英语语言学 第八章
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
语言学教程第八章知识点
Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
语言学第八单元
The Cooperative Principle 合作原则） （合作原则）
1. 2. 3. 4. Maxim of Quantity 量的准则 Maxim of Quality 质的准则 Maxim of Relation 关联准则 Maxim of Manner 方式准则
Maxim of Quantity 质的准则
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
1. Locutionary act（发话行为） 2. Illocutionary act（行事行为） 3. Perlocutionary act（取效行为）
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
Chapter 8
Language in Use
speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, contextual meaning • Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. • It depends more on the context.
semantics VS atics
• Semantics: more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning • Pragmatics: more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or sth. extra. pragmatics=meaning-semantics
第八章 语言学与翻译
通过二次阅读和思考分析，我们发现 idyll 如果 简单地翻译为“田园诗”是不符合前一段叙述的内 容的。从第一段中，我们知道作者描述的是“闲适的心情”。当然本词也可勉强翻译为“田 园诗般的心情”，这时需要注意上下文的搭配，如 此，第一句应该翻译为“……我的田园诗般的心情 一定会保持得相当不错。” 类似地，我们可以分析出 plague 和 picknicker 因为要和上下文表达的意思相一致，所以这两个词 不能直接引用词典义，而应该作出适当的转化，分 别使用“烦扰”和“带饭到野外去吃的人”。
►
应用语言学作为学科名称，是波兰语言学家J. N. 博杜 恩· 德· 库尔特内在19世纪70年代提出来的。相对于理论语言 学，应用语言学是将理论语言学的知识应用于解决其他科学 领域的问题，或者说是研究语言在各个领域中实际应用的学 科。反过来，语言应用是促使语言理论研究的动力，因此两 者之间有密切的关系。应用语言学真正发展成为一门独立的 学科，是在20世纪40至50年代。应用语言学有广义和狭义 之分。广义的应用语言学研究语言学知识应用于其他科学领 域，狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学，特别是第二语言教学 和外语教学，还包括语言规范化、文字改革、辞书编纂、翻 译等。在国际著名语言学文摘刊物《语言学与语言行为文摘》 （Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts）的分类中, 应用语言学包含语言教育政策、本族语讲授、非本族语讲授、 语言测试与评估、成人语言发展、阅读的习得、教学和辅导、 阅读过程、阅读测试、写作的教学、习得、过程和测试、双 语教育、翻译、英语作为第二语言/外语的教学和学习等11 个(近年又增列为15个)分支学科。
在国际著名语言学文摘刊物语言学与语言行为文摘linguisticsandlanguagebehaviorabstracts的分类中应用语言学包含语言教育政策本族语讲授非本族语讲授语言测试与评估成人语言发展阅读的习得教学和辅导阅读过程阅读测试写作的教学习得过程和测试双语教育翻译英语作为第二语言外语的教学和学习等11个近年又增列为15个分支学科
英语语言学八(8.2.3)
• (1) Calulability • (2) Cancellability • (3) Non-detachability • (4) Non-conventionality
•(1)Calculability
• The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and listeners are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information. He also lists some necessary datas in his paper.
It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. In other words,an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even thoue changed.
• He suggests there is a general pattern for the working out of a conversation implicature • That is--when somebody says something,which apparently does not make sense at superfical lever,the lever of what is said,you will not simply think that he is taking nonsense and stop thinking about it any more. • If you find there is something supporting your previous assumptions, you will take it as the real point the speaker is trying to get across.
第八章篇章翻译解析
reference
1)前照应（回指）anaphoric reference
2)后照应（下指）cataphoric reference
▪ 例子：
▪ 张明是我的朋友。(外指，张明存在于客观世界 之中)
▪ 张明是我的一个朋友。他是西安人。（内指， “他”回指“张明”）
▪ 那年冬天， 祖母死了，父亲的差使也交卸了，正 是祸不单行的日子，我从北京到徐州，打算跟着 父亲奔丧回家。到徐州见着父亲，看见满院狼藉 的东西，又想起祖母，不禁簌簌地流下眼泪。父 亲说：“事已如此，不必难过，好在天无绝人之 路！” （朱自清 《背影》）
▪ In that winter, my grandma died and my father lost his job. I left for Xuzhou to join him in hastening home to attend my grandma’s funeral. When I met him in Xuzhou, the sight of disorderly mess in our courtyard and the thought to my grandma started tears trickling down my cheeks. He said, “Now that things have come to such a mess, it’s no use crying. Fortunately, heaven always leaves one a way out.” (张培基 译)
▪ “这倒难以说定。可是你只要看看这儿的小 客厅，就得了解答。这里面有一个金融界 的大亨，又有一位工业界的巨头；这小客 厅就是中国社会的缩影。” （《子夜》）
语言学chapter 8 part two
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. The cooperative principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
they?
A: What do you think of the lecture? B: He’s a good cook.
Chapter 8 Language in UUAGES COLLEGE
4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner
relation
Be relevant.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
manner
Be perspicuous.
1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
2）Cancellability or DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性) The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change. 可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话人在原先的话语 上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除） 原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或 暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society?答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One ofthem is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used toestablish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the useof such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's you r family?”, “Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. Andlanguage, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoidgiving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both thephysical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word inimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos toEnglish for “snow”, there are several in Eskmake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in whichit is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language formsand accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they areexpected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguisticvarieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While inEnglish accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, inNew York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correctthan without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic.答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every languageor language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say,language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, themuch-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each otherwithout feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure Englishbecause it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result,many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that theevaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determineidiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender andage. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regardingregional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks.While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization ofthese potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it isthe local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London asthey were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities andwriters. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly fromthe English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those whowished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regionaldialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regionaldialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ this variety everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codifiedgrammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ‘incorrect’ language. Therefore, the standard diale is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official ornational language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes asgovernment documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formaloccasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own.答：According to Halliday, “Language v aries as its function varies; it differs in differentThe type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is asituations.”register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field ofdiscourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified as Field: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is anillogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonantclusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position[men], desk [des], and toldconsonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is thedeletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fac verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects ofEnglish and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black Englishthat has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives makea positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English ofthe earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structurevariety performs its characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified”functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs whenthe situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varietiesof a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different roleto play as situation changes.。
语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Use概述
Groom:
I do.
17
• Features of performatives
• First person singular
• Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
– The present tense – Indicative mood
– Active voice
20
3. Illocutionary Act Theory
• John Searle (1932- ) • Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: • A locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.
7
• Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
– The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used. – It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.
25
• Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
英语语言学 第八章
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
蹩脚bilge船底污水引申为肮脏的下三滥的劣质的大兴dashy浮华的华而不实的引申为假的冒牌的劣质的sale二手货贱卖引申为垃圾货形容人的品质低劣瘪三begsir乞丐先生用来形容叫花子难民逃荒者等各式穷人后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一
• Language is not always used to
exchange information as is generally
each of them chooses to use is in
part determined by one’s social background. – When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about
our origin and our background.
language live.
1. The relations between language and society
----There are many indications of the interrelationship between language and society.
考研语言学第八章笔记
考研语⾔学第⼋章笔记笔记Pragmatics:It is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker's meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.* pragmatics and semantics区别1.Pragmatics' interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.= it depends more on the context.2.It takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal meaning without context.3.It can also be defined as the study of language in use.Pragmatics and semantics 联系Semantics: studies the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning. Pragmatics: studies the side more closely related to the context, the more indetermined side, or something extra.Speech Act TheoryPerformatives施为句and constatives叙事句Performatives: the statements which are used to do something. They do not describe a fact and they are not verifiable. (宣布，命名，许诺，打赌）I name this ship the Queen ElizabethI bequeath this watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I find you guilty. You did it. Thank you. I order you to turn right. People are warned to keep off the grass.I state that I am alone responsible.I declare the meeting open.Constatives: the statements are used to state/describe a fact.They are verifiable.First i open the door then i sit next to the door.Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate.----Austin, Felicity Conditions1.There must be a relevant conventional procedure. The relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.2.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.3.The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.因为适合条件不够完善，只能使⽤于部分情况，所以Austin放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句的区分，建⽴了另外⼀套模式来解释如何通过语⾔事实⾏为。
英语语言学：chapter 8 Language in use
conversational maxims is called the cooperative principle. ▪ Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.
she left.
▪ Sometimes the first Quality maxim is violated. ▪ Ex. ▪ 1. 一切反动派都是纸老虎。 ▪ 2. He is made of iron. ▪ 3. Every nice girl loves a sailor.
▪ Sometimes the Relation maxim is violated. ▪ Ex.: ▪ A: Can you fly to Edinburgh tomorrow? ▪ B: The pilots are on strike.
▪ 2. Violation of the maxims
▪ Lies are not implicatures proper. So the cases Grice discusses are all blatant, apparent violations. The speaker has shown it clearly that some maxims are violated, yet at a deeper level the CP can still be thought to be upheld.
英语语言学 第八章 语言与社会
Register 语域
▪ Register, in a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
▪ Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacherstudent, etc.)语旨
away, please? ▪ Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once. ▪ Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the
upper floor by way of the staircase.
▪ When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.
语言学 第八章
Chapter 8
Language and Society
8.2 Varieties of language
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers 8.2.1. Dialectal varieties 8.2.1.1 Regional dialect : is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. The change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual process Reason:1 geographical barriers 2 loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change
Speech Community:
For general linguistics: speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language For sociolinguistics: speech community is a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms
新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society
新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
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• Speaker A I did it yesterday. He hasn‟t got it. It was she that said it.
Speaker B I done it yesterday. He ain‟t got it. It was her what said it.
• When we look at the language used by two speakers A and B, we can estimate roughly their relative social status.
language live.
1. The relations between language and society
----There are many indications of the interrelationship between language and society.
①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting) ②The use of language is in part determined by the user‟s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)
Language and gender (e.g. intonation,
lexicon)
Compared
with men, women tend to use such adverbs: horridly, abominably可恶地, immensely, excessively, amazingly, so, most, etc. The overuse of these words imply that the users are sentimental, shallow and not objective enough.
• Language is not always used to
exchange information as is generally
assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfill an important social function – to maintain social relationship between people.
our origin and our background.
•The social environment can also be
reflected in language, and can often
have an effect on the structure and the vocabulary.
3.1 Dialectal varieties:
Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region (e.g. Br. E. & Am. E.). (a variety of language used recognizably in a specific region)
• Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. What
each of them chooses to use is in
part determined by one’s social background. – When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about
Wife: You always leave your papers about, dear! Husband: Really? Didn’t I put them in place yesterday?
English
Scottish
It needYou need your hair cutting.
South: You need your hair cut
Social dialect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation). (a variety of language used recognizably by a specific social class)
which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic
form is entirely social.
2. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
Macro sociolinguistics： a bird‟s-eye
• In Britain, accent = marker of status – RP: a non-localized form of pronunciation, refers to the particular way of pronouncing standard English, an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker. – EE: Estuary English, commonly used by educated people in the region around London. Less rigid than RP but more standard than Cockney. – Cockney: lower class dialect of East London, considered non-standard by educated people.
–For example, a society's kinship
system is generally reflected in its
kinship vocabulary.
Sociolinguistics ---- a sub-field
of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of
Varieties of English: Standard
English, Cockney, lower-class New York City speech, Oxford English, legalese, cocktail party talk, and so on. Dialectal varieties Register Degree of formality
3. Speech community and speech variety
Speech community- ---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community. Speech (language) variety ---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
• An example from Pride and Prejudice:
– Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most excellent ball. …Jane was so admired. Every body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley thought her quite beautiful, …I was so vexed to see him stand up with her. … I am quite delighted with him. He is so excessively handsome!
③Language, especially the structure of its
lexicon, reflects both the physical and the
social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo) ④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in