such as large invest-ment, regardless of serious pollution and lower value-added products resulted in China’s location at the low end of the value chain of the worldwide industrial structure. It is the most impor-tant reason for China’s high consumption of energy. Compared with developed countries, China’s use of poorer quality equipment and ineffective use of process energy led to lower energy utilization efficiency.7.ProspectsWith the improvement of the overall technical level in the steel industry, the production of iron and steel has greatly expanded in the past decade. However, the iron and steel industry is still one of the major high energy consumption and high polluting industries in China. Although the energy efficiency of the iron and steel industry in China has made significant improvement in the past few years, the average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries owing to low energy utilization efficiency, the existence of somesmall-scale and decentralized industries and low recovery and recycling efficiency of the secondary energy resources. During 2006–2010, the period of China’s 11th five-year plan, based on existing policies, measures and standards, China will promulgate and implement some new policies with more ambitious objectives of sustainable develop-ment and restructuring in the steel industry. One objective of this plan is to build a society committed to energy conservation and a pollution-free environment and to develop the recycling economy chain in the iron and steel industry. Successful implementation of current sustainable development policies and measures will result in considerable energy saving.According to this plan, China’s energy consumption per GDP in ‘China’s 11th five-year plan’will decrease by 20%, the water consumption per unit of industrial added value will decrease by 30% and the total emission of main pollutants will decrease by 10%. Some major tasks will be undertaken for some high energy consumption industries such as the iron and steel industry, nonferrous metal industry, coal industry, power sector, and chemical industry. Therefore, a new industrial path leading to the use of technology-intensive products, optimal economic efficien-cies, lower resource consumption, and less environmental pollu-tion should be forged. There will be significant energy savings by optimizing end-use energy utilization.References[1]Xie QH. The operational aspects of iron and steel industry of China in 2006 and the prospects in 2007. China Steel 2007;2:6–11 (in Chinese).[2]/cyfz/hxfx/t20070126_113627.htm[3]/economic/txt/2007-02/22/content_7852832.htm[4]Wang K, Wang C, Lu XD, Chen JN. Scenario analysis on CO2 emissions reduction potential in China’s iron and steel industry. Energy Policy 2007;35: 2320–35.[5]The Editorial Board of China steel yearbook China steel yearbook. Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House; 2004.[6]Heane A, Heste S, Gurney A, Fairhead L, Beare S, Me´lanie S, et al. New energy technologies: measuring potential impacts in APEC. APEC Energy Working Group, Report no. APEC#205–RE–01.1. Published by ABARE as Research Report 05.1, Canberra. /apec/publications/free_downloads/2005.Medialib Download.v1.html?url=/et c/medialib/apec_media_library/ downloads/workinggroups/ewg/pubs/2005.Par.0001.File.v1.1. [7]Weng YQ. Current status and prospect of energy saving and environment protection of Chinese steel industry. China Metallurgy 2003;11:1–6 (in Chinese).[8]/Info_Show.aspx?Mess_Id¼1659[9]Wang WX. Iron and steel enterprises’process energy consumption and energy saving potential. Metallurgy Management 2005;6:32–4 (in Chinese).[10]Cai JJ, He JH, Lu ZW, Li GT, Wang WX, Kong LH. Analysis of energy saving and energy consumption in Chinese steel industry for last 20 years and next 5 years. Iron and Steel 2002;37:68–73 (in Chinese).中文译文：我国钢铁工业能源消耗现状及节能对策摘要本文介绍了我国钢铁工业发展中的关键问题和能源消耗现状。

外文文献翻译(图片版)

本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。

事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。

但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。

但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。

此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。

随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。

本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。

相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。

本文有三个部分。

在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。

第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。

引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。

第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。

毕业论文正文、文献综述和外文翻译文本编辑排版格式要求

附12-2：毕业论文正文、文献综述和外文翻译文本编辑排版格式要求1、标题：三号宋体居中。

2、作者姓名，学号，班级小四号宋体，居中。

3、中文摘要，中文关键词。

中文摘要和关键词用小五号宋体。

其中“摘要，关键词”用黑体小五号，后面加冒号，关键词之间用分号隔开，关键词一般不超过5个。

4、正文的一级标题用四号宋体，二级标题用小四号黑体，三级标题用五号黑体，正文中文字符用五号宋体。

标题统一采用1; 1.1; 1.1.1; 2; 2.1; 2.1.2; …的样式。

标题最多为三级。

5、文中引用参考文献，统一用[1]的格式，上标。

6、参考文献用小五号字体，中文用宋体。

“参考文献”四字用宋体四号。

参考文献著录格式：序号（统一用[1]的格式）著者（如有多个作者，列出前三名，其余用“等”表示，英文用“et al”表示。

）. 文献题名[文献类型代码]（其中，专著为M，期刊为J，标准为S，学位论文为D，报告为R，论文集为C，专利为P，报刊新闻为N，论文集中析出文献为A）. 期刊名，年，卷（期）：起止页码. 其中卷加粗。

著录格式如下例：[1] 王子健,吕怡兵,王毅等. 淮河水体多介质取代苯类污染及其生态健康风险[J]. 环境科学学报, 2002,22(3): 300~304.[2] Lueking A D, Huang W, Soderstrom-Schwarz S, et al. The chemical structure of soil /sediment organic matter and its role in the sequestration and bioavailability of sorb ed organic contaminants[J]. Journal of Environment Quality, 2000,29(1):317~323. [3] 史忠宝. 建设项目环境影响评价[M]. 北京：中国环境科学出版社，1994.。

毕业论文外文文献翻译要求

毕业论文外文文献翻译要求
一、翻译的外文文献可以是一篇，也可以是两篇，但英文字符要求不少于2万
二、翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并在中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，外文原文后应附中文译文。

三、中文译文的基本撰写格式为：
1.题目:采用三号、黑体字、居中打印；
2.正文:采用小四号、宋体字，行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。

页边距为左3cm，右2.5cm，上下各2.5cm，页面统一采用A4纸。

四、英文的基本撰写格式为：
1.题目：采用三号、Times New Roman字、加黑、居中打印
2.正文：采用小四号、Times New Roman字。

行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。

页边距为左3cm，右2.5cm，上下各2.5cm，页面统一采用A4纸.
3.脚注：五号,Times New Roman，顺序为作者.题目.出处，
五、封面格式由学校统一制作（注：封面上的“翻译题目”指中文译文的题目,封面中文小四号宋体，英文小四号Times New Roman），
六、装订：左侧均匀装订，上下共两个钉，并按“封面、外文原文、译文”的顺序统一装订。

七、忌自行更改表格样式
大连工业大学艺术与信息工程学院
毕业设计(论文)外文文献
外文题目
翻译题目
系别
专业班级
学生姓名
指导教师
大连工业大学艺术与信息工程学院
毕业设计(论文)开题报告
题目名称
系别
专业班级
学生姓名
指导教师
开题报告日期年月日。

外文翻译与文献综述模板格式以及要求说明

外文翻译与文献综述模板格式以及要求说明
外文中文翻译格式：
标题：将外文标题翻译成中文，可以在括号内标明外文标题
摘要：将外文摘要翻译成中文，包括问题陈述、研究目的、方法、结果和结论等内容。

关键词：将外文关键词翻译成中文。

引言：对外文论文引言进行翻译，概述问题的背景、重要性和研究现状。

方法：对外文论文方法部分进行翻译，包括研究设计、数据采集和分析方法等。

结果：对外文论文结果部分进行翻译，介绍研究结果和统计分析等内容。

讨论：对外文论文讨论部分进行翻译，对研究结果进行解释和评价。

结论：对外文论文结论部分进行翻译，总结研究的主要发现和意义。

附录：如果外文论文有附录部分，需要进行翻译并按照指定的格式进行排列。

文献综述模板格式：
标题：文献综述标题
引言：对文献综述的背景、目的和方法进行说明。

综述内容：按照时间、主题或方法等进行分类，对相关文献进行综述，可以分段进行描述。

讨论：对综述内容进行解释和评价，概括主要研究成果和趋势。

结论：总结文献综述，概括主要发现和意义。

要求说明：
1.外文中文翻译要准确无误，语句通顺流畅，做到质量高、符合学术
规范。

2.文献综述要选择与所研究领域相关的文献进行综述，覆盖面要广，
内容要全面、准确并有独立思考。

4.文献综述要注重整体结构和逻辑连贯性，内容要有层次感，段落间
要过渡自然。

5.外文中文翻译和文献综述要进行查重，确保原文与译文的一致性，
并避免抄袭和剽窃行为。

外文文献及翻译

外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。

作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。

该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。

总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。

2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。

要求1：完成外文文献及译文的参考样式

山东建筑大学毕业论文外文文献及译文
毕业论文要求1
1. 本次发给你四个文件：论文要求1，任务书，开题报告，论文的结构建议。

2. 阅读开题报告的文献综述一栏，然后阅读相关的书籍、著作、期刊文章或网络上查阅到的文章，主要阅读你的文章中的与你的论文主题相关的内容；
3. 在3月底以前完成“外文文献及译文”内容。

查找与你的论文题目有一定关
系的著作、期刊或网络文章上的英文内容，并将英文翻译成中文。

4. 请将英文原文与你的中文翻译部分按照下面给你的参考格式完成。

格式如后
面的第2页开始到最后。

其中文献、资料来源要注明是著作、网络、期刊等的哪一种，例如，参考的格式中注明的就是著作。

5. 注意参考格式中的页眉、页脚、题目字号、字体、正文内容字体、字号。

你
撰写的外文文献要与参考格式的要求一致。

6. 外文文献部分要求字数在5000字以上。

即中文翻译内容的字数要达到5页以
上，含表格、图样等。

7. 对照论文的结构建议，查阅相应的内容，开始构思论文。

8. 外文文献及译文完成后，及时发给老师电子版。

以便审校。

老师：徐宁，
2014年3月9号
- 1 -。

外文文献翻译——参考格式

广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部经济学部专业经济学年级 2007级班级名称 07经济学6班学号 16020706001学生姓名张瑜琴指导教师陈锶2011 年05月目录1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1)2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2)3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4)3.1内在的单位 (4)3.2财务子公司 (5)3.3策略的同盟 (5)3.4服务公司模型 (6)4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8)5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。

整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。

如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。

资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。

如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。

然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。

举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。

或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。

这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。

在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。

在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。

3.设计外文翻译

外文文献翻译要求一、外文文献翻译内容要求：1.找一篇与建筑相关的外文（英语）资料翻译成中文，英文3000个单词左右，中文2500字左右。

二、外文文献翻译格式要求1.摘要，关键词：宋体五号（其中“摘要”和“关键词”为宋体4号加粗），行间距设置为20磅，对齐方式选择“两端对齐”方式；各个关键词之间空一格，最后一个关键词后不加标点；2.正文题目：采用宋体4号加粗正文一级标题：采用宋体小4号加粗，行间距设置为固定值20磅，一般采用“1 引言”样式，其中1和“引言”之间用一个空格分开；正文二级标题：采用小4号加粗，行间距设置为20磅，一般采用“2.1 系统原理”样式，其中1和“系统原理”之间用一个空格分开；一级标题和二级标题采用“左对齐”方式；3.正文内容：采用宋体小四号，行间距设置为20磅6.参考文献：“参考文献”格式同一级标题格式，参考文献内容采用宋体五号，行间距设置为固定值20磅，对齐方式选择“左对齐”方式，其中出现的标点一律采用英文标点；备注：1.外文文献翻译附于开题报告之后：第一部分为外文文献原文（英语）。

第二部分为译文（汉语），2.页面设置：上空3.0cm，下空2.4 cm，左空（订口）3.0 cm，右空2.5 cm，页眉2.0 cm，页脚2.0 cm。

毕业设计页眉页脚格式为：( 注：页眉字体为小5号宋体)页眉郑州华信学院毕业设计设计题目名称页码位置外文翻译格式举例(以上部分不打印)宋体一号加粗宋体一号加粗郑州华信学院本科生毕业设计外文文献翻译原文题目：BUILDING ENGINEERING译文题目：建筑工程指导教师：职称：学生姓名：学号：专业：土木工程院（系）：建筑工程学院2013年03月16日BUILDING ENGINEERING1 Features of Building EngineeringBuilding Engineering involves a subject of investigating the design, construction and repair of all kinds of buildings through applications of knowledge and techniques of various subjects such as architecture, geology, surveying, soil mechanics engineering mechanics, building materials, building structures, construction machinery and so on. Compared with other industrial products, the architectural product has a series of its own special features that can be presented in the product itself, its construction and management.1.1 Features of Architectural Product(1) Any architectural product is located in an appointed place and stands on the ground so that it is unmovable. Since different places have different conditions of topography and geology, it is necessary to design its ground base and foundation for each building. (2) Architectural products should be versatile to meet various needs of users, including utilization function，scale, structural form, style, comfort and economy. (3) Architectural products are large in size horizontally or vertically or both.(4) A building is subjected to many types of loading conditions. Besides, it is concerned with the art style, architectural function, structural construction, building material, decorative process, etc. A lot of complicated problems would be encountered during the construction of architectural products. They are not always solved theoretically, sometimes by means of experiments and experiences in fact.建筑工程摘要：工业产品是在工厂的固定车间里制造的，而建筑产品往往是在不同的地区或同一地区不同的建设地点建造的。

外文文献原稿和译文格式

四、外文文献原稿和译文打印格式
外文文献原稿和译文包括题目、原稿、译文三个部分。

●题目为“外文文献原稿和译文”：之上之下各留一空行，宋体，三号字，居中，加粗
原稿整体格式要尽量保持与原文格式相同，如原稿格式不明确可采用如下格式：
“原稿”：之下留一空行，宋体，小三号字，居中，加粗，“原稿”二字中间空两格；原稿内容：章节题目——新罗马“Times New Roman”字体，四号字，加粗，左对齐；正文——新罗马“Times New Roman”字体，小四号字，段落设置为：固定值，22磅，段前、段后均为0磅。

“译文”：本部分另起一页。

之上之下各留一空行。

宋体，小三号字，居中，加粗。

“译文”二字中间空两格。

译文内容：章节题目——章节题目：宋体，四号字，加粗，左对齐；正文——宋体，小四号字。

段落设置为：固定值，22磅，段前、段后均为0磅。

●页面设置为：上3.5cm，下2.6cm，左2.7cm，右2.7cm，页眉2.4cm，页脚2cm。

●页眉：“北京化工大学北方学院毕业设计（论文）——外文文献原稿和译文”，宋体，小五号字，居中。

●页脚：插入页码，居中。

页码格式为“1，2，3…”。

本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译基本规范

本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译基本规范一、要求1、与毕业论文分开单独成文。

2、两篇文献。

二、基本格式1、文献应以英、美等国家公开发表的文献为主（Journals from English speaking countries）。

2、毕业论文翻译是相对独立的，其中应该包括题目、作者（可以不翻译）、译文的出处（杂志的名称）（5号宋体、写在文稿左上角）、关键词、摘要、前言、正文、总结等几个部分。

3、文献翻译的字体、字号、序号等应与毕业论文格式要求完全一致。

4、文中所有的图表、致谢及参考文献均可以略去，但在文献翻译的末页标注：图表、致谢及参考文献已略去(见原文)。

（空一行，字体同正文）5、原文中出现的专用名词及人名、地名、参考文献可不翻译，并同原文一样在正文中标明出处。

二、毕业论文（设计）外文翻译（一）毕业论文（设计）外文翻译的内容要求外文翻译内容必须与所选课题相关，外文原文不少于6000个印刷符号。

译文末尾要用外文注明外文原文出处。

原文出处：期刊类文献书写方法：[序号]作者（不超过3人，多者用等或et al表示）.题（篇）名[J].刊名（版本）,出版年，卷次（期次）：起止页次.原文出处：图书类文献书写方法：[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地：出版者,出版年.起止页次.原文出处：论文集类文献书写方法：[序号]作者.篇名[A].编著者.论文集名[C]. 出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页次。

要求有外文原文复印件。

（二）毕业论文（设计）外文翻译的撰写与装订的格式规范第一部分：封面1.封面格式:见“毕业论文（设计）外文翻译封面”。

普通A4纸打印即可。

第二部分：外文翻译主题1.标题一级标题，三号字，宋体，顶格，加粗二级标题，四号字，宋体，顶格，加粗三级标题，小四号字，宋体，顶格，加粗2.正文小四号字，宋体。

第三部分：版面要求论文开本大小：210mm×297mm（A4纸）版芯要求：左边距：25mm，右边距：25mm，上边距：30mm，下边距：25mm，页眉边距：23mm，页脚边距：18mm字符间距：标准行距：1.25倍页眉页角：页眉的奇数页书写—浙江师范大学学士学位论文外文翻译。

外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求与格式

百度文库- 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求及格式一、外文参考文献的要求1、外文原稿应与本研究项目接近或相关联；2、外文原稿可选择相关文章或节选章节，正文字数不少于1500字。

3、格式：外文文献左上角标注“外文参考资料”字样，小四宋体。

1.5倍行距。

标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。

段前段后空一行。

作者（居中）及正文：小四号，Times New Roman字体，首行空2字符。

4、A4纸统一打印。

二、中文翻译稿1、中文翻译稿要与外文文献匹配，翻译要正确；2、中文翻译稿另起一页；3、格式：左上角标“中文译文”，小四宋体。

标题：宋体三号加粗居中，行距1.5倍。

段前、段后空一行。

作者（居中）及正文：小四号宋体，数字等Times New Roman字体，1.5倍行距，首行空2字符。

正文字数1500左右。

4、A4纸统一打印。

格式范例如后所示。

百度文库 - 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献Implementation of internal controls of small andmedium-sized pow erStephen Ryan The enterprise internal control carries out the strength to refer to the enterprise internal control system execution ability and dynamics, it is the one whole set behavior and the technical system, is unique competitive advantage which the enterprise has; Is a series of …………………………标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。

外文翻译及文献综述规范与要求

毕业设计（论文）——外文翻译（原文）Electrode layout of ZnO pyroelectric sensorsAbstractIn the present study, an electrode layout of pyroelectric sensors is developed to improve electric signals. Voltage responsivity is a main target to enhance the performance of pyroelectric sensors. A partially covered, top electrode has been proven to effectively increase the voltage responsivity of pyroelectric sensors. In the experimental results, the proposed electrode layout with an array type in ZnO pyroelectric sensors possessed higher voltage signals, about 3.6 times that of a fully covered type, and about 2 times that of a partially covered type. Moreover, a finite element model is used to explore the temperature variation rate in ZnO pyroelectric sensors for both the fully covered and the partially covered electrodes. In the simulation results, the partially covered electrode can indeed improve the temperature variation rate in the ZnO layer.Keywords: MEMS; Pyroelectric; Sensor; ZnO1. IntroductionMultilayer pyroelectric sensors have been successfully used in many applications, such as pollution monitoring, hot image detectors, intruder alarms, and gas analysis. They possess many advantages including non-cooled detection, room-temperature operation, lower system costs, fast speeds, port-ability, having a wide spectral response with high sensitivity and being integrable with on-chip circuitry [1-3]. The conventional pyroelectric sensors are comprised of a pyroelectriclayer sandwiched between top and bottom electrodes. The topside is exposed to a heat source. The dynamic response currentof pyroelectric sensors is proportional to the temperaturevariation rate of pyroelectric layers [1]. A higher temperaturevariation rate in the pyroelectric layer leads to a higher response current for the pyroelectric sensors. A partially covered,top electrode has been proven to result in a higher responsivity than that of a fully covered electrode because it opens windows for the ZnO layer to directly come into contact with theheat source [4]. Therefore, the electrode layout plays an important role in pyroelectric sensors. This concept has been expanded to etch a three-dimensional pattern on the respon- sive element of LiTaO3; lateral temperature gradients will beinduced on the sidewall of responsive elements under homogenous irradiation. Therefore, the temperature variation rates of responsive elements increases, which can increase the voltage responsivity of pyroelectric sensors [5].ZnO is a unique material because it possesses various prop-erties like semiconductivity, piezoelectricity, and pyroelectricity. Wide band-gap wurtzite phase ZnO has attracted attentiondue to its versatility in many promising applications, such as blue and ultraviolet light emitters, transparent conductors,solar cell windows, gas sensors, photovoltaic devices, pyroelectric imaging sensors, surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices and film bulk acoustic resonators (FBAR). ZnO films have been synthesized by numerous methods, such as metal organic chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, magnetron sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, atomic layer deposition, spray pyrolysis, the filtered cathodic vacuum arctechnique, and the sol-gel process. The quality of ZnO films obtained by these methods depends on the growth methods and conditions. Thus, preferential orientation of ZnO films depends on growth conditions. The most densely packed and thermodynamically favorable growth orientation in a ZnO wurtzite structure is the one with the c-axis perpendicular to a substrate. ZnO films, with the c-axis normal to the substrate, are preferred in many applications, such as ZnO pyroelectric devices [4, 6] and film bulk acoustic resonators [7]. The pyroelectricity of ZnO is attributable to non-centro-symmetrical crystals and has a specific polar axis along the direction of spontaneous polarization [1, 2]. Given that ZnO is subjected to temperature variations, its internal polarization will produce an electric field. ZnO films are usually deposited by RF sputtering. The properties of ZnO are affected by sputtering conditions such as the composition of mixed process gases, working注意：英文翻译标题格式： Times New Roman－四号－加粗；英文正文： Times New Roman－五号－单倍行距。

外文文献翻译格式要求

外文文献翻译格式要求
外文文献中文翻译的格式要求通常包括以下几个方面：
2.翻译稿的标题应与原文保持一致，通常在文献翻译稿的第一页的中间位置，使用加粗、居中排版。

3.每一段落开始时空两行，段落间距可以根据需要适当调整。

4. 翻译稿中的引用部分，应在文中用中括号标注原文引用部分的位置，如 "[Original text]"
5.翻译稿中的图表、表格等内容，需要在相应位置插入，并在上方标明图表或表格编号，并在下方进行说明。

7.在翻译稿的最后，需要标注翻译人员的签名，并附上日期。

总之，翻译稿与原文应尽量保持一致，在排版和格式上遵循一定的要求和规范。

具体格式要求也可以根据翻译机构或期刊的要求进行调整。

(完整word版)外文文献及翻译doc

Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。

20外文文献翻译原文及译文参考样式

20外⽂⽂献翻译原⽂及译⽂参考样式华北电⼒⼤学科技学院毕业设计（论⽂）附件外⽂⽂献翻译学号： 0819******** 姓名：宗鹏程所在系别：机械⼯程及⾃动化专业班级：机械08K1指导教师：张超原⽂标题：Development of a High-PerformanceMagnetic Gear年⽉⽇⾼性能磁齿轮的发展1摘要：本⽂提出了⼀个⾼性能永磁齿轮的计算和测量结果。

上述分析的永磁齿轮有5.5的传动⽐，并能够提供27 Nm的⼒矩。

分析表明，由于它的弹簧扭转常数很⼩，因此需要特别重视安装了这种⾼性能永磁齿轮的系统。

上述分析的齿轮也已经被应⽤在实际中，以验证、预测其效率。

经测量，由于较⼤端齿轮传动引起的磁⼒齿轮的扭矩只有16 Nm。

⼀项关于磁齿轮效率损失的系统研究也展⽰了为什么实际⼯作效率只有81％。

⼀⼤部分磁损耗起源于轴承，因为机械故障的存在，此轴承的备⽤轴承在此时是必要的。

如果没有源于轴的少量磁泄漏，我们估计能得到⾼达96％的效率。

与传统的机械齿轮的⽐较表明，磁性齿轮具有更好的效率和单位体积较⼤扭矩。

最后，可以得出结论，本⽂的研究结果可能有助于促进传统机械齿轮向磁性齿轮发展。

关键词：有限元分析（FEA）、变速箱，⾼转矩密度，磁性齿轮。

⼀、导⾔由于永久磁铁能产⽣磁通和磁⼒，虽然⼏个世纪过去了，许多⼈仍然着迷于永久磁铁。

，在过去20年的复兴阶段，正是这些优点已经使得永久磁铁在很多实际中⼴泛的应⽤，包括在起重机，扬声器，接头领域，尤其是在永久磁铁电机⽅⾯。

其中对永磁铁的复兴最常见于效率和转矩密度由于永磁铁的应⽤显著提⾼的⼩型机器的领域。

在永久磁铁没有获取⾼度重视的⼀个领域是传动装置的领域，也就是说，磁⼒联轴器不被⼴泛⽤于传动装置。

磁性联轴器基本上可以被视为以传动⽐为1：1磁⼒齿轮。

相⽐标准电⽓机器有约10kN m/m的扭矩，装有⾼能量永久磁铁的磁耦有⾮常⾼的单位体积密度的扭矩，变化范围⼤约300–400 kN 。

3000字的本科毕业外文文献翻译(格式标准)

本科毕业生外文文献翻译学生姓名：指导教师：所在学院：专业：中国·大庆2013 年5 月Chapter 1IntroductionSpread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal ) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).1.1 History Frequency hoppingThe concept of frequency hopping was first alluded to in the 1903 U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 filed by Nikola Tesla in July 1900. Tesla came up with the idea after demonstrating the world's first radio-controlled submersible boat in 1898, when it became apparent the wireless signals controlling the boat needed to be secure from "being disturbed, intercepted, or interfered with in any way." His patents covered two fundamentally different techniques for achieving immunity to interference, both of which functioned by altering the carrier frequency or other exclusive characteristic. The first had a transmitter that worked simultaneously at two or more separate frequencies and a receiver in which each of the individual transmitted frequencies had to be tuned in, in order for the control circuitry to respond. The second technique used a variable-frequency transmitter controlled by an encoding wheel that altered the transmitted frequency in a predetermined manner. These patents describe the basic principles of frequency hopping and frequency-division multiplexing, and also the electronic AND-gate logic circuit.Frequency hopping is also mentioned in radio pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had already tried it several years earlier. Zenneck's book was a leading text of the time, and it is likely that many later engineers were aware of it. A Polish engineer, Leonard Danilewicz, came up with the idea in 1929.Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent 1,869,695, 1932). During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY for communication between Roosevelt and Churchill, which incorporated spread spectrum, but due to its top secret nature, SIGSALY's existence did not become known until the 1980s.The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for their "Secret Communications System". Lamarr had learned about the problem at defense meetings she had attended with her former husband Friedrich Mandl, who was an Austrian arms manufacturer. The Antheil-Lamarr version of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change among 88 frequencies, and was intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The patent came to light during patent searches in the 1950s when ITT Corporation and other privatefirms began to develop Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a civilian form of spread spectrum, though the Lamarr patent had no direct impact on subsequent technology. It was in fact ongoing military research at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Corporation, ITT and Sylvania Electronic Systems that led to early spread-spectrum technology in the 1950s. Parallel research on radar systems and a technologically similar concept called "phase coding" also had an impact on spread-spectrum development.1.2 Commercial useThe 1976 publication of Spread Spectrum Systems by Robert Dixon, ISBN 0-471-21629-1, was a significant milestone in the commercialization of this technology. Previous publications were either classified military reports or academic papers on narrow subtopics. Dixon's book was the first comprehensive unclassified review of the technology and set the stage for increasing research into commercial applications.Initial commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s in the US with three systems: Equatorial Communications System's very small aperture (VSAT) satellite terminal system for newspaper newswire services, Del Norte Technology's radio navigation system for navigation of aircraft for crop dusting and similar applications, and Qualcomm's OmniTRACS system for communications to trucks. In the Qualcomm and Equatorial systems, spread spectrum enabled small antennas that viewed more than one satellite to be used since the processing gain of spread spectrum eliminated interference. The Del Norte system used the high bandwidth of spread spectrum to improve location accuracy.In 1981, the Federal Communications Commission started exploring ways to permit more general civil uses of spread spectrum in a Notice of Inquiry docket. This docket was proposed to FCC and then directed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff. The proposals in the docket were generally opposed by spectrum users and radio equipment manufacturers, although they were supported by the then Hewlett-Packard Corp. The laboratory group supporting the proposal would later become part of Agilent.The May 1985 decision in this docket permitted unlicensed use of spread spectrum in 3 bands at powers up to 1 Watt. FCC said at the time that it would welcome additional requests for spread spectrum in other bands.The resulting rules, now codified as 47 CFR 15.247 permitted Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many other products including cordless telephones. These rules were then copied in many other countries. Qualcomm was incorporated within 2 months after the decision to commercialize CDMA.1.3 Spread-spectrum telecommunicationsThis is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original information.Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signalstructure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences —created using pseudorandom number generators —to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the alloted bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.Chapter 22.1 Spread-spectrum clock signal generationSpread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency and its harmonics, and would therefore radiate energy with an infinite spectral density. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).To avoid this problem, which is of great commercial importance to manufacturers, spread-spectrum clocking is used. This consists of using one of the methods described in the Spread-spectrum telecommunications section in order to reduce the peak radiated energy. The technique therefore reshapes the system's electromagnetic emissions to comply with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It is a popular technique because it can be used to gain regulatory approval with only a simple modification to the equipment.Spread-spectrum clocking has become more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and the increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays in smaller and smaller devices. Because these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, passive EMI reduction measures such as capacitors or metal shielding are not a viable option. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are necessary in these cases, but can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is the risk that modifying th e system clock runs the risk of the clock/data misalignment.2.2Direct-sequence spread spectrumIn telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.2.2.1Features1.It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string ofpseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.2. It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter isknown a priori by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the informationsignal.2.2.2Transmission methodDirect-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using.For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. This requires the receiver to synchronize its sequence with the transmitter's sequence via some sort of timing search process. However, this apparent drawback can be a significant benefit: if the sequences of multiple transmitters are synchronized with each other, the relative synchronizations the receiver must make between them can be used to determine relative timing, which, in turn, can be used to calculate the receiver's position if the transmitters' positions are known. This is the basis for many satellite navigation systems.The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, which results in a uniform frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudo-random number generator.2.2.3Benefits∙Resistance to intended or unintended jamming∙Sharing of a single channel among multiple users∙Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth)∙Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver2.2.4Uses∙The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems∙DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with different codes.It is the most widely used type of CDMA.∙Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands∙IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and its predecessor 802.11-1999. (Their successor 802.11g uses OFDM instead)∙Automatic meter reading∙IEEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee)2.3 Frequency-hopping spread spectrumFrequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:1.Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. Theprocess of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background.2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appearsas an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.3.Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types ofconventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.2.3.1 Basic algorithmTypically, the initiation of an FHSS communication is as follows1.The initiating party sends a request via a predefined frequency or control channel.2.The receiving party sends a number, known as a seed.3.The initiating party uses the number as a variable in a predefined algorithm, whichcalculates the sequence of frequencies that must be used. Most often the period of the frequency change is predefined, as to allow a single base station to serve multiple connections.4.The initiating party sends a synchronization signal via the first frequency in thecalculated sequence, thus acknowledging to the receiving party it has correctly calculated the sequence.5.The communication begins, and both the receiving and the sending party changetheir frequencies along the calculated order, starting at the same point in time.2.3.2 Military useSpread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key(TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share.By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modern military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.2.3.3Technical considerationsThe overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the degradation caused by narrowband interferers.One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits more power than non-spread spectrum systems. Both frequency hopping and direct sequence systems can transmit at 1 Watt. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt or a thousand times increase. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prescribes a minimum number of channels and a maximum dwell time for each channel.In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel. Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation between remote radios.2.3.4 Variations of FHSSAdaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.The key idea behind AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels -- perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting good/bad channels.However, if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “badchannel removal”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern.Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation.Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order.第一章介绍扩频技术是信号（例如一个电气、电磁，或声信号）生成的特定带宽频率域中特意传播，从而导致更大带宽的信号的方法。

外文文献翻译格式

外文文献翻译格式
外文文献翻译格式一般需包括以下内容：
1. 文献翻译的题目：对外文文献的标题进行翻译，并在翻译后的题目前加上“外文文献翻译：”。

2. 文献的出处：包括外文文献的作者名称、文献标题、原文出版信息等。

3. 翻译的正文：按照文章的段落，将外文文献逐段翻译成中文。

在翻译的文本前后加上序号，以示区分。

4. 翻译的语言风格：外文文献翻译应注重语言风格的保持。

翻译时要根据文章的风格，选择适当的中文表达方式，保持原文的句子结构和词汇用法。

5. 原文和译文对照：将原文和译文对照排列，方便读者对照阅读。

可以将原文和译文分别排列在左右两栏中，或者将原文和译文分别放在不同的页面上，便于对照阅读。

6. 翻译中的注释：如果有部分内容翻译困难或有待解释的地方，在翻译文中添加注释。

注释的格式一般为在译文后面加上方括号，括号内的文字为注释内容。

7. 译者的信息：在文献翻译末尾一般会加上译者的姓名，并注明译者的专业领域或者工作单位。

总之，外文文献翻译格式需要将原文翻译成中文，保持原文的结构和风格，并加上适当的注释和对照，方便读者阅读和理解。

外文文献翻译格式要求

外文文献翻译格式要求：（1）摘要，关键词：宋体五号（其中“摘要”和“关键词”为宋体五号加粗），行间距设置为18磅，段前段后间距设置为0.5行，对齐方式选择“两端对齐”方式；各个关键词之间以分号（；）或者（，）隔开，最后一个关键词后不加标点；（2）正文一级标题：采用黑体小三号加粗，行间距设置为20磅，段前段后间距设置为0.5行，一般采用“1 引言”样式，其中1和“引言”之间用一个空格分开；正文二级标题：采用黑体小三号，行间距设置为20磅，段前段后间距设置为0.5行，一般采用“2.1 系统原理”样式，其中1和“系统原理”之间用一个空格分开；；一级标题和二级标题采用“左对齐”方式；（3）正文内容：采用宋体小四号，行间距设置为20磅，段前段后间距设置为0行，首行缩进2字符，正文对齐方式在段落格式设置中选择“两端对齐”，遇正文中有公式的，设置该行（段）行间距为“单倍行距”（4）插图：请设置图片版式为“浮于文字上方”，并勾选“居中”，图片大小根据版面，按比例适当进行缩放，图示说明采用“图1 主控制器的结构图”样式置于图下，图序与说明以一个空格字符间隔，图示说明采用宋体五号，居中对齐，行间距设置为“单倍行距”，段前段后距设置为0.5行；（5）表格：在表格属性中选择“居中”对齐方式，表格说明采用“表1 两种方法试验数据比较”样式置于表格上方，表序与说明以一个空格字符间隔，表格说明采用宋体五号，居中对齐，行间距设置为“单倍行距”，段前段后距设置为0.5行；（6）参考文献：“参考文献”格式同一级标题格式，参考文献内容采用宋体五号，行间距设置为18磅，段前段后间距设置为0行，对齐方式选择“左对齐”方式，其中出现的标点一律采用英文标点；以上摘要，关键词，正文，标题及参考文献中出现的英文字符和数字，一律设置为“Times New Roman”字体。

另外：外文文献翻译附于开题报告之后：第一部分为译文，第二部分为外文文献原文，译文与原文均需单独编制页码（底端居中）并注明出处。

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附件3：
本科毕业设计
（本科毕业论文）外文文献及译文
文献、资料题目：Advanced Encryption Standard 文献、资料来源：期刊（著作、网络等）
文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.3.25
院（部）：土木工程学院
专土木工程
班土木013
姓名：张三
学号： 2001888888
指导教师：张九光
翻译日期： 2005.6.30 一号，黑体。

题目必须二选一：要么是毕业设计，要么是毕业论文小初，黑体。

正式打印时，
将此删除小三，Time New Roman
小三，宋体，写全称，汉字下同
小三，Time New Roman ，数字、字母下同
山东建筑大学毕业设计（或毕业论文，二选一）外文文献及译文
- 1 -
，the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has
been working to develop a new encryption standard to keep government information secure．The organization is in the final stages of an open process of selecting one or more algorithms，or data-scrambling formulas，for the new Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and plans to make adecision by late summer or early fall．The standard is slated to go into effect next year．AES is intended to be a stronger，more efficient successor to Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)，which replaced the aging DES，which was cracked in less than three days in July 1998．
“Until we have the AES，3DES will still offer protection for years to come．So there is no need to immediately switch over，”says Edward Roback，acting chief of the computer security division at NIST and chairman of the AES selection committee．“What AES will offer is a more efficient algorithm．It will be a federal standard，but it will be widely implemented in the IT community．”
According to Roback，efficiency of the proposed algorithms is measured by how fast they can encrypt and decrypt information，how fast they can present an encryption key and how much information they can encrypt．
The AES review committee is also looking at how much space the algorithm takes up on a chip and how much memory it requires．Roback says the selection of a more efficient AES will also result in cost savings and better use of resources．
“DES was designed for hardware implementations，and we are now living in a world of
山东建筑大学毕业设计（或毕业论文，二选一）外文文献及译文
- 2 - much more efficient software ，and we have learned an awful lot about the design of algorithms ，”says Roback ．“When you start multiplying this with the billions of impleme ntations done daily ，the saving on overhead on the networks will be enormous ．”
……
以确保政府的信息安全。

该组织目前正处于为新的先进加密标准（AES ）选择一个或几个算法或数据打乱公式的开放过程的最后阶段，并计划在夏末或秋初作出决定。

此标准内定明年实施。

AES 预定为比三层数据加密标准(3DES)更强、更高效的后续标准，3DES 替代了老化的DES 加密标准，DES 在1998年7月在不到三天的时间内就被破译了。

NIST 计算机安全部的代理主管兼AES 选择委员会主席Edward Roback 说：“在我们拥有AES 之前，3DES 还将在今后几年提供保护。

所以没有必要马上转换。

AES 所提供的是一种更有效的算法。

它将是一项联邦标准，但它将在IT 界广泛实施。

”
据Roback 称，提议中的算法的效率是通过对信息加密和解密有多快、给出加密密钥有多快以及能对多少信息加密等几个方面进行测量的。

AES 评价委员会也要看算法占据芯片上多少空间和需要多少内存。

Roback 说，选择一个更高效的AES 也会带来成本的节省和资源的更好利用。

Roback 说：“DES 是为硬件实现而设计的，而我们现在处于软件更高效的世界，我们对算法的设计有极多的了解。

当我们开始大规模使用此算法，每天实现几十亿次的加密时，（算法带来的）网络开销的节省将是巨大的。

”
……。

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