Descriptive Translation StudiesPPT演讲稿
Descriptive Approaches to Translation
• General background:
• In the second half of the 20th century, the traditional prescriptive (normative) and source-oriented translation theory was challenged by a descriptive and target-oriented approach to translation.
Restricted translation theories
(vi) Problem-restricted translation theories (特殊
翻译问题)
Broad and basic questions e.g. the limits of variance and invariance in translation the nature of translation equivalence Specific issues e.g. the translation of metaphors the translation of proper names.
Restricted translation theories
(ii) Area-restricted translation theories (翻译范
围) language restriction/restricted to language (Close to comparative linguistics and stylistics) culture restriction/restricted to culture
(i) Medium-restricted translation theories (翻译手
翻译研究派4
3 James Holmes, Andre Lefevere and Raymond van den Broeck 4 5
Ostranenie as the Evaluative Standard
Translation Studies‟ Place in Literary History
• Only through a historical analysis can the function of the original text be understood.
• Miko: expressive features of the text can be best be determined by relating those features of style of a specific text to similar characteristics used within the literary tradition.
语文本进行某种程度的操纵。” “Translation Studies and a New Paradigm P11翻译研究与一种新的
模式 ”
•
也有“描述翻译研究”(Descriptive Translation studies) 或多元系统研究 (Polysystem Approach) • 也有“操纵学派”之称
(1926–1967)
理论要点
1. 2. 3. 文学翻译重在再创作，比较历史的作诗方法及分析阐明 译者在翻译中的只能和任务是构成这理论的先决条件 文学翻译必须采用“错觉”理论 翻译是一种做决定的过程 （R.Jacohson)
列维是捷克著名文学翻译理论家。在1967年写的一篇文章中，他提出翻 译—包括美国语言学家雅各布逊(R．Jacohson)所区分的“语内翻 译”(interlingual translation)、“语际翻译”(intralingual translation) 和“符际译”(intersemiotic translation)——过程是一个决定过程. · 运用语言学理论讨论文学翻译的标准和技巧
Descriptive Translation Studies
Descriptive Translation Studies(DTS)ContentContent 0Section 1 Introduction (1)Section 2 Short Study of DTS (2)2.1 Historical background of DTS (2)2.2 The rationale for DTS (2)2.3 Types of Descriptive Translation studies (5)2.3.1 Product-oriented DTS (5)2.3.2 Function-oriented DTS (6)2.3.3 Process-oriented DTS (6)2.4 The concept of norms in DTS (6)2.4.1 Initial norms (7)2.4.2 Preliminary norms (7)2.4.3 Operational norms (8)2.5 The DTS concept of equivalence (8)2.6 The view of translation shifts (9)Section 3 Application of DTS (9)3.1 Comparing the contents pages (10)Section 4 Conclusion (13)Reference: (14)Section 1 IntroductionSince the Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) has been demonstrated by Toury in his famous book, “Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond” (1995), it became a current topic and many people paid attention. It as a translation method has been frequently applied to translation practice. Toury comments that “no empirical science can make a claim for completeness and (relative) autonomy unless it has a proper descriptive branch”(Toury 1995:1). DTS as a descriptive-explanatory and interdisciplinary approach is accepted by the translation field.According to Toury, Munday, Holmes and other great scholars of translation, this paper firstly defines the systematical study of DTS. Therefore from the historical background, rationale, types (product-oriented DTS, function-oriented DTS and process-oriented DTS), norms, concept of equivalence and the shifts in translation respectively demonstrate the study of DTS. In the section of the concept of norms in DTS, I listed the three main stages of norms of DTS. They are initial norms, preliminary norms and operational norms. Among them, Toury pays attention to the initial norms and analyses the adequate and acceptable forms of DTS. In the section which follows I discuss the DTS concept of equivalence. Thereafter I discuss the shifts of translation and what happens in a change between source text and target text.In the second part of the analysis, the paper uses his theory of translation for the particular source text,“Alice’s adventure in Wonderland”to compare the three translations in Chinese. The comparison occurs in the translating of contents pages in all three Chinese versions.Keywords: DTS, norms, translate, content pageSection 2 Short Study of DTS2.1 Historical background of DTSGideon Toury is the professor of Poetics, Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. He is proficient in English and Hebrew and did a lot of work in the field of translation theory and comparative literature. Among numerous translation theory works, he developed a school of his own on the translation norms theory. In his famous book “Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond”(1995), he considered that the translation is an actual sociocultural activity. He researched a large number of translation works, trying to find out the norms that translators used. He determined these norms can be used to determine if the translation behaviour is appropriate or not, and adjust the factors, which restricts the result of the translation (Toury 1995:1). These methods become a premise for who ever wants to become a qualified translator.In the long term, translation studies have been present in the normative characterisation. From the 1960s until 1970, DTS gradually became an important theoretical trend. According to Toury, completeness and (relative) autonomy are impossible to be proved by empirical science only when a proper descriptive branch could be found. In other words, the DTS reduces the limitation of normative research, broadens the research field and scope greatly, and let translation studies have more meaning.2.2 The rationale for DTSIn his book“Descriptive Translation Studies”, Toury stresses on the development of a suitably systematic descriptive branch of the discipline, to replace isolated free standing studies that are commonplace.What is missing is not isolated attempts reflecting excellent intuitions andsupplying fine insights (which many existing studies certainly do), but a systematicbranch proceeding from clear assumptions and armed with a methodology andresearch techniques made as explicit as possible and justified within translationstudies itself. Only a branch of this kind can ensure that the findings of individualstudies will be intersubjectivity testable and comparable, and the studiesthemselves replicable.(Toury 1995:3)According to Toury the key research contents of DTS is researching the text which is not an assumed translation, the translation should be a pragmatic one. As an approach to translation studies, DTS has some characteristics. The first and foremost, DTS is descriptive, which is phrased by Toury (1995):Whether one choose to focus one’s efforts on translated texts a nd/or theirconstituents on intertextual relationships, on models and norms of translationalbehaviours or on strategies resorted to in and for the solution of particularproblems, what constitutes the subject matter of a proper discipline of TranslationStudies is (observable or reconstructable) facts of real life rather than merelyspeculative entities resulting from preconceived hypotheses and theoretical models.(Toury 1995:1)No matter how much attention one pays to the relationships between the translated text and the intertextual constituents, the discipline of translation studies is not only the hypotheses and theoretical models. The DTS provide a reasonable reaction to understand and explain descriptive realities.DTS is empirical, because when it is processing and observing questions, the point focuses on one individual experience. It takes an isolated, static, one-sided view point. The theory of Toury described this characteristic below:Empirical science has two major objectives: to describe particular phenomena inthe world of our experience and to establish general principles by means of whichthey can be explained and predicted. The explanatory and predictive principles of ascientific discipline are stated in its hypothetical generalizations and its theories;they can characterize general patterns of regularities to which the individualphenomena conform and by virtue of which their occurrence can be systematicallyanticipate.(Hempel 1952:1 in Toury 1995:9)The two main purposes of DTS describe the particular phenomena and explain, predict and establish general principles. It can be perceived that DTS has the characteristic of empiricism.As far back as the 1950s, McFarlane proposes “translation borders on too many provinces”(McFarlane 1953:93). In the year of 1988 (republished in 2000), Holmes suggested the characteristics of the original text should be analysed opposite linguistic contextuality, literary intertextuality and sociocultural situationality (1988/2000). “DTS recognised and accepted the interdisciplinary nature of translation studies. In fact, it insists on describing translations as cultural phenomena existing as part of the complex cultural contexts into which they are received or in which they are performed.”(Rosa 2011). For this reason, the emphasis should be enlarged to macro-textual. After which Toury recommends it should solve the question on “what translation is and does” and“on the contextual reasons for what it is and does”.A descriptive study “should start from the empirical fact, i.e. from the translated text itself”(Herman 1985:13). The reason of this formulation is best-known, Toury states: “Translations are facts of target cultures on occasion facts of a special status, sometimes even constituting an identifiable (sub) system of their own, but of the target culture in any event”(Toury 1995:29). Statements from a translation should have a yardstick for a target text evaluative analysis.Another characteristic of DTS is cultural history focused. “[DTS encourages researchers to] delve into translations as cultural and historical phenomena, to explore their context and their conditioning factors, to search for grounds that can explain why there is what there is” (Hermans1999:5 in Rosa 2011). The different history of specific countries lead to cultural phenomena diversity, by putting the DTS into the individual sociocultural phenomena can solve the distinctive translation problem. It would not be the slightest bit of an overstatement to say that these characteristics are making the DTS have a decisive position in translation studies.2.3 Types of Descriptive Translation studiesToury built DTS on some of his precious works and added it in the map of Holmes which is “a seminal paper in the development of the field as a distinct discipline” (Munday 2001/2008). The situation of DTS is equal to the theoretical; they all belong to the pure translation studies. Pure translation study is a branch of translation studies and another branch of translation studies is applied translation study. The relation between DTS and Translation Theory refers to the reciprocal nature since “carefully performed studies into well defined corpuses or sets of problems constitute the vest means of testing, refuting, and especially modifying and amending the very theory, in whose terms research is carried out”(Toury 1995:1).There are three types of DTS, which is mentioned by Toury in his book (product-oriented DTS, process-oriented DTS and function-oriented DTS).2.3.1 Product-oriented DTSThe starting point of product-oriented DTS is the existing target text, which has been translated. It focuses on the description of particular translation or contrasts to analyse the different translations about the same source text into one language. For instance, the translation from a language at a specific time, in an individual conversation or the contrast could happen with the different translations from different time, or the same time. The aim of doing this study is “for surveys of large corpuses of translation” (Holmes 2000:177). The product-oriented DTS aims to reconstruct the possible motivations for the shifts between the source-text and the target text, and then account the function of framework in context.2.3.2 Function-oriented DTS“Function-oriented DTS is not interested in the description of translations in themselves, but in the description of their function in the recipient socio-cultural situation: it is a study of contexts rather than text”(Holmes 1972. ed. Venuch 2000). The questions should revolve when this method is used. Which texts were translated at a certain time in a certain place, what influences were exerted in consequence, the reason about why the translator translated like that, under what circumstances, and generated what kind of effect.2.3.3 Process-oriented DTSThis area of research relates to psychology of translation. It mainly discovers the thing that occurs in translators’minds, it also touches upon the influences of translators thought. It is concerned with attempting to describe the actual process of translation. Holmes describes this kind of study: “concerns itself with the process or act of translation itself…admittedly, the process is an unusually complex one”(Holmes 1972. ed. Venuch 2000). According to Holmes, a highly sophisticated method for analysing has been developed by the psychologists. Moreover, they are describing other complex mental processes. Hopefully, in the future this area of study might be called translation psychology or psycho-translation studies.2.4 The concept of norms in DTSAccording to Munday, there are three aims of Toury’s DTS. The first is to distinguish trends of translation behaviour. The second is to summarise processes of the translator making the decision. The third is to re-establish the norms that function in the translation and make hypotheses that can be suitable for further descriptive studies. Toury define the norms like this:The translation of general values or ideas shared by a community - as to whatis right or wrong, adequate or inadequate –into performance instructionsappropriate for and applicable to particular situations.(Toury 1995:55)“These norms are sociocultural constraints specific to a culture, society and time”(Munday 2001/2008). Acquiring these norms should come from the general process of education and socialisation. Toury considered the norms governed the translation as an activity, and “determine the (type and extent of) equivalence manifested in actual translations” (Munday 2001 p. 61). He divided the different periods of the norms into three stages.2.4.1 Initial normsThe first is the basic one—initial norms. Toury suggests that this is the most important one, he mentioned it in his book: “Whereas adherence to source norms determines translation’s adequacy as compared to the source text, subscription to norms originating in the target culture determines its acceptability” (Toury 1995: p56-57).According to Toury, adequacy of translation makes the difference between the stages of unscrambling by the translator and the reading by the target receivers. Adequacy tends to complete translation. “the most adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the source text” (Toury 1995: p57). On the other hand, it needs to be on an acceptable level of target readers. There are two branches in initial norms; one is ‘subjection to source norms’; another one is ‘subjection to target culture norms. They allow diction to be choosen by translators. If the translator chooses the branch of ST, then the TT will become an adequate translation. If it is prevailed by the target culture norms, the TT will be acceptable (Munday 2001: 7). In Toury’s book In Search of a Theory of Translation, he considered that the initial norm is the core of his theory of translation.2.4.2 Preliminary normsThe second stage of norms is what Toury called preliminary norms. Under preliminary norms are Translation policy and directness of translation. Translation policy, which is not pursued by Touryin his case of study, refer to in a specific language, culture or time and the factors determined by the selection of texts for translation(Munday 2001: 7). In other words, the policy of translation should consider the factors which can influence the translation, such as who the author is or what type of source text. Directness of translation considers that the intermediate language happens in translation between source language and target language. “Questions for investigation include the tolerance of the target text culture to this practice, which languages are included and whether the practice is camouflaged or not” (Munday 2001: p.112). The question should be considered, such as whether it should be translated from a intermediate language and what kind of intermediate language would be accepted.2.4.3 Operational normsThe last stage of norms is operational norms, which include Matricial norms and Textual-linguistic norms. The operational norm stresses the “presentation and linguistic matter of the target text”(Munday 2001: p112). It directly impacts the text template, i.e. the model of language materials and expression of actual text. Matricial norms emphasise the completeness of the target text. “phenomena include omission or relocation of passages, textual segmentation, and the addition of passages of footnotes”(Munday 2001: p 112). It considers if the translation is complete and how to segment the text and how to distribute them. Text-linguistic norms belong to another branch of operational norms. It can be pure linguistic or literariness. It can influence the selection of target text linguistic material, for instance, lexical items, phrases and stylistic features (Munday 2001: 7).2.5 The DTS concept of equivalenceAccording to Toury, DTS is different from the traditional translation studies. It is a variational, functional-relational, empirical, historical and descriptive concept of equivalence. Toury suggests that “a translation will be any target language text which is presented or regarded as such within the target system itself, on whatever grounds” (Toury 1995:27). The equivalence exists betweensource text and target text. The target text exhibits the variable profile determined and accepted by the target context. The process of translating acknowledges that “features are retained and reconstructed in target language material, not because they are important in any inherent sense, but because they are assigned importance, from the recipient vantage point (Toury 1995:12).2.6 The view of translation shiftsThe small linguistic changes that occur between source text and target text are known as translation shifts. It was first used by John Catford in his “A Linguistic Theory of Translation”(1965). The definition of shifts considered by him is: “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the source language to the target language” (Carford 1965: p73). After that Toury in his “Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond” (Toury 1995) warns against ‘the totally negative kind of reasoning required by the search for shifts’ (Toury 1995: 84) in which error, failure and loss in translation are highlighted. Instead, for Toury translation shift analysis is most valuable as a form of ‘discovery’, ‘a step towards the formulation of explanatory hypotheses’ about t he practice of translation (1995:85).Section 3 Application of DTSAfter the above analysis, I will put the DTS of a particular model to practice. I choose the old English story “Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland”to compare it to three Chinese version translations. After comparing the contents and the name of the characters, I will describe the nature of the shifts, looking closely at the language used. Further more attempt to account for the shifts, reflecting on the linguistic, cultural, social and historical motivations. Then I will give the conclusion about the translation product and to hypothesise about the motivations for the form the translation took.3.1 Comparing the contents pagesAlthough the contents page is always ignored, it plays an important role in both source text and target text. Even the translations for same source content page are different, when different translators translate. The contents page is the introduction to the whole story, it generalises the keynotes of the chapter. Some translations of contents pages are very confusing when it is read by the target reader, especially for children. A good quality contents page is easier to understand the main ideas of the story. Considering the shifts of the contents can lead the translator to producing the translation in an approving way to both the original writer and receptors.Here is a list of contents, the first is the source text and the following three content pages are the translations of different versions of Alice’s adventure in wonderland. The first version is the initial version of the translation, which translated by Zhao Yuanren in 1921 and published in 2002. The second version, is translated by Gong Xun, is more flexible during the translating. The third version is the most recent one.The contents of the original story, which written by Carroll, Lewis.1.down the rabbit-hole2.the pool of tears3. a caucus-race and a long tale4.the rabbit sends in a little bill5.advice from a caterpillar6.pig and pepper7. a mad tea-party8.the queen’s croquet ground9.who stole the tarts10.Alice’s evidenceThe first version translated by Zhao Yuanren (赵元任2002).1.钻进兔子洞crept into (the) rabbit hole2.眼泪池(a) tear pond (pool)3.合家欢赛跑和委屈的历史(a) family-type race and (the) injured history4.兔子的毕二爷(the) rabbit’s Bi er ye (“Bi er ye” is the transliteration of “Bill”)5.请教毛毛虫consult to (the) caterpillar6.胡椒厨房和猪孩子pepper kitchen and pig child7.茶疯会tea crazy meeting (a crazy tea-party)8.皇后的槌球场queen’s croquet pitch9.素甲鱼的苦衷Su Turtle’s troubles (“Su Turtle” is the name of a dish)10.龙虾的跳舞lobsters’ dancing11.饼是谁偷的？The pie was stolen by whom?12.阿丽思大闹公堂Alice “fuss in the court” (a Chinese idiom)The second version translated by Gong Xun (龚勋2009)1.神奇的兔子洞(the) Amazing rabbit hole2.眼泪的池塘(a) Tear’s pond3.恢复原样Recover (to the) original shape4.公爵夫人与柴郡猫Duchess and Cheshire Cat5.愚蠢的茶会(a) stupid tea-party6.王后的槌球游戏queen’s croquet game7.素甲鱼的故事Su Turtle’s story8.审判红心骑士Judge (the) red-heart knave9.爱丽丝的证词Alice’s testimonyThe third version translated by Hu Han (胡涵2011)1.掉进兔子洞Drop into rabbit hole2.眼泪的池塘Tear’s pond3.会议式赛跑“Meeting form” race4.派遣小比尔进屋Dispatch little Bill into (the) house5.毛毛虫的建议caterpillar’s advice6.小猪和胡椒little pig and pepper7.发疯的茶会bugs tea-party8.王后的槌球场Queen’s croquet pitch9.素甲鱼的故事Su Turtle’s story10.龙虾四组舞lobster’s four-team dance11.谁偷走了馅饼who stole the pie12.爱丽丝的证词Alice’s testimonyThe reason that the number of the chapters is different is because the translators focus on different parts of the story. Even though some parts of the story were elided, the story still makes sense. I will only pay attention to the names of the chapters with identical details.It is easy to see the difference between the three versions. The first chapter of the source text is translated to “钻进兔子洞crept into rabbit hole”. The word “钻(crept)” in Chinese makes the name of the chapter lively and vivid. In version 2, Gong translated the chapter into “神奇的兔子洞(the) amazing rabbit-hole”. This shift makes the target readers image the details of this chapter. “掉进兔子洞Drop into rabbit hole” (version 3) is word-for-word translation. In Chinese, people not usually say “down” to the rabbit-hole, because of the culture, like English say “in the hole”; “drop” has the meaning of “down into”.The similar phenomenon happens in the chapter named “advice from a caterpillar”. The chapter named “who stole the tarts”, the translation of the version 1 is “饼是谁偷的？The pie was stolen by whom? ” Zhao asks a question to attract the readers interested to the topic. However, in the second version, Gong translated it into “红心骑士的审判Judge (the) red-heart k nave”which described the ploy of the chapter. Furthermore, version 3 is “谁偷了馅饼who stole the pie”. It doesn’t change the meaning and the form.The cultural diversity causes translation shifts not only to happen in the main body of the text, but also to happen in the contents page. The translation of “a caucus-race and a long tale” is worthy tobe discussed. The caucus-race has the background of English, which is “a laborious but arbitrary and futile activity; an activity that amounts to running around in a circle, expending great energy but not accomplishing anything” (“wiktionary” /wiki/caucus_race), is well known by English speakers. However, for Chinese readers especially for children, they might not have this field of knowledge. In the translation of version 1, Zhao translated it into a Chinese-style word “合家欢赛跑”, which basic meaning is “a photograph of the whole family”. Here it describes a happy family got togethering. This small change caters to the Chinese culture and social conditions at his time. in version 3, it is directly translated as “会议式赛跑‘Meeting form’ race ”. Because nowadays children understand other culture through TV, radio, internet and other channels. They access information often than the previous years. Moreover, they have a strong curiosity and thirst for knowledge, though reading the story of another culture; that new terms and expressions could be acquired.Section 4 ConclusionModern translation study is a vast and complex discipline and it should be researched from many different perspectives. DTS as the main branch of translation studies plays an important role in the history of translation studies. Undoubtedly, since it had been created, many scholars have achieved a lot and translated many texts, which has shocked many people.In the theory part, this paper firstly describes the history of DTS and his founder, Gideon Toury. In summary the historical motives for DTS and the position of DTS within the discipline were covered. Then followed is the rationale for DTS. During this part the writer listed the characteristics and the types of DTS known to the DTS as a systematic analysing approach. The focus shows the shift of DTS is operated upon the concept of equivalence. After that, the paper combines theory with practice by comparing three contents pages from three versions of the translation of “Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland” of different times.After a series of analysis and applying the DTS, I realised that if there was no DTS, translation study will lack scientific perspective and objective basis. If abandoning DTS, translation study will become a fantasy without practice to support the theory. On the other hand, nowadays, the cultural and scientific exchanges between countries are more animated than ever; and the requirement of translation becomes more and more urgent. As a result, the real need reminds us that DTS cannot be ignored.Reference:Carroll, Lewis. 1993 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking-Glass[M]published by Wordsworth Editions Limited.Hermans, T. (ed.). 1985. The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. London: Ceoom HelmHermans, T. (ed.). 2002. Crosscultural Transgressions. Manchester: St Jerome PublishingHolmes, JS. [1988]2000. “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.” In the Translation Studies Reader, Lawrence Venuti (ed.). London and New York: Routledge.Munday, J. 2001/2008. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. RoutledgeThe M. Bernstein Chair of Translation Theory, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978,IsraelToury, Dideon. (1980) In Search of a Theory of Translation. Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv University in Tel AvivToury, G. (1978) The nature and role of norms in literary translation. In J.S Holmes et al.Toury, G. (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins.刘易斯•卡罗尔/著(Carroll, Leis). 赵元任(Zhao Yuanren)改写《阿丽思漫游奇境》(Alice’s adventure in wonderland) 北京商务出版社Beijing : The Commercial Press. 2002.刘易斯•卡罗尔/著(Carroll, Leis).陈波(chenbo) 改写《爱丽丝漫游奇境》(Alice’s adventure in wonderland) 云南教育出版社(published by yunnan education publishing house). 2009刘易斯•卡罗尔/著(Carroll, Leis). 胡涵(Huhan) 改编.《爱丽丝漫游奇境》(Alice’s adventure in wonderland) 武汉出版社(Wuhan publishing house). 2011。
IntroductiontoTranslationStudies.ppt
---result---outcome-product--translated version
Modes of translation--Oral---consecutive interpreting---simultaneous interpreting Written renditions---complete/partial translation Shifted---sight translation---dubbing---subtitling---surtitling Computer-aided---tool---software---databases---internet
Chinese journals of translation
Initiating questions
What will make a good translation? What are factors influencing
translation? What will make a good translator? What will make up the translation
---the Second World War
---Decolonization and the Cold War (19451970)
---the expansion of the European Union (1990) (Dollerup 2007: 63)
The four climaxes of translation in China ---
The history of translation--In the West--Interpreting-----Alexander the Great (356-324 BC) ---the Spanish conquest of America (1492) ---the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) ---the First World War
翻译文化学派
翻译文化学派一，翻译文化学派的概述早期的语言学翻译研究提高了翻译研究的科学品质，摆脱了翻译研究长期以来局限于经验总结和无理论内涵的窘境，但是以奈达为代表的早期语一言学翻译研究还是存在一些不足，主要表现为对它的研究基本局限在文本之内，忽视或无视文本之外的因素对翻译的制约、影响和意义。
从20世纪功至70年代起，不同的学者从各自的学科立场出发，进入翻译研究领域，开始探索新的翻译研究途径。
这一时期的翻泽研究十分活跃，而其中最引人注目、并给翻译研究带来重大影响的是来自比较文学和比较文化的一批学者，包括列维、波波维奇、霍尔姆斯，以及埃文一佐哈、图里和勒菲弗尔等人。
他们以对翻译研究独特的视角和阐释揭开了当代西方翻译研究的另一个层面，即从文化层面切入进行翻译研究，其关注的重点也从此前的“怎么译”的问题转移到了“为什么这么译”、“为什么译这些国家、作家的作品而不译那些国家、作家的作品”等问题上，以研究译文的文化渊源，探讨译文产生的政治、经济、社会、意识形态等方面的文化背景。
也就是说，这批学者的研究已经从翻译作为两种语言文字转换媒介的层面转移到了翻译行为所处的译入语语境以及相关的诸多制约翻译的因素上去了。
这批学者的研究标志着当代西方翻译研究文化转向的开始，其中被公认为西方翻译研究文化学派的奠基之作的是美籍荷兰学者霍尔姆斯( James S. Holmes)的《翻译学的名与实》( The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)一文。
90年代末，翻译界对广泛的文化问题的研究形成热点。
1990年，巴斯奈特和勒菲弗尔在其合著的《翻译、历史与文化》一书中提出“翻译的文化转向”，并相继出版了多种专著和论文集，其中集中反映了他们的这一观点。
在翻译的文化学派的形成与发展过程中，翻译理论家兰伯特(Lambert )、铁木志科(Tymoczko)、谢菲茨((Cheyfitz)等也做出了重要贡献，近年在西方影响较大的翻译理论著作主要是文化学派的作品。
(翻译概论教学课件)第四章当代西方翻译理论
¡ 意大利美学家、文学评论家克罗齐在《美学原理》提出了完全相等于 原作表达方式的翻译不可能存在, 翻译必须靠再创造。文学翻译不 可过分自由、专业翻译不可过分拘谨的观点, 他是从美学的角度谈 翻译的。
¡ 西奥多·萨瓦里的翻译理论主要在《翻译的艺术》, 这被誉为“英语 中论述翻译的最佳之作”。他指出, 翻译是一门艺术。他把文学翻 译比作绘画, 把科技翻译比作摄影。将翻译分为完美翻译、等值翻 译、综合翻译、科技翻译四种。完美的翻译即纯粹传递信息的翻译, 等值翻译是不拘形式, 只管内容的翻译, 科技翻译的特点与等值翻 译有相似之处, 因为在科技翻译中, 内容的重要性远超过语言表达 形式的重要性。他归纳了12条准则指导翻译实践。。
第四章 当代西方翻译理论
¡ 英国翻译学家纽马克将西方研究翻译的历史划分为两大时期: 从公元前55年到20世纪上半叶属于语言学前时期， 20世纪 下半叶则属语言学时期。美国语言学家兼圣经翻译家奈达则 认为西方的翻译理论有四大流派: 语文学派、语言学派、交 际学派和社会符号学派。语言学前时期主要翻译圣经和文学 作品，翻译主要是少数人的事，这个时期的翻译理论就是奈 达所说的语文学派的理论。后三种理论流派即纽马克所说的 语言学时期的翻译理论。
¡ 奈达认为，一般意义上翻译过程包括以下几个阶段: 分析、转 移和重
组（analysis, transfer, and reconstruct），即首先 分析原作语言的息，将其剖析成结构上最简单明了的形式，在 此基础上转移，然后再
Introducing Translation Studies 1PPT课件
7
What is translation?
(e) any utterance which is presented or regarded as a ‘translation’ within a culture, on no matter what grounds (Toury 1995)
pieces is submitted, respetively on October 9th, 16th,23th and 30th.
Writt
The key concepts covered in this lecture
The definition of translation Interpreting as a form of Translation
5
What is translation?
c) the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are written or oral form… or whether one or both languages are based on signs (Brislin 1976)
归根结底，翻译是展现言语，可以视为在 一种文化背景里的‘转换’。
8
Concluding remarks:
to enhance your awareness of stylistic options in terms of social roles and kinds of language activity.
Translation Studies and PracticePPT课件
翻译就是译入语复制出原语信息最接近的
自然等值体, 首先就意义而言,其次就风格
而言.
7
Ⅱ.The Importance of translation 1.A story from Genesis in Bible—The Tower of Babel
2.Translation—communication— development
• 3. 从翻译的手段分为: 口译, 笔译和机器翻译 • 4.从翻译的题材分为: 专业性翻译, 文学翻译 • 5.从翻译的方式分为: 全译(full-text), 摘译
(abridged)和编译(adapted)
9
Ⅳ.Brief history
1. In China: • Translation practice in China has a long history
Translation Studies and Practice
(English Education Fengyi Huang)
1
PART ONE
前言
请在此处添加具体内容，文字尽量言简意赅，见到 那描述即可，不必过于繁琐，注意版面美观度。
2
Necessities:
1. Two note-books: One for class notes; the other for outside curriculum practices.
(three giants in translating Buddhist Scripture)
第二次翻译高潮—明末清初的科技翻译 • 意大利人 利玛窦 (Matteo Ricci 1552--1610)
徐光启(1562--1633) 欧几里得 (Euclid’s)《几 何原本》, 《测量法仪》
descriptive translation study
descriptive translation studyIntroductionDescriptive Translation Study (DTS) is a research approach that aims to analyze and describe the process of translation, as well as the resulting translated texts, in a systematic and objective manner. It is rooted in the field of Translation Studies and has made significant contributions to our understanding of translation as a complex and dynamic phenomenon.Historical Background1.Founding Figures–Gideon Toury–Andre Lefevere–Jose Lambert2.Development of DTS–Emergence in the 1970s–Integration of Skopos Theory–Expansion to various languages and culturesConceptual Framework1.Translation Norms–Preliminary norms–Initial norms–Operational norms2.Translation Strategies–Domestication–Foreignization–CompensationMethodology1.Corpus Selection–Representative samples–Balanced corpora–Multilingual corpora2.Data Collection–Source texts–Target texts–Translator’s notes3.Data Analysis–Comparative analysis–Categorization of translation choices–Identification of translation patternsMain Findings1.Manipulation of Textual Features–Lexical choices–Syntactic structures–Rhetorical devices2.Cultural Transfer–Adaptation to target culture–Retention of source culture–Compensation for cultural gaps3.Ideological Shaping–Power dynamics–Representation of social groups–Propagation of ideologiesCritique and Future Directions1.Limitations of DTS–Lack of standardized methodology–Overemphasis on descriptive analysis–Neglect of translator’s subjectivity 2.Integration of Cognitive Approaches–Eye-tracking studies–Process-oriented research–Cognitive load analysis3.Interdisciplinary Collaboration–Sociolinguistics–Psycholinguistics–Corpus linguisticsConclusionDescriptive Translation Study offers a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of translation and shedding light on the intricate decisions made by translators. Through its systematic approach and detailed analysis, DTS has provided significant insights into the nature of translation as a creative and cultural process. While facing certain limitations, future research can build upon the foundation of DTS and integrate cognitive approaches and interdisciplinary collaboration to further deepen our understanding of translation.。
英语开题报告答辩范文_0
英语开题报告答辩范文英语开题报告答辩范文第一篇_英语论文—毕业论文开题报告范文英语论文—毕业论文开题报告范文开题报告下面是一篇英语论文的开题报告范文，虽然不是特别好，但也反应了开题报告的格式和写法，有一定的借鉴价值。
Function and Application of Descriptive Translation Studies 1 IntroductionThe intention of this study is to explore possible advantages of Descriptive Translation Studies as in its application in translation practice and translation analysis.Since early 20th century, translation studies gradually broke away from the marginal status within other related disciplines and established itself as an empirical science. From then on, schools of thought have kept coming out and each claims its legitimacy for existence.Among these schools is Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS).DTS approaches translation from an empirical perspective. Translation is viewed to be a social activity having significant importance in the receiving culture and for the target community. Therefore, translation is dealt with beyond the linguistic realization and language comparison, and is incorporated in social and cultural context.My attention was first directed to DTS by its peculiar characteristic of observation, description and explanation. The subject is whatever happens in translation practice, from the determination of prospective function of translation to the process of translator’s choice of strategies, brainstorming and the revision, to the final product making appearance in the target community.The method of DTS is basically descriptive. The prescriptive tendency and the problem-solution pattern is abandoned. Translation phenomena arenoted down. With accumulated data, some underlying truths about translation will come out which will prove to be instructive not only for theoretical probe but also for applied translation practice. I will apply this descriptive method in the case study of this thesis.A convenient tool has been set up to conduct DTS. “Norm”is operative at every stage of description and explanation. Function, process and product and their relationship as well are skeletal structure of what constitute descriptive studies. Translation phenomena are accounted for with the help of norm.The case taken in this thesis is the Chinese classic The Dream of Red Mansions. Two English versions translated respectively by Yang Hsien-yi and David Hawks are compared and observations are made in regard to their translation approaches.In this regard, my observations are limited to several aspects, I hope in-depthobservation and explanation will done in light of DTS.2 Outline2.1 Development and major concepts of DTSIn this part I will describe Holms’basic map of DTS and the relationship between function, process and product. I will also discuss some important concepts such as pseudo-translation, multiple translation, translationese, norm etc.2.2 MethodolgyI will in this part discuss the methodology of DTS before I apply the same to the case study in this thesis with emphasis to be placed on semiotic approach and the concept norm.2.3 DTS in contrast to other theoriesA contrast study will be conducted here with the objective to find the difference of DTS from other theories such as equivalence theory and the Chinese Xin Da Ya criteria. Some advantage will possibly be shown in this study.2.4 Case studyIn this part, translation of The Dream of Red Mansions (also translated as The Story of The Stone) will be under investigation in light of DTS. Translation samples to be quoted here will be selected at random.2.5 ConclusionBased on the above elaboration of DTS and the case study, possible conclusion will be on the advantage of DTS in specific study of translation. Suggestions on further research efforts will be made also.(Note: While the topic will remain the same, the above arrangement of contents is subject to change in the process of writing.)000附录2- 引文范例(仅供参考)“It is therefore pointless to try to make TC more scientific than is sensible in view of its complex subject-matter and available methods. Translating is a mental, multi-factorial activity which cannotexhaustively be investigated within a linguistic framework ignoring the person of the translator.”(Wilss, 1982: 217) ‘“噢，这就是恐水病吧?你们贵族圈子怎么流行起这种病来啦?真够呛的!费芬斯小姐，您喝点茶大概没关系吧!”’(张南峰，1990：59-60)附录3- 参考文献范例(仅供参考)Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation –Problems and Methods. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen,1982.Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988. Delabastita, Dirk. Translating Puns: A false Opposition in Translation Studies. Target, 1991(3:2):137-152.张南峰(译). 王尔德戏剧选. 福州：海峡文艺出版社，1990.戴炜栋. 构建具有中国特色的英语教学“一条龙”体系，外语教学与研究，2001(5). 附录4- 封面范例(仅供参考)(中文)对外经济贸易大学硕士学位论文论品牌名称翻译的特殊性专业：研究方向：作者：导师：写作时间：—对外经济贸易大学英语学院(英文)School of International StudiesUniversity of International Business and EconomicsPragmatic Strategiesin Advertising: ImplicaturesWang YingA thesis submitted to School of International Studies ofUniversity of International Business and EconomicsIn partial fulfillment of the requirementFor the degree of Master of ArtsApril 2002Beijing, China免费开题报告范文论文题目：中国上市公司效绩评价体系的探讨二、课题研究的意义我国上市公司对我国的经济发展起到越来越重要的作用，截止2001年底，我国上市公司已达到1174家，总股本超过5050亿，其中国家股和国有法人股328亿，市价总值高达5.55万亿元，约占国民生产总值的48%，约有股民6800万人，约占城镇人口的40%,资本市场规模越来越大。
最新Introducing-Translation-Studies《翻译研究入门--知识点总结》
Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsName: Zhu MiClass: English 1122013/12/24Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsI.Main issues of translation studies1.1T he concept of translationThe term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.—interlingual translationThe Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper”On linguistic aspects of translation’gave his categories as intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation.1.2W hat are translation studies?Written and spoken translations traditionally were for scholarship and religious purposes.Yet the study of translation as an academic subject has only really begun in the past fifty years, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S.Holmes.Reasons for prominence: first, there has been a proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both and undergraduate and postgraduate level; second, other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on the practice of literary translation; the 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages; in addition, various translation events were held in India, and an on-line translation symposium was organized.1.3A brief history of the disciplineThe practice of translation was discussed by, for example, Cicero and Horace and St Jerome;their writings were to exert an important influence up until the twentieth century.The study of translation of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century.Before that, translation had normally been merely an element of language learning in modern language courses, known for the grammar-translation method.With the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s, the grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute.In the USA, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. Running parallel to it was that of comparative literature.Another area in which translation become the subject of research was contrastive analysis.The continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated an inherent and gutlink with translation. And it began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.—Eugene Nida1.4T he Holmes/Toury “map”James S.Holems’s” The name and nature of translation studies” was regarded as “generally accepted as the founding statement for the field”. He puts forward an overall framework, describing what translation studies covers. It has been subsequently presented by Gideon Toury.Another area Holmes mention is translation policy, where he sees the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.“Translation policy”would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes description.1.5D evelopments since the 1970sContrastive analysis has fallen by the way side. The linguistic-oriented “science”of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but the concept of equivalence associated with it has declined.Germany has seen the rise of theories centred on text types and text purpose, while the Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar, which vies language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context, has been prominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK.The late 1970s and 1980s also saw the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism.The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group and the UK-based scholars.The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools and concepts, with Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira, postcolonial translation theory.II.Translation theory before the twentieth century2.1“Word-for-word” or “sense-for-sense”?Up until the second half of the twentieth century, translation theory seemed locked in what George Steiner calls a ”sterile” debate over the “triad” of“literal”, ”free”and “faithful”translation. The distinction goes back to Cicero and St Jerome.Cicero said,”…keeping the same ideas and forms…but in language which conforms to our usage…I preserved the general style and force of the language.”He disparaged word-for-word translation.St Jerome said,”…where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense.”2.2Martin LutherLuther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would beunable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible. He focuses on the TL and the TT reader and his famous quote:” You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’re speaking to them in German.”2.3Faithfulness, spirit and truthFlora Amos notes that early translators often differed considerably in the meaning they gave to terms such as “faithfulness”, “accuracy” and even the word “translation” itself.Louis Kelly in The True Interpreter calls the “inextricably tangled”terms “fidelity”, ”spirit”and“truth”.Kelly considers that it was not until the twelfth century that truth was fully equated with “content”. By the seventeenth century, fidelity had come to be generally regarded as more than just fidelity to words, and spirit lost the religious sense and was thenceforth used solely in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language.2.4Early attempts at systematic translation theory: Dryden, Dolet andTytlerFor Amos, the England of the seventeenth century—with Denham, Cowley and Dryden—marked an important step forward in translation theory with” deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and meaning”.John Dryden reduces all translations to three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. He is author-oriented.Etienne Dolet is TL-reader-oriented and sets out five principles in his 1540 manuscript The Way of Translating Well from One Language into Another”:1.The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.2.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen themajesty of the language.3.The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.4.The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.5.The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness. Alexander Fraser Tytler has three general “laws” or “rules”:1.The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2.The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3.The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.2.5Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreignWhile the 17th century had been about imitation and the 18th century about the translator’sduty to recreate the spirit of the ST for the reader of the time, the Romanticism of the early nineteenth century discussed the issues of translatability or untranslatability.In 1813, the German theologian and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote On The Different Methods of Translating and put forward a Romantic approach to interpretation based on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.He first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text:1.the “Dolmetscher”, who translates commercial texts;2.the “übersetzer”, who works on scholarly and artistic texts.How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together is the real question. He considers there to be only two paths open for the “true”translator: Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as and moves the writer toward the reader.Schleiermacher’s consideration of different text type becomes more prominent in Reiss’s text typology.The “alienating”and “naturalizing”opposites are taken up by Venuti as “foreignization”and “domestication”.Additionally, the vision of a “language of translation”is pursued by Walter Benjamin and the description of the hermeneutics of translation is apparent in George Steiner’s “hermeneutic motion”.2.6Translation theory of the ninetieth and early twentieth centuries inBritainIn Britain, the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century focused on the status of the ST and the form of the TL.Francis Newman emphasized the foreignness of the work by a deliberately archaic translation.Matthew Arnold advocated a transparent translation method.2.7Towards contemporary translation theoryGeorge Steiner lists a small number of 14 writers who represent “very nearly the sum total of those who have said anything fundamental or new about translation”, includes St Jerome, Luther, Dryden and Schleiermacher and also takes us into the 20th century with Ezra Pound and Walter Benjamin, amongst others.He covers a range of theoretical ideas in this period: We have seen how much of the theory of translation—if there is one as distinct from idealized recipes—pivots monotonously around undefined alternatives: ”letter”or “spirit”, ”word”or “sense”. The dichotomy is assumed to have analyzable meaning. This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand.Translation theory in the second half of the 20th century made various attempts to redefine the concepts “literal”and “free”in operational terms, to describe “meaning”in scientific terms, and to put together systematic taxonomies of translation phenomena.Case studiesThe criteria for assessing the translations are given:1.accuracy: the correct transfer of information and evidence of complete comprehension.2.the appropriate choice of vocabulary, idiom, terminology and register;3.cohesion, coherence and organization;4.accuracy in technical aspects of punctuation, etc.III.Equivalence and equivalent effect3.1Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalenceIn his paper “On linguistic aspects of translation”, he describes three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation and he goes on to examine key issue of interlingual translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence.Jakobson approaches a now-famous definition: “Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics.”He thinks poetry is “untranslatable”, which requires “creative” transposition.3.2Nida and “the science of translating”3.2.1The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmaticsMeaning is broken down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. There are three techniques: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.3.2.2The influence of ChomskyNoam Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules. The key features of this model can be summarized:1.Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is2.transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another,to produce.3. a final surface structure,which itself is subject to phonological and morphemicrules.Nida presents a three-stage system of translation (analysis, transfer and restructuring).This involves analysis using generative-transformational grammar’s four types of functional class: events, objects, abstracts and relationals.3.2.3Formal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalent effectFor Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the “four basic requirements of a translation”, which are1making sense;2conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3having a natural and easy form of expression;4producing a similar response.3.3Newmark: semantic and communicative translationIn Newmark’s Approaches to Translation and A Textbook of Translation,he suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of “semantic” and “communicative”translation.3.4Koller: Korrespondenz and AquivalenzWerner Koller examines more closely the concept of equivalence and its linked term correspondence. And he also goes on to describe five different types of equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence.IV.The translation shift approach4.1Vinay and Darbelnet’s modelThe two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, which hark back to the “literal vs. free” division.The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition and modulation and of which oblique translation includes are equivalence and adaptation.The seven main translation categories are described as operating on three levels; these three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book. They are: the lexicon, syntactic structure and the message.A further more important parameter taken into account by Vinay and Darbelnet is that ofservitude and option.They continued by giving s list of five steps for the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT:1.Identity the units of translation.2.Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of theunits.3.Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message.4.Evaluate the stylistic effects.5.Produce and revise the TT.They consider the unit of translation to be a combination of a“lexicological unit”and a “unit of thought”.4.2Catford and translation “shifts”Catford makes an important distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence, which was developed by Koller.Catford considers two kinds of shift: shift of level and shift of category.Most of Catford’s analysis is given over to category shifts. These are subdivided into four kinds: structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts/rank shifts and intra-system shifts.4.3Czech writing on translation shiftsIn the 1960s and 1970s some writing introduces a literary aspect, that of the “expressive function”or style of a text.4.4Van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model of translationshiftsKitty van Leuven-Zwart applies shift analysis to the descriptive analysis of a translation, attempting both to systematize comparison and to build in a discourse framework above the sentence level.The model is “intended for the description of integral translations of fictional texts”and comprises a comparative model and a descriptive model.Shifts are divided into three main categories with numerous subcategories. The three main categories are modulation, modification and mutation.V.Functional theories of translation5.1Text typeKatharina Reiss’s work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. Her functional approach aims initially at systematizing the assessment of translation.Three text types—informative, expressive and operative types—are given by Reiss and presented visually by Cheserman.Reiss also lists a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria by which the adequacy of a TT may be assessed.5.2Translational actionTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter, compounds involving intercultural transfer.5.3Skopos theoryHans J. Vermeer introduces skopos into translation theory in the 1970s as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating, as it deals with a translational action that is ST-based.5.4Translation-oriented text analysisChristiane Nord’s Text Analysis in Translation makes a distinction between two basic types of translation production —documentary translation and instrumental translation. VI.VII.Discourse and register analysis approachesVIII.Systems theoriesIX.Varieties of cultural studiesX.Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translationXI.Philosophical theories of translationXII.XIII.Translation studies as an interdiscipline。
翻译研究：从规范走向描写
Origin 2
• 接下来是准备期。到了60 年代,捷克和斯洛 伐克的一些研究者,如列维(JǐvíLevy) 、米科 (FrantiÍek Miko) 和波波维奇(Anton Popovic) ,响应麦克法兰的号召,共同努力探 寻新的方法使翻译研究系统化。他们所提 出的理论构架与后来多元系统理论有很多 相似之处。
Disadvantages of Prescriptive
studies
• 它总认为自己的标准是唯一正确的，并想把它的应用范围 推广到天下所有的翻译上去（如奈达之于动态对等论）， 或者总有别的什么人想这样去做（如后人之于严复的信达 雅论）。然而它却没有看到或是不愿意承认世界上实际存 在着各种各样的翻译，其中有符合这种规范性标准的，但 是，同时也有不少翻译是不符合这种标准或者不完全符合 这种标准的。规范性翻译标准的另一个不足是，它把自己 局限在语言这个狭小的圈子里，把翻译仅仅看作是一种语 言艺术。而不太考虑文化的大环境。即使涉及到了文化， 最终的目标还是落在了具体的翻译技巧上，过分专注于翻 译技巧的钻研。也许正是由于这个原因，规范性的翻译研 究总是脱离不开直译、意译之争。
Example 1
• 爱尔兰作家乔伊斯的作品《尤利西斯》出 了两个中译本。我们的评论家，从规范的 角度出发，分析哪个是直译，哪个是意译， 哪个好哪个不好。而描写翻译学派却说， 出了两个译本是件大好事，充分反映出中 国真的开放了。
Achievement
• 描写学派的功劳在于给予各种各样的翻译以正确的定位。 避免了由于规范性的翻译标准而造成的概念上的困惑以及 无谓而又无止无休的争论。描写翻译学派对翻译有两个基 本的认识。一个是翻译的“不完整性” （partiality ）， 就是说你不可能把原文百分之百统统翻到译文中去。在这 个基础上导出描写学派的另一个认识，即任何翻译都经过 了译者程度不等的摆布（manipulation），因此同一个原 文会在不同的译者手里，会在不同的的时代出现许多不同 的译文。这儿要特别强调的是，描写翻译学派并不想完全 推翻传统的规范性的翻译标准。他们是想解构 （deconstruct） 传统的翻译理论， 也就是对传统的翻译 理论当中的一些不尽完善的地方提出批评，而不是想摧毁 （destroy）传统的翻译理论。
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另配套PPT，PPT标题为 Descriptive Translation StudiesPPT 1 介绍ppt主题和组员PPT 2 介绍作者：书本P147第一段Gideon Toury (born 1942) is an Israeli translation scholar and a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies.（中文注解：吉迪恩·图里是一名伊斯兰翻译学家以及描述翻译理论的先驱。
）PPT 3 图里的研究分为2个阶段：书本P148第一段His research work can be divided into two periods.In the first period(1972-1976) witnessed his cooperation with Even-Zohar who put farward the Polysystem theory. They adopted the Polysystem theory to make a comprehensive analysis of various cultural factors influencing the literary into Hebrew.In the second period, Toury devoyted himself to the exploration and construction of descriptive translation studies.（中文注解：他的研究可以分为2个阶段。
在第一个阶段，他和协助佐哈尔进行文学和翻译研究。
在此过程中，他深受佐哈尔多元系统理论的影响，对希伯来文学系统里的翻译文学作了大量的描述性研究。
在第二个阶段，他以多元系统理论为基础(特别是其中关于翻译文学的观点)，发展出了一套面向目标系统的理论，并将其用于以“翻译规范”概念为核心的描述性翻译研究。
）PPT 4 From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach 从规范翻译到描述翻译翻译研究，最初无论是西方还是东方，都出现过各种各样的翻译理论，如泰特勒(A1exander Tytler)的“三原则”理论，尤金·奈达(Eugene Nide)的“动态对等”理论以及我国严复提出的“信达雅”标准等理论。
这种种研究翻译的方法，都是“规范性”（prescriptive）的。
PPT 5 Prescriptive Approach 特点规范性翻译研究的显著特点是，定出一个规范（norm），让所有译者，不分时代（timeless），不分工作对象，不分译者、读者的认知环境（cognitive environment），在他们的翻译实践中一律遵照执行。
过分强调忠于原文或者忠于原文的某些方面，而忽略了影响译文的其他因素，如文化、译者的翻译动机、意识形态等，。
若有违反便叱之为“不忠实”或“结构笨重”（heavy structure）、“误导读者”（misleading）等等。
PPT 6 Descriptive Translation Studies 描述翻译研究埃文·佐哈尔(Itamar Even-Zohar)提出的多元系统理论改变了这一局面，他认为，文化、语言文学、社会都不是由互不相干的元素组成的混合体，而是由相关的元素组成的系统。
这些系统，又不是单一的系统，而是由多个交叉相叠的系统组成，所以他创造了“多元系统”这一术语。
简单来说就是，文化系统和语言学系统，社会系统都由相关的各种元素组成，这些系统互相影响。
（翻译的时候要考虑到这些系统，而不是像以往那样抛开文化、语言、社会等进行规范化翻译）(图里发展了埃文·佐哈尔(Itamar Even-Zohar)提出的多元系统理论，探索如何接受译语的文化背景条件与特征，研究文化交际的规则及翻译现象的规律）•Even-Zohar put forward the (多元系统理论)Polysystem theory,and then Toury develops it.• Descriptive translation studies---when they attend to process, product, and function---set translation practices in time and, thus by extension, in politics, ideology, economics, culture.（描写翻译理论，就是在研究翻译的过程、产物以及功能的时候，把翻译放在时代之中去研究。
广而言之，就是把翻译放到政治、意识形态、经济、文化之中去研究。
）PPT 7 Difference•相对于规范性的翻译理论，描写性翻译理论的一个最大的特点是它的宽容。
也就是允许译者对译文在翻译过程中出于某种目的进行改写。
图里（Gideon Toury） points out： a translation will be any target language text which is presented or regarded as such in a target system, on whatever grounds.•( 什么是翻译？“翻译就是在目的系统当中，表现为翻译或者被认为是翻译的任何一段目的语文本，不管所根据的理由是什么。
”)PPT 8 2个问题和例子描写翻译理论家关心的两个最基本问题：1. 什么因素促使译者选中了这篇著作并把它翻译成另一种语言？2. 译文在译入语文化中起到了什么作用？PPT 9 The Pivotal Position of Descriptive Studies and DTSIn 1972, James S. Holmes put forward The Name and Nature of Translation Studies (《翻译学的名与实》)（书P150）James S. Holmes在“翻译学的名与实”（The Name and Nature of TranslationStudies ）一文中提出了翻译学的理论框架。
他把翻译学分为三大分支：描写翻译学、理论翻译学和应用翻译学。
其中描写翻译学和理论翻译学属于纯翻译研究。
描写翻译研究包括三种：面向产品的研究（product- oriented），面向过程的研究（process- oriented）和面向功能的研究（function- oriented）（关系书P157）这3种描写翻译研究方法既有各自的侧重，又有一定程度的交叉，（反映了描写翻译研究方法体系不同程度的既分化又综合的发展趋势，描写翻译研究越是向广度和深度发展，）PPT 10 Product-oriented面向产品的研究：出发点是译作文本，包括对个别译本的描写，或是对同一原作的不同译本进行比较研究。
这样的描写为较大型的翻译文集提供了研究素材。
比如：对马致远的《天净沙•秋思》的不同译本进行分析。
（It makes a research into the translated text, including the description of a certain translated text or to the different translated text of a work. Such a description can provide a large amount of research materials to large-scaled translation. ）For instance, we can use DTS to analyze the different versions of 《天净沙•秋思》（对马致远的《天净沙•秋思》的不同译本进行分析。
主要是根据DTS对比分析的不同要求，利用认知语言学发展的一些中介概念对译本进行分析。
）PPT 11 天净沙例子讲解我们拿两个译本来比较。
相对于一种不同的译文，原文都有可能被做不同的切分，相应地，译文就会与原文建立不同的对比关系。
翻译前对于原文的切分，是依照未来的翻译过程而进行的第一个译本中只用了一句话就把古道西风瘦马，夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯，而在另一个译本中却拆分成11个成分进行翻译。
这种切分方式也为其他翻译文本提供了参考。
（它提供的开放性视角，也使我们避免由于对原文的不同理解而导致的不必要的争议，使我们有可能按照科学的方法正确分析文本，得出具有充分的经验支持的、可信度更高的理论认识）PPT 12 Process-oriented由于译者对翻译原作的选择很大程度上决定于译入语文化的意识形态。
文本之所以被选择和翻译是因为他们与既定时间内的主流意识形态(或之一)是相适应的。
所有译者毫无例外地都在既定社会形态的社会中占据一定的位置，他们所处时代的意识形态无所不在地影响和制约着他们的翻译行为。
所以，面向过程的研究：研究译作在目的语社会文化中所起的作用，其重点在语境而不是文本。
（ It focuses on the process of translating which involves the influence the translator has on the translated text.）比如，庞德在几乎不懂中文的情况下根据费氏遗稿中的中国古典诗笔记翻译而成的《华夏集》。
《华夏集》发表之时欧洲正处于一战时期，战争的残酷深深地震撼了人们，摧毁了他们对西方文明的信仰。
因此，他对费诺罗萨笔记中诗歌的挑选必然受到了这种主流意识形态的影响，因而《华夏集》是依据战争主题来选诗，多数是以离别、怨恨和战争为主题的诗歌。
《采薇》、《古风·胡关饶风沙》、《古风·代马不思越》这三酋诗刻画了战争的残酷、统治阶级的好战性和侵略性，以及边疆战士们恶劣的生存环境。
因此宜采用翻译过程研究方法对其译本进行研究，关注的是其翻译行为本身，涉及译者的所思所想对翻译所起的影响。
PPT 13 Function-oriented面向功能的研究：研究译作在目的语社会文化中所起的作用，其重点在语境而不是文本。
（It makes a research into the functions of a translated text in target language society, emphasizing the context not the text itself.）比如，比如说，1980s,韩少功在翻译昆德拉的《生命中不能承受之轻》时，删除了英文版中第六章第十六节整整一节!此节虽不长，但多有“Communist country”，还有“Down with Communism”、“the barbarity of Communism”这些敏感词汇，韩少功于脆采取了略去不译的方法，来处理此节英文。