语言学Terms Definition
语言学 1.Definition
• Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of language. 语用学研究语言结构被语法化或被编码的 语言和语境之间的关系。 Levinson (1983:6-27)
定义 8
• Pragmatics is the study of the meaning production and utterance interpretation in terms of the negotiation between the speaker and the hearer. 语用学研究发话与受话通过协商生成的意义 和获取的理解。 姜望琪（200:9） • Dynamic process Dynamic meaning
定义 6
• Pragmatics is the study of the contextdependent aspects of utterance interpretation. 语用学系研究有关依赖语境进行话语理解的 方方面面之学。D. Wilson (2001:1) • Utterance • Interpretation • Context-dependent
定义 3
• Pragmatics is the study of the relations between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding. 语用学系研究对语言理解可以做出基本解 释的语言和语境关系之学。 Levinson (1983:6-27) • Hearers? • One way or bi-directional?
语言学教程term
.define the following termssynchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical "point" in time. diachronic :said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in alanguage. Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language Chapter 21.define the following termsPhonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study —articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.Phonology: the study ofthe sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern theway sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.Coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter become nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ant icipatory “coarticulaiton”; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is preservative “coarticulation”. Phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle of dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.Chapter 31.define the following termsInflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached. derivation: is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes.Bound morpheme: refers to those morpheme that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme.grammatical word: refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.lexical word: refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.closed-class: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.open-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter 41.define the following termsendocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.subordination: subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.coordination: A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination.agreement: Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).recursiveness: it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within(i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language.grammatical subject & logical subject: Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.Chapter 51.define the following terms.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.reference: the use of language to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, i.e. the class name. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.chapter 61.What is the definition of cognitive linguistics?Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.Chapter 71.define the following terms.communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “genden difference”linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypotheis, i.e. there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.Speech Community: refers to a group of people who “share not only the same rules of sp eaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.”Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.chapter 81.define the following termsperformative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal mea ning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.perlocutionary act: th e act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.cooperative principle: this is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads "Make your conversational contribution such as it required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged". There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxims, and manner maxims.conversational implicature: this is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in thatthey are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running” entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.。
Terms Definition
1.GeneA gene can be defined biochemically as a segment of DNA (or, in a few cases, RNA) that encodes the information required to produce a functional biological product2.semidiscontinuous replication, leading strand and lagging strandone strand is synthesized continuously and the other discontinuously. Cause:Two daughter strands are synthesized simultaneously but can proceed only in 5’to 3’direction.The continuous strand, or leading strand, is the one in which 5’to 3’synthesis proceeds in the same direction as replication fork movement.The discontinuous strand, or lagging strand, is the one in which 5’to 3’synthesis proceeds in the direction opposite to the direction of fork movement.3.Semiconservative ReplicationIt is a process: Each DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand, DNA polymerase serves as principal enzyme and 4 types of dNTP serve as substrates. The incoming nucleotide is selected by its ability to hydrogen bond with the complementary base in the template strand, producing two new DNA molecules, each with one new strand and one old parental strand. Significance: yields two daughter DNA duplexes identical to the parental DNA molecule,ensure the organisms and species to maintain the genetic stability.4.Telomere TelomeraseTelomeres are the physical ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes; telomeres contain lengthy stretches of tandemly repeated simple DNA sequences composed of a G- rich strand and a C-rich strand (called terminal repeats). These terminal repeats are highly conserved. They are specialized nucleoprotein complexes that have important functions, primarily in the protection, replication, and stabilization of the chromosome ends.(Telomerase is composed of enzyme- human telomerase reverse transcriptase, protein-human telomerase associated protein1 and RNA-human telomerase RNA complementary to the telomere repeat) (binds to the terminal telomere repeat and catalyzes the addition of new repeats.)5.Replisome(in Pro.) Replicon(in Eu.)The entire complex responsible for coordinated DNA-dependent DNA synthesis at a replication fork is a replisome .6.Reverse transcription7.Reverse transcriptase●Reverse transcriptase is an RNA-dependant DNA polymerase (RDDP)●Reverse transcriptases catalyze three different reactions: ①RNA-dependent DNA synthesis,②RNA degradation, and ③DNA-dependent DNA synthesis.●The reverse transcriptase requires a primer, for DNA synthesis to begin, a cellular tRNAobtained during an earlier infection and carried within the viral particle.●Reverse transcriptases do not have 3’- 5’proofreading exonucleases . They generally havehigher error rates of about 1 per 20,000 nucleotides added.8.CDKCyclin dependent kinase.9.cDNAExplain the 3terms:reverse transcription/reverse transcriptase/cDna. Reverse transcriptases make possible the synthesis of DNA complementary to an mRNA template, and synthetic DNAprepared in this manner, called complementary DNA (cDNA), can be used to clone cellular genes .10.Nick: there are not lack any nucleic acid, but a phosphodiester needs to be linked.11.Gap: there are empty of several nucleic acid12. 核酸内切酶endonuclease 是在核酸水解酶中，水解DNA分子链内部磷酸二酯键生成寡/寡聚核苷酸的酶。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-basedframework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always“invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky'sare very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets ofstructures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taughtand learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For e xample: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused? 答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks forgeneral purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrowtranscription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: closevowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowelsis the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4)[ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ intheir focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between,say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phoneticianor a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both arerelated to the study of sounds,, they differin their approach and focus. Phonetics is ofa general nature; it is interested in all thespeech sounds used in all human languages:how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different froma phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsare called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/. 9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that followsit. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding formssignature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning? 答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done oris possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial formof ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial formof 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving theactionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who worksin a company”interviewee, “one who isinterviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectives examples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nouns exam ples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns oradjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e.specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as workand help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional factstogether with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number ofcoordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinatephrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semanticand syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to make more precise the meaningof the head. Syntactically, ittypically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrasesand provide information aboutentities and locations whoseexistence is implied by the meaning ofthe head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det NAdvb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, acomplement, and a specifier. Draw theappropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det + head(argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +d) The apple might hit the man.S → NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences containmodifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all containconjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all containembedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences containsa relative clause. Draw the deep structureand the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the followingsentences involve the inversion。
现代语言学前五章课后习题答案
Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。
Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。
语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。
只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。
1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。
语言学definition
phonetics (语音学) : it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;Phonology (音位学):it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;Morphology (形态学):it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;Syntax (句法): it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;Semantics (语义学): it studies meaning conveyed by language;Pragmatics (语用学): it studies the meaning in the context of language use.Sociolinguistics (社会语言学): The language a person uses often reveals his social background, and there exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; and language changes are often caused by social changes. The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of branch called sociolinguistics. Psycholinguistics (语言心理学): relates the study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics (应用语言学):finding in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.Langue (语言):refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole (言语): refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Competence (语言能力):Chomsky defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance (语言行为): the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Unit 2 Phonetics (音位学):is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学): from the speaker’s view, how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学): from the hearer’s view, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学): from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted for one to another.Suprasegmental features (超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.Unit 3Morphology (形态学):refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Morpheme (词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Unit 4 Syntactic categories (句法范畴): a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Phrase: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category. The category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.Phrase structure rule(短语结构规则): a certain word can only concur with certain other words. There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy in phrase structure. It is the special type ofgrammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. Subcategorization(次范围化):the information about a word’s complement is included in the head.Complementizers(补语化成分): words which introduce the sentence complement. Transformation (转换): a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Deep structure (深层结构):formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties.Surface structure (表层结构): corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Unit 5 major views concerning the study of meaning(1) The naming theory(命名论): proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view (概念论): has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view（语境论）: held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists（行为论）: attempted to define the m eaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.‖ This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.Sense (意义): is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features. It is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference (语义): means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Synonymy (近义词): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Polysemy (多义性):the same word have more than one meaning. Historically speaking, polysemy can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of words.Homonymy (同音异义): refer to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound ( homophones 同音)or spelling ( homographs 同形), or in both (complete homonyms 同形同音异义).Hyponymy (下义关系): refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate (上坐标词): the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms (下义词): the more specific words.Antonymy (反义现象): is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning. Gradable antonyms (可分级的反义词):there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Eg. Old and young, cold and hotComplementary antonyms(互补反义词):a pair of CA is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Male or female, alive or dead.Relational opposites (关系上相反):pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. Husband and wife, teacher and student, buy and sell.Unit 6 Pragmatics (语用学):a general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Constatives (叙事话语): were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. Performatives （行事话语）: were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Locutionary act (言内行为):is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.Illocutionary act (言外行为):is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is the act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act （言后行为）: is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. Pragmatic failure (语用失误): occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmalinguistics (语用语言学): is applied to the more linguistic end of pragmatics, i.e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purpose.Sociopragmatics (社交语用学): is the sociological interface of pragmatics, it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose. Unit 7 Historical linguistics (历史语言学):is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.Fusion (融合): refers to this type of grammaticalization ( some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time) in which words develop into affixes, either prefixes or suffixes. Addition of new words: {Coinage (创新词): a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects. (Kodak 柯达)Clipped words (缩略词):A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. (gym-gymnasium)Blending (紧缩词): A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words. (smog-smoke+fog)Acronyms (词首字母缩略词): A word created by combining the initials of a number of words. (CEO-chief executive officer)Back-formation (逆构词法): A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word. (to beg-derived from begger)Functional shift (功能性变化): words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion. (N-V, V-N….)Borrowing (借用): when different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another.}Unit 8 Speech community (言语社团): in sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called…Speech variety (言语变体): or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Regional dialect (地域方言): is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.Sociolect (社会方言): has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.Register(语域):A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.{ field of discourse (话语范围): refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. ―why‖ and ―about what‖Tenor of discourse (话语基调): refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. ―to whom‖Mode of discourse (话语方式):refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with ―how‖ communication is carried out.Pidgin (皮钦语): is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Creole (克里奥尔语，混合语):when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language. Bilingualism (双语现象): in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and languages switching occurs when the situation changes. (Canada, Belgium, Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, Pakistan, Uganda, part of USA)Diglossia(双言现象) :A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation. (Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German, Haitian Creole)Unit 9 Linguistic relativity (语言相对性):different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔沃尔夫假说): they believe that languages filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences. The interdependence of language and thought is known as…Acculturation (同化过程): is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.Assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society- though not always completely.Amalgamation (文化融合): when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.Cultural overlap (文化重叠):between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.Cultural diffusion (文化扩散): through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B.Linguistics imperialism (语言学中的帝国主义): is a kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language. Intercultural communication: also known as cross-cultural communication, is acommunication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.Unit 10 Language acquisition (语言习得): Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.The behaviorist view: believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habitformation.Language Acquisition Device (语言习得机制): the LAD was described as an imaginary ―black box‖ existing somewhere in the human brain. The ―black brain‖ is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.Logical problem (逻辑问题): means the fact that children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples available.The Interactionist view:holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. Motherese or caretaker talk (保姆式语言): shares such characteristics as slow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary.Critical Period Hypothesis (临界期假说): Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.Telegraphic speech (电文式言语):contains content words(实词) which provide listeners with some information and lack the function elements(起功能作用成分), or function words which by themselves tell nothing.Atypical language development (abnormal language development): may occur due to trauma or injury. It includes hearing impairment (听力受损) (which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language), mental retardation (智障) (which may cause a delayed language acquisition), autism (自闭症)(language impairment from the very beginning), stuttering (口吃) (repetition of sounds, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not ―release‖the words),aphasia (失语症)(partial or total loss of language due to the brain damage) and dyslexia (失读症) and dysgraphia (书写困难) (disorders in reading and writing which may be acquired or developmental).Unit 11 Second language acquisition (SLA):formally establshed itself as a discipline around 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Interlanguage (中介语): according to Selinker’s definition, is defined as an abstract system of learners’target language system and it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce, esp. the wrong or not idiomatic ones.The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.Fossilization(语言僵化): A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.Universal Grammar (国际语法): The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called.. Contrastive Analysis (对比分析): It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce theeffects of interference.补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems.Error Analysis (错误分析):An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.Interlingual errors (语际错误，受母语影响的错误): mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal, etc. Intralingual errors (语内错误):mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.Overgeneralization (概括过头): is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations.Cross-association (互相联想):words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. Language transfer (转移):It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.Acquisition (习得): is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learning (学习): refers to conscious effort to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.Comprehensible input (可理解的语言输入): Krashen defined it as ―i+1‖: i represents learners’current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i+1. By providing comprehensible input which is slightly above the learners’current level, the learners’LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition.Intake (纳入): the actual share of input that has been internalized by the learner.Language aptitude (语言能力倾向): refers to the natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence.Motivation (动机): defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language.{ instrumental motivation (工具型动机): which occurs when people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career etc.Integrative motivation (融合型动机): the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.Resultative motivation (结果型动机): learners learn a second language for external purposes. Intrinsic motivation (内在动机): learners learn a second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.}Learning strategies (学习策略):are learners’conscious, goal-oriented and problem solving based efforts to achieve desirable learning efficiency.{cognitive strategies (认知策略): strategies involved in analyzing, synthesizing, and internalizing what has been learned.Metacognitive strategies (元认知策略): the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.Affect /social strategies (情感、社交策略): dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.}。
《语言学》前三章部分答案
Chapter I IntroductionIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventionsand the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2：PhonologyIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; itis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speakinga language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.Chapter 3：MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivationalaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by the mselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。
语言学
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
Definition of terms
Definition of terms: measurement, test, evaluationMeasurement: the process of quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules. 测量是根据明确的程序和规则量化研究对象特征的过程。
Three distinguishing features: quantification，characteristics，explicit rules and proceduresTest: a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual.测试是用来获取某些行为的方式、方法，其目的是从这些行为中推断个人具有的某些特征Evaluation: the systematic gathering of information for the purpose of making decis ions.评价指为做出某种决策而收集资料，并对资料进行分析，作出解释的系统过程。
”与测量、测试相比其含义更广，综合性更强。
An example of evaluation that does not involve either tests or measures (area 1) is the use of qualitative descriptions of student performance for diagnosing learning problems.An example of a non-test measure for evaluation (area 2) is a teacher ranking used for assigning gradesAn example of a test used for purposes of evaluation(area 3) is the use of an achievement test to determine student progress. The most common non-evaluative uses of tests and measures are for research purposes.An example of tests that are not used for evaluation (area 4) is the use of a proficiency test as a criterion in second language acquisition research.Finally, assigning code numbers to subjects in second language research according to native language is an example of a non-test measure that is not used for evaluation (area 5).In summary, then, not all measures are tests, not all tests are evaluative, and not all evaluation involves either measurement or tests.Approaches to language testingThe essay-translation approach:the subjective judgment of the teacher is considered to be of paramount importance. Tests usually consist of essay writing, translation, and grammatical analys is; have a heavy literary and cultural bias.写作翻译法的特点：①对测试技能或专长没有专门要求，主要依靠老师的主观判断力；②试卷主要包括写作、翻译、语法分析等项目；③试卷内容有较浓厚的文学和文化色彩；④试题需要书面回答形式，需要人工阅卷。
语言学名词解释terms
1.Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation ofsentences.5.Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by thespeaker and the hearer.6.Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with boththe description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.7.Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betweenlanguage and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.8.The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speechcommunity.9.Second language acquisition refers to the systematic study of how one personacquires a second language subsequent to his native language.10.Interlanguage is established as learners’independent system of the secondlanguage, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程术语Definition(字母排序)
Acoustic phonetics：It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Allophone：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Antonymy : Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsArgument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.Complete homonyms: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, theyare called complete homonyms.Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.Constatives: were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types, the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationDiachronic: (study)the description of a language as it changes through time. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.D-structure:D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations.Homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.Homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophonesHyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Illocutionary act: is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections International phonetic alphabet：It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. It is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.Linguistics : it is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Locutionary act: is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Minimal pair：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings，the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Morphology: it is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.Performatives: were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.Perlocutionary act: is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance, it is the act performed by saying something.Phone：Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit of distinctive value. Phonetics：Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.Pragmatics: be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Psycholinguistics:The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.Received Pronunciation:is the accent of Standart English in England, with a relationship to reginal dialects similar to that of other European language. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienceRoot: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics,.Suffix:Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Synchronic: (study)the description of a language at some point of time in history. Synonymy:Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function. Syntax: It is a subfield of linguistics and the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .The grammatical meaning :The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Tone：Tones are pitch variations，which are caused by the differing rates of vibration ofthe vocal cords.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.Two-place predication: It is one which contains two arguments.Utterance meaning: The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.。
语言学定义——精选推荐
第一章绪论principles and theories to language Modern linguistics regards the imagined matters in the past1/ What is linguistics teaching and learning especially the spoken form of language as primary present or future or in far-away什么是语言学？teaching of foreign and second but not the written form. Reasons places.Linguistics is generally defined as language. are: 1. Speech precedes writing 2. Cultural transmission语言的文化the scientific study of language. It Other related branches include There are still many languages that 传递性studies not any particular language anthropological linguistics （人类have only the spoken form 3. In While human capacity for languagebut languages in general. 语言学）neurological linguistics terms of function the spoken has a genetic basis i.e. we were2/ The scope of linguistics （神经语言学）mathematical language is used for a wider range born with the ability to acquire语言学的研究范畴linguistics （数字语言学）and of purposes than the written and language the details of anyThe study of language as a whole is computational linguistics. （计算机carries a larger load of language are not geneticallyoften called general linguistics. 普语言学）communication than the written. transmitted but instead have to be通语言学3/ Some important distinctions in Langue and parole 语言和言语taught and learned anew. ThisThe study of sounds which are linguistics The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure indicates that language is culturallyused in linguistic communication is 语言学研究中的几对基本概念made the distinction between langue transmitted. It is passed down fromcalled phonetics. （语音学）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定and parole early 20th century. one generation to the next throughThe study of how sounds are put与描写Langue refers to the abstract teaching and learning rather thantogether and used in communication If a linguistic study describes and linguistic system shared by all the by instinct.is called phonology. （音系学）analyzes the language people members of a speech community Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学The study of the way in which actually use it is said to be and parole refers to the realization Definition 定义morphemes are arranged to form descriptive if it aims to lay down of langue in actual use. Saussure Morphology is a branch of grammarwords are called morphology. （形rules to tell people what they should made the distinction in order to which studies the internal structure态学）say and what they should not say it single out one aspect of language of words and the rules by whichThe study of how morphemes and is said to be prescriptive. for serious study. He believes what words are formed.words are combined to form Modern linguistics differs from linguists should do is to abstract 形态学是语法的一个分支，研sentences is called syntax. （句法traditional grammar. Traditional langue from parole to discover the 究词的内部结构和构词规则。
语言学terms
The linguistic termsSentence meaning and utterance meaning1.Sentence meaning is abstract and decontextualized2.Utterance meaning is concrete and context-dependent.3.Utterance meaning is based on the sentence meaning.The politeness principle•Tact maxim(得体准则)•Generosity maxim(慷慨准则)•Praise maxim(赞誉准则)•Modesty maxim(谦逊准则)•Agreement maxim(一致准则)•Sympathy maxim(同情准则)•The relationship between language and culture•①Language expresses cultural reality.•②Language embodies cultural identity.•③Language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. the changes in language uses reflects the cultural changes in return.•④Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem.•Socialization:•is the process by which human beings or animals learn to adopt the behavior patterns of the community in which they live. Human infants are born without any culture. Their parents, teachers, and others must transform them into cultural and socially adept animals. During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives, and mothers. In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in store for them. We also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialization process. Norms are the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior held by most members of the society.•Acculturation:•is the obtainment of culture by an individual or a group of people. The term originally applied only to the process concerning a foreign culture, from the acculturing or accultured recipient point of view, having this foreign culture added and mixed with that of his or her already existing one acquired since birth.Micro-sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with socialattributes such as class, sex, and age.•Macro-sociolinguistics, on the other hand, studies what societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functionaldistribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, andreplacement, the delimitation and interaction of speech communities.The features of women language•Women use more “fancy”color terms such as mauve (pale purple) and beige (pale brown)•Women use less powerful curse words•Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful•Women use more tag questions•Women use more statement questions like “dinner will be ready at seven o’clock?”•Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and , hence, more polite than men’s.。
(完整word版)语言学名词解释
Define the following terms:1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.9.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10.Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.11.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.12.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds13.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.14.Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker15.Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.16.Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationpetence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,18.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently20.Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. Butit is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.22. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.23. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.24. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.25. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages26. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.27. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.528. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 529. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.33.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.34.inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections35. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.36.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.37.free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 38.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.39.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.40.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.41.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.42.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.43.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.45.syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.46.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.47.coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".48.syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers toa word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.49. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .50. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.51. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.52. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.53. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.54. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualised.55. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience56. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.57. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.58. Homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.59. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones60. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.61. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.62.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.63. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.64. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.65.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.66. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.67. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.68. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.69. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.37.pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38.Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39.utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40.sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41.Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42.Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.。
DEFINITIONOFTERMS：术语的定义
DEFINITION OF TERMSREGARDING CONTACT WITH MINORSProvided by Maricopa County Adult ProbationA minor or child is defined as anyone under eighteen (18) years old. Any form of proximity contact is prohibited. Contact can mean several things:1. Actual physical touching.2. Association or relationship: taking any action which furthers a relationship with aminor such as writing letters, sending messages, buying presents, etc.3. Communication in any form is contact. This includes verbal communication such astalking, or written communication such letters, etc. This also includes non-verbal communication such as body language, (waving, gesturing) and facial expressions, such as winking.In Public: Minor not known:If you are in a public place such as a shopping mall, grocery store, church, movies, park, arcade, etc., and you encounter a child whom you do not know, just do not imitate contact. Do not pay attention to the child; do not look at the child; do not talk to the child; no communication at all, verbal or non-verbal.All efforts should be made to minimize such contact with minors whom you do not know by timing visits to public places when minors are least likely to be present. Example: Do not go to Saturday afternoon matinee movies where children are most likely to be present. If a minor is still encountered, do not initiate any communication, verbal ornon-verbal.If a minor initiates communication, tell them you cannot help them, politely refer them to somebody else and immediately move away from the area. If the minor persists in trying to communicate, the offender needs to leave the public place.In Public: Minor is known:If you are in a public place and you encounter a minor whom you know, all efforts should be made to make sure the child does not see you. Then you need to leave the public place immediately. It is not appropriate for you to put the responsibility on the minor to avoid communication. If the victim is encountered, leave immediately; then contact your probation officer or surveillance officer.Non-Public: Minor known and/or not known:If you are in a private area such as your house, a friend’s house, club, etc., and a child is present, whether you know the minors or not, you must leave immediately. If you are in a private area and a child comes in, you must leave immediately.Direct Contact Is: One-on-one contact with a minor:This includes in-person visits, touching, talking on the phone, letters or written notes, making proximity contact with a minor.Indirect Contact Is: Making contact with a minor through another person:This includes asking the mother, teacher, or a friend to tell a minor something, or to have a minor answer questions, send pictures, deliver or receive packages, gifts, or money.Supervisor:This is a person who has been approved by the probation officer to supervise a contact between a minor and an offender. The approval must be in writing, and be obtained prior to any supervised contact. The probation officer and the judge are the only people who can approve a person as a supervisor; your counselor or attorney cannot. Supervisors must be adults who know the details of the offense, the offender’s cycle, risk situations, conditions of probation, and agree to monitor the situation and report violations to the probation officer.Supervised Contact:This is when an offender is allowed to have contact with a minor under prearranged conditions and times. The conditions must be approved in writing prior to the contact. The approval is by the probation officer or judge only. Any changes must be in writing by the probation officer. Supervised contact always requires a pre-approved supervisor. This never means just another adult is present.Never place the responsibility on the minor to avoid contact. When in doubt, terminate contact. Then call your probation officer and request more information.I have read and understand the above definition of “no contact.”Signature of Probationer Date Signature of Probation Officer Date。
语言学教程Metaphor课件
设喻方法
•3.以抽象概念(abstract conception)去比喻另一抽象概念。 It was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, It
was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of doubtfulness, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.
语言学教程Metaphor
Classification
• 5) Idiomic or proverbial metaphor Idiomatic or proverbial metapich
contain an idiom or proverb. * He was almost at the end of his tether when he stumbled on the solution of his difficulty.
man’s system…has pinched and rubbed squeezed his soul until it has almost destroyed him.
美国黑人的情况也是这样，白人制度这只鞋夹紧了他的灵魂， 使之受磨难，几乎要把他毁掉了。
用夹紧黑人的灵魂的一只鞋子来比喻美国的白人制度，这是典 型的以具体事物比喻抽象事物。
* He was such a marvellous person that whenever he recognized a spark of genius, he'd water it.
《语言学》术语及英文解释
《语言学》术语及英文解释Define the following terms:1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which o riginates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenui th or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge abou t the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.术语251. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth perio d of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his ownconsciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.术语3101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng. 114. communicative competence: a speaker’s know ledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying s omething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily f ollows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unma rkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of p assage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s repr esentation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of theircharacters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.术语4puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s。
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一、Term Definition:Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Phonetics语音学: the study of soundsSemantics语义学: the study of meaningPragmatics语用学: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Syntax句法: the study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences. Morphology词态学: the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form wordsSynonym同义词: words that are close in meaningReference附注: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Sense: concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.Dialect: a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.Accent: a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker's background.Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation. Locutionary act: the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning. It is the act performed in saying something.Hyponymy: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.Transcription: the use of symbols to show sounds or sound sequences in written form.Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one is called bound morpheme. Minimal Pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.Stress: the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.Compounding: a word formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together.Affixation: is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems.Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Complementary Distribution: Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.Conversion: refers to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of suffix.Deep Structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties Surface Structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Saussure: the distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the 20 century.Vowel: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.Consonant: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.Linguistics: the scientific study of language.General Linguistics: the study of language as a whole.Inflectional Affix: The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational Affix: The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Open Class: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words.Closed Class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, which are in small number and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.Sociolinguistics: the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Speech Variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.Pidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes.Creole: when a pidgin become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquitted by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.二、单项选择题：1、语音学中元音和辅音的发音特征和分类。