新编简明英语语言学教程-翻译
新编简明英语语言学教程 by zhang.
新编简明英语语言学教程A N E W C O N C I S E C O U R S E O N L I N G U I S T I C S F O R S T U D E N T S O FE N G L I S HH a p p y N a t i o n a l D a yC o n t e n t s•12 Chapters / 4 Parts•Part 1 Chapter 1 (The general introduction about linguistics, to give an answer about what is linguistics and what is language, and some of their characteristics.)•Part 2 Chapter 2/3/4/5/6 (It mainly introduces the differentbranches .[brɑ:ntʃ]分支of linguistics such as Phonetics[fəu‘netik]语音学, Phonology（fəˈnɒlədʒi]音系学, Morphology[mɔ:ˈfɒlədʒi]形态学, Syntax[ˈsɪntaks]句法学, [siˈmæntiks]语义学, Pragmatics.[præɡˈmætiks]语用学。
)•Part 3 Chapter 7/8/9 （This part mainly discusses the development of language and the relationship between language and society or culture.）•Part 4 Chapter 10/11/12 (This part is about the learning of language, how could a person get the ability of speaking one language, of course, no matter it is first language or second language, there must be quite a strong relationship with the brain of us.)C h a p t e r O n e I n t r o d u c t i o nL i n g u i s t i c s• 1. What is linguistics (definition)?• 2. Its scope [skəup]范围and some distinctions that are important?W h a t i s l i n g u i s t i c s(d e f i n i t i o n)?•The scientific study of language.•To answer the questions such as:•What is language?•How does language work?•How does language change?•What do all languages have in common?H o w t o s t u d y a n d w h a t t o s t u d y?•By systematic[sɪstəˈmatɪk]有系统的，有规则的investigation of linguistic data语言材料,with reference to关于some theories, to find the nature种类and rules underlying 基础的language system. •linguistics studies languages in general, not any particular language.T h e s c o p e a n d s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c s•Branches of linguistics: (page 2-3)•Phonetics语音学，Phonology音系学, Morphology形态学, Syntax句法学, Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋 Semantics
Relational （关系）opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husbandwife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …
evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator（合作者） accomplice（帮凶）,…
4) Collocational（搭配的） synonyms, e.g.
accuse…of（控告）, charge…with, rebuke（ 谴 责）…for; …
5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze （suggesting confusing and bewilderment）, astound (suggesting difficulty in believing),…
Chapter 5 Semantics
▪ Semantics----the study of language meaning.
▪ What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
新编简明英语语言学教程学习指南电子版
新编简明英语语言学教程学习指南电子版English: This guide will provide an overview of the newly compiled concise English linguistics course, covering various aspects of language study such as phonetics, grammar, semantics, and pragmatics. It will also offer practical tips and strategies for effective learning, including vocabulary building, listening and speaking practice, and writing skills. The electronic version of the study guide will include interactive exercises and multimedia resources to support learners in their language acquisition journey. Additionally, it will highlight the importance of cultural awareness and intercultural communication in language learning, preparing students to engage with diverse linguistic and cultural contexts. Overall, this guide aims to be a comprehensive and user-friendly resource for students and educators alike.中文翻译: 本指南将概述新编简明英语语言学课程，涵盖语音学、语法、语义学和语用学等语言学研究的各个方面。
新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his lan guage. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学教程课文翻译
新编简明英语语言学教程课文翻译《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningin communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representingsounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to formgrammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguisticcommunication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is o nly the “revised” record of s peech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is nointrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or thebasic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the spe aker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user?s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which oneis primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? 答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] inall these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark[?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it.It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transc ription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ?] (5) [?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [p h] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governsthe distribution of [l] and [?], [p h] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological featurein English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e.[d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is bec ause the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic willinclude the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” betwee n each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of …free? ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or h armful to the laws and customs of anorganized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and redu ce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor?s, inventors, inventors?d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer?s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words arecombined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P): The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior tothe conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of theelements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (orD-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntacticform of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window)NP 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure foreach of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structurefor each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deepstructure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation.Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are justnames or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguistsfrom ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the realworld); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour.The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, famousBritish linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the“situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in thehearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked withpsychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same oneword may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one。
新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics
16
Note:
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star,
用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思 维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。 从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。
9
Contextualism (语境论)
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior.
3
Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。
Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only.
2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…
《新编简明英语语言学教程》(戴伟栋+何兆熊编)
Chapter 1nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires⑶Duality①Lower level----sounds (meaningless)②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.⑸Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)⑶Speech vs. writing①Speech ---- primary medium of language②Writing ---- later developed⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky)①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Chapter 21. Speech organs: three important areasPharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.2. The diagram of speech organsLips Tip of tongueTeeth Blade of tongueTeeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongueHard palate Vocal cordsSoft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavityUvula Nasal cavity3.Minimal pai r----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair6. Suprasegmental features⑴Stress①Word stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord …Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog…Noun phrase: black…bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:Modifier: ’dining-room; ‟readingroom; ‟sleepingbag…Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane…②Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually notstressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.⑵ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.mā妈(level)má麻(the second rise)mǎ马(the third rise)mà骂(the fourth fall)⑶IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”7. The manner of articulationStops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r];Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Chapter 31.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningWords are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.②Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s3. Some points about compounds⑴Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⑵Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⑶Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)⑷Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-s trong, pickpocket…③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)⑴Word-level categories①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.⑵Phrase categories and their structures①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).②The structure: specifier + head + complement③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the head s⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsChapter 51. The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.2. The contextualism①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.3. Behaviorism①Behaviorists attempted to de fine meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R4. Sense and referenceSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound…Antonymy1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …6. Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.(2) X is inconsistent with Y①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.(3) X entails Y①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.(4) X presupposes Y①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.(5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan‟s parents are pretty well-off.(6) X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.7. Analysis of meaning⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⑵Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the sam e.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run …②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat…③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call …④No-place predication: It is hot.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.→KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.→I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 61. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.2. Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”⑴Austin’s new model of speech act sAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Ⅰ.For example,“It is cold in here.”①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window o r his refusal to comply with the request.Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That‟ the phone. (1)----W: I‟m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:① Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.② A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.③Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I‟ll answer it.”⑵Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)①Assertives/representatives(陈述) Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I‟m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.②Directives(指令) Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!③Commissives(承诺) Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.④Expressives(表达) Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.I‟m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.⑤eclarations(宣布) Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!3. Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP①The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.②The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.③The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).④The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Chapter 71. Addition of new words①coinage(创新词)----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford Benz Toyota②clipped words(缩略词) ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. Gym—gymnasium memo—memorandum disco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator③blending(紧缩法) ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. Smog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder④acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words,e.g. CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemISBN----International Standard Book NumberWTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARS⑤back-formation(逆构词法) ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.Edit ⇐ editor hawk ⇐ hawker beg ⇐ beggar baby-sit ⇐baby-sitter⑥functional shift ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. Noun⇒verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…Verb⇒noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…Adj⇒verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…Adj⇒noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the imposs ible…⑦borrowing ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). Latin bonus education exitGerman beer waltz quartzChinese tea kowtow sampanRussian sputnik commissar vodkaArabic zero algebra alcohol2. Loss of wordsWords can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.Beseem →to be suitableWot →to knowGyve →a fetterWherefore →why3. Changes in the meaning of words①Widening of meaningHoliday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest dayTail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animal②Narrowing of meaningHound: any doga special kind of dogGirl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex③Meaning shiftinn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotelnice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fineChapter 81. The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)②The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)③Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).2. Speech community and speech variety①Speech community---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.②Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest,i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies①Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;②Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.4. Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)5. Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).6. Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variables:①Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can beeither technical or non-technical.)②Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)③Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)7. Standard dialect①The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.②The standard variety has a number of featuresFirst of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Then the standard dialect has some special functions.Chapter 91. The relationship between language and culture①The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.②Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.③The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.④Culture also af fects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.⑤On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis⑴①Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.②Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.⑵Strong version & weak versionStrong version bel ieves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:①There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.②More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing。
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版导读：语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性，这是英语中两个主要的句法移位，英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件，乔姆斯基和其他一些语言学家提出了普遍语法理论，普遍语法是人类所特有的语言知识体系，这一原则也解释了在英语中为什么动词和其直接宾语之间不能有其它的短语类插入，标准的英语句子必须要遵照毗邻条件，毗邻条件原则并不是在任何一种语言中都起重要作用，使得语言呈现出多样性x’ x Comp1这种高度抽象综合的X标杆理论可减少各个具体短语结构规则的繁杂，揭示所有短语结构规则的本质属性，语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性。
6．句法移位和移位规则短语结构规则是难以用来描述句法移位现象。
当一个句子中的一个成分从其原位移向一个新的位置，就产生了句法移位。
句法移位是遵循一定的转换规则的。
6．1.名词词组移位和WH移位。
这是英语中两个主要的句法移位。
名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫作名词词组移位。
请看下面一组例子: A. The teacher taught the student. B. The student was taught by the teacher.一般认为B句是A句执行名词短语移位的结果。
在主动语态句中充当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。
另一种常见的移位现象叫作WH-移位，即带WH词的成分从在句子中所处的原位移至另一位置。
英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件。
例如：A. He bought the book from the bookstore yesterday.a:. What did he buy from the bookstore yesterday? b. Where did he buy the book yesterday?c. When did he buy the book from the bookstore ?以上每个疑问句的产生，都是WH词向左移出了它们的常规位置，移到句首致使句子语气发生改变。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学教程整理1~4
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
新编简明英语语言学教程-翻译
1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
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1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”，否则就被冠为“错误的”。
1．3．2共时性和历时性对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。
共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。
它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。
历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。
现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。
1．3．3口头语和书面语现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。
这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的记录。
从交际的功能来看，人们交际主要采取口头形式。
此外，即使是在当今世界，仍然有不少语言只有口头形式，没有笔头形式。
所以语言学研究的语料应从口头语中采集。
传统语法学家过分重视笔头语料，轻视口头语料。
语言和言语的区别是瑞士语言学家索绪尔在20世纪初提出来的。
语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统，是一个语言社区所有的人应该遵守的一套约定俗成的规则，它相对稳定，因此索绪尔指出语言学只能研究语言系统本身，既语言。
言语是语言体系的实际使用，是具体的。
它因人而异，千变万化，所以索绪尔认为无法对言语进行系统的研究。
1．3．5能力和运用能力和运用的区别由乔姆斯基在20世纪50年代后期提出的。
“能力”指一个理想的语言使用者所具有的语言规则的知识，它是一整套内在化语言使用者脑海中的语言规则。
“使用”是“能力”的具体使用，是在交际活动中语言知识具体的体现。
乔姆斯基认为，语言学家应该研究“能力”，揭示人脑中已经内在化的语言规则，而不是研究“使用”，因为“使用”会受到各种偶然因素的影响，如口误等，因而是不体系的。
乔姆斯基的能力和使用之分与索绪尔的语言和言语之分有其相似性，两人都强调把语言体系与语言的使用区分开来，但是索绪尔是从社会的角度来分析语言，把语言看成社会的约定，而乔姆斯基则是从心理学的角度出发，把语言看成是个人人脑的特性。
2．1语言的定义语言学家对语言作了不同的定义，比较普遍地为语言学家所接受的一个定义是“语言是一种用于人类交际的任意的语音符号系统。
”这一定义包涵了语言的一些最重要的特征，即语言是一个受规则制约的体系，语言的符号是任意的，语言是有声的。
2．2语言的识别性特征美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
这些特征是所有人类语言所共有的。
人类语言的识别性特征是动物“语言”所不具有的。
1）任意性：它指音与义之间没有逻辑联系。
比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。
2）创造性：语言的创造性主要表现在语言使用者能够以有限的语言规则为基础说出和理解无限的句子，包括他们以前从没有听说过的句子。
3）二重性：它指语言在结构上存在两个层次：低层次和高层次。
在低层次是一个个没有意义的音，如/p/,/g/,/i/等，但是这些处在低层次的没有意义的音可以依照一定的语言规则结合在一起形成语言体系的高层次，即：有意义的单位，如词素，单词等。
4）移位性：移位性指人类可以使用语言来谈论过去的事情，现在的事情或将来的事情；语言也可以用来谈论我们客观世界中的事情，或假想世界中的事情。
总之，语言的使用可以脱离交际的直接情景语境，从而不受语言时空距离的影响。
5）文化传递性：文化的传递性是指，虽然人类习得语言的能力有遗传因素的原因，但是语言体系具体内容的习得不是通过遗传来传递的，而是要通过后天的学习来获得。
第二章音系学语言的形式有声音和文字。
在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，是第一性的。
这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。
文字是对声音的记录。
在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。
除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。
2. 语音学2．1什么是语音学语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
语音学有三个分支：发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。
它们各有自己的侧重点但又互有联系。
发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器官发出语音，并对所发出的音进行分类。
听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来研究语音，即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。
声学语音学主要研究语音的物理特性。
通过对语音声波的研究，声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。
最为重要的结论，所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语，如果从声音的物理特性上去分析，其实它们的声波并不相同，只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小，是人耳所不能辨别的。
如果它们的声波相同，这只是一种巧合。
因此，语音的等同只是一种理论上的理想。
2．2发音器官人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。
咽腔内最重要的发音器官是位于喉头的声带，发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊音化（voicing）。
浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音，如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的特性。
声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音，如[t],[k],[f]等。
声带颤动的频率决定了声音的高低。
口腔中发音器官最多，有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。
其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。
发音时，来自肺部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍，从而发出不同的音。
鼻腔和口腔相通。
发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔，气流只能从口腔通过，所发出的音没有鼻音化。
但当鼻腔通道打开，允许气流从鼻腔通过，所发出来的音便是鼻音。
2．3音标——宽式和严式标音法音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。
标音分为宽式和严式标音法。
宽式标音法是用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式。
严式标音法是一种使用变音符号的标音方式，旨在记录同一个音在不同的语音环境下所发生的细微的变化，如在star和tar中的/t/的发音就不一样,前者/t/是不送气音，后者/t/是送气音。
这些细微区别只有通过严式标音法才能表示。
2．4英语语音的分类英语中的语音根据气流的受阻情况分为元音和辅音。
气流没有受到任何阻碍所发出的音是元音；气流在口腔里受到不同方式的阻碍所发出的音是辅音。
2．4．1英语辅音的分类根据发音方式，英语的辅音可以分为：1）爆破音：发爆破音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后突然释放，如[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]2）摩擦音:发摩擦音时，气流部分受阻，气流从狭窄的通道挤出，产生摩擦，如[f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ ], [∫ ], [ ], [h]3）塞擦音:发塞擦音时，气流开始完全受阻，然后气流从狭窄通道缓慢释放，并伴有摩擦发生，如：[t∫], [d ]4）流音：在发流音时，受阻的气流从舌头与上部（roof of the mouth）形成的通道释放出，如：[l],[r]。
5）鼻音：发音时，气流从鼻腔释放出所发出的音为鼻音，如[n],[m],[ ]6）滑音：滑音又称之为半元音。
英语中滑音有[w]和[j]。
它们的发音方式与[u]和[i]相同。
根据发音部位，英语辅音可以分为：1）双唇音：气流受阻部位在双唇，如[p],[b],[m],[w]2）唇齿音：下唇与上齿接触使气流受阻，如[f],[v]3）齿音:舌尖与上齿接触使气流受阻，如：[θ],[ ]4）齿龈音：舌尖与上齿龈隆骨接触使气流受阻，如：[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]5）腭音:受阻部位发生在舌根与硬腭之间，如：[∫], [ ],[ t∫ ], [d ], [j]6）软腭音:舌根与软腭接触使气流受阻，如： [k], [g], [ ]7）喉音:声带短时接触使气流受阻，如：[h]元音与辅音不同，不能根据辅音的发音方式和发音部位来分类。
元音常根据舌位的高低、开口度、嘴唇形状、元音的长度和发音时喉部的紧张程度来分类。
1）舌位的高低发音时，舌头前部抬得最高的音为前元音，通常有：[i:] [i] [e] [] [a].发音时，舌头的中部抬得最高为中元音，如：[:], [],[]发音时，舌根部位抬得最高为后元音，如：[u:] [] [ :], [ ]and [:].2）开口度：根据开口度，通常把元音分为以下四种：闭元音：如：[i:],[ i],[u:],[]半闭元音:如：[e], [з: ]半开元音:如[ ], [ : ]开元音:如：[æ], [a], [Λ], [ ], [ɑ:]3）嘴唇形状：圆唇元音：英语中除了[ɑ:]以外，所有的后元音都是圆唇元音。
不圆唇元音：英语中所有的前元音和中元音都是不圆唇元音。
4）元音的长度：根据发音的长度，元音分为长元音和短元音。
长元音常用一个分号来表示。
英语中长元音有：[i:] [:] [ : ] [u:] [ɑ:]，其余都是短元音。