跨文化交际复习资料.docx
跨文化交际复习资料(推荐文档)
跨文化交际复习资料第一章跨文化交际概述1 在文化学研究领域，通常把文化分为主流文化和亚文化。
2 文化的特征：交际的符号性、民族的选择性。
观念的整合性和动态的可变性。
3.交际的本质属性：有意识行为和无意识行为、编码过程和解码过程以及语法规则和语用规则。
4.除语言之外，人类在长期的社会实践中还创造了许多交际工具，主要有以下三大类：文字、盲文和手语、旗语、灯语和号语。
5.跨文化交际的概念和要点：跨文化交际是指在特定的交际环境中，具有不同的文化背景的交际者使用同一种语言（母语或目的语）进行的口语交际。
主要包括四个要点：A.双方必须来自不同的文化背景B.双方必须使用同一种语言交际C.交际双方进行的是实时的口语交际D.交际双方进行的是直接的语言交际第二章文化背景与跨文化交际6.从跨文化交际的现实情况来看，影响交际的制约因素主要集中在三个方面：价值观念（文化特质的深层结构）、民族性格（文化特质的外化表现）、自然环境（文化特质的历史缘由）态度7.态度由认知、情感和意动三个范畴构成。
8.态度具有四个功能：功力实现功能、自我防御功能、价值表现功能和课题认知功能9.直觉的整体性是整体思维的第一个特点，东方人以直觉的整体性和和谐的辩证性著称于世。
10.民族中心主义：某个民族把自己当做世界的中心，把本民族的文化当做对待其他民族的参照系，它以自己的文化标准来衡量其他民族的行为，并把自己的文化与其他文化对立起来。
第三章社会环境与跨文化交际11.有效的环境不仅依赖于对文化背景的认识，也依赖于对社会环境的认识，而社会环境对交际来说实际上是广义的“交际背景”12.交际背景主要包括三个要素：交际者：社会地位是决定交际的重要情景因素交际目的：可分为文化型、职业型专业型普通型交际场景：最重要的是物理场景（分时间场景和空间场景）13.社会角色就是某一特定社会群体对某一特定社会身份的行为的期望，人们社会交往从方式到内容都在不同程度上取决于人们的角色关系。
跨文化交际复习资料
第一章跨文化交际交际：往来应酬跨文化交际：具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程第二章文化的定义与特性1.文化的定义：1)人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质和精神财富的总和2)考古学用语，指同一历史时期的不依分布地点为转移的遗迹、遗物的综合体。
3)所谓文化和文明乃是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及包括社会成员的个人而获得的其他任何能力、习惯在内的一种综合体。
4)历史上创造的所有的生活样式，包括显型的和隐型的，包括合理的、不合理的以及谈不上是合理的或是不合理的一切，他们在某一时期作为人们的潜在指南而存在。
2.文化的特性1)文化是人类所独有的，是区分人类和动物的主要标志。
文化是社会遗产，而不是生理的遗传。
2)文化不是先天所有，而是通过后天习得的。
3)文化中的大部分是不自觉的。
4)文化是人们行动的指南。
5)文化是动态的，文化的形态与一定的历史时期相联系。
第五章语言交际1.语言与文化的关系语言与文化有着密切的关系。
由于语言的产生和发展，人类文化才得以产生和传承。
文化影响语言，使语言为了适应文化发展变化的需要而变得更加精确而缜密。
语言既是文化的载体，又是文化的写照。
2.词义与文化1)语言要素：语音、语法、词汇语音与文化关系最不密切，语法次之，而关系最密切关系最直接的是词汇。
2)有的学者将词汇分为一般词汇和文化词汇（判断区分两种词汇）3.语用规则与文化1)语用规则语用规则就是讲话规则，指根据一定的交际对象、交际场合、交际目的等，对言语形式进行正确选择的规则，是语言的外部规则。
2)语用原则［1］会话合作原则量的准则质的准则相关准则方式准则［2］会话礼貌原则得体准则慷慨准则赞誉准则谦逊准则一致准则同情准则第六章非语言交际1.非语言交际，包括在交际的环境中人为的和环境产生的对于传播者和受传者含有潜在信息的所有的刺激。
2.体态语，是非语言交际的重要组成成分。
3.非语言交际还包括副语言、对时间与空间的利用、味道、颜色等。
跨文化交际期末复习资料重点笔记.docx
Culture: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.Objective Culture: history, religion, literature, language, food, etiquette, law, and customs.Subjective Culture: feelings and attitudes about how things are and how they should be -the concept of time, spaces, friendship, love, family, communication pattern, etc.Characteristics：Learned, transmitted from generation to generation, based on symbols, dynamic, ethnocentric・Doing Culture: It is meant to be a contrast to learning "about" culture underscores the idea that communicating across cultures is a process of making meaning, of people understanding one another so they can get to know one another, build relationships, and solve problems togethe匸It should not be words on paper, but ideas in practice.Communication: Human communication is the process through which individuals - in relationships, groups, organizations and societies -respond to and create messages to adapt to the environment and one another.Characteristics: Dynamic and interactiveIntercultural Communication: Generally speaking, it refers to interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds^such as interactions between people from America and China, between whites and African Americans, between Hispanic and Japanese AmericansThe form of Intercultural Communicationa. Interracial communication -people from different racesb. Interethnic communications -the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins.c. Intercultural communication -communication between members of the same culture,in which one or both of the participants hold dual or multiple memberships. (gay, disabled, Mexican American, African American, or female )Comiminication Competence (ICC competence)The cognitive component -how much one know about communication.The affective component -one's motivation to approach or avoid communication The behavior component -the skills one has to interact competently.Perception: Perception is a cognitive process in which we attach meaning to objects, symbols, people and behavior in order to make sense of them.Pattern of Thought: The way people in a culture think influences the way they interpret strangers' messages.World views: The grid (decentralized・ This pattern does not have a fixed center)The radiating star (highly centralized. In this pattern important things are at the center and everything else radiates out from the center)The inside/ outside pattern (圈子)female maleprivate publichome market, mosque, coffee housethe outside is plain, not welcoming, even forbidding. The walls are thick to protect whatis inside.highly centralized pattern: important people sit in the front middle; decentralizedpattern: people sit equally.Stereotyping: People generalize to make sense of his experience. The result of the process of over generalizing based on limited or inaccurate information.The classification of stereotypes1.Negative stereotype of other cultures: Prejudice (severe prejudice)2.Positive stereotype of one's own culture: Cultural superiority Characteristics:universal, unavoidable, stable, variable, ethnocentrismHigh context communication & Low context communicationHC culture (察言观色)：Relies mainly on the physical context or the relationship for information, with little explicitly encoded.LC culture: provide most of the information in the explicit code itself.Perception: Perception is a cognitive process in which we attach meaning to objects, symbols, people and behavior in order to make sense of them.High contact and low contact culture:In high contact cultures people want to get close enough to one another and to objects to sense them in these ways.People in these countries stand closer, touchmore, engage in more eye contact and speak more loudly than people do in lower-contact cultures.In a low contact cultures, people rely more on sight, and especially sight at a fardistance. People are most likely to stand a certain distance away to get the wholepicture, without actually feeling or sensing the other personas body heat or subtlesmell. So in low contact culture as America, one is taught not to breathe on people.However, this visual space seems unfriendly and indifferent to those from highcontact cultures, which favor tactile space.When a person from a high contact culture goes to a low contact culture, he or she is likely to feel that people are cold, lack human warmth, and are indifferent and pay no attention to them.low-contact: Asia ; moderate-contact: Australia, Northern Europe, United States high-contact: South America, Mediterranean, the Arab worldLarge and smell Power Distancespower distance is an attempt to measure cultural attitudes about inequality in social relationships.In high power distance cultures, position in a hierarchy is considered to be natural and important. People are expected to show only positive emotions to others withhigh status and to display negative emotions to those with low status; tend to decrease gaze in the presence of powerful people.Low Power Distance Culture: Minimize and eliminate the differences in power and status; more emotional display, increase the amount of gaze. People believe that the differences in power between boss and workers should be reduced and not mphasized.Individualism VS CollectivismThe individualism index measures the extent to which the interests of the individual are considered to be more important than the interests of the group・ People from individualist cultures are more likely to act on principles that apply to everyone, principles that are universal and apply to associates and strangers alike.Collectivists are not unprincipled, but when making decisions they tend to give a higher priority to relationships than individualists do. They expect people who are involved in a group relationship to have duties and obligations to one another.Masculinity (Toughness) VS Femininity (Tenderness)Masculinity means everyone in society embraces values that have traditionally been associated with men, that is assertiveness, competitiveness and toughness. On the feminine side of the scale we find societies in which people generally embrace values that have traditionally been labeled as feminine, that is modesty, cooperation and tenderness. Strong and weak Uncertainty AvoidanceThe Uncertainty Avoidance Index seeks to measure the extent to which people in a particular society are able to tolerate the unknowns of life. In high uncertainty avoidance countries people experience more stress and a sense of urgency as they go through their daily routines. Relationships are guided by strict rules. People from low uncertainly avoidance countries do not have a strong need to control things, people, and events by clearly defining and categorizing them. Relationships are guided by strict rules.Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural CommunicationGenerally speaking, it refers to interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between people from America and China, between whites and African Americans, between Hispanic and Japanese Americans The form of Intercultural Communicationa.Interracial communication -people from different racesb.Interethnic communications -the parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins.c.I ntracultural communication -communication between members of the same culture,in which one or both of the participants hold dual or multiple memberships, (gay,disabled, Mexican American, African American, or female)Language&CulturePeople pay attention to basic language in cross-culture communication because of the essential role these codes play in communication and they are part of object culture. The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word "dog. In eastern culture, dogs are dirty, brutal and stupid. But in western culture, dogs are lovely, loyal and obedient. They are faithful friends and compassionate animals.Language reflects culture. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the peopled attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc. For example, American businessmen often encode their meanings in metaphors and images from these sports.Chinese traditional sport culture emphasizes the harmony between human beings andoneness between man and nature. It is morality, benevolence, entertainment and longevity. But western sports culture is competition and sportsmanship.Culture shock: Troublesome feelings such as depression, loneliness, confusion, inadequacy, hostility, frustration, and tension, caused by the loss of familiar cues from the home culture ・U-Curuemodel:Excitement^Confusion->Frustration^Effectiveness-^ Appreciation。
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”.2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture.4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communicationd. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg2. The Cultural Onion3.The Cultural Software4.The Cultural Fish5. The Cultural Story6. Culture by Chinese7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture1) Culture is sharedThe members of a culture share a set of ‘ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.2) Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural activities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols.In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects ofthe culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal Eastern perspective of communicationDefinitions of communication from many Asian countriesstress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source（信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sendermust choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.Channel /Medium（渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver amessage.Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and givessome meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators:voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar(2) Physiological Noiseillnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamicb. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High ContextA high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long timeto learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc.More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty AvoidanceThis dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguityCultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.\1. Culture Shock◆refers to the traumatic [tr?:'m?tik] experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shockThe honeymoon stage ?The hostility stage ?The recovery stage ?The adjustment stage ?The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms.linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢”and “铁饭碗”.Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style isconcerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes theim portance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, at hletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “AlthoughI am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct StylesAn elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-Americancultures.An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some NativeAmerican cultures4. Personal and Contextual StyleThe personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.The con textual style highlights one’s role identity and status.Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).5. Instrumental and Affective StyleAn instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Theburden of understanding often rests with the speaker.An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but withthe process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语）oculesics(目光语)olfactics(嗅觉)haptics(触觉行为)chromatics(色彩学)attire (服饰)paralanguagesilencetimespacecontext1)KinesicsKinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception(3) Selection(4) Organization(5) InterpretationThe definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refe rs to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilationis a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.b. Integrationis a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.c. Separation and segregationSeparation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregationd. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.StereotypingStereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of people. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting.Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers" often keeps women from advancing in the workplace.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998):Competent communicationCompetent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs.Communication CompetenceCommunication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competenceIntercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.c. AttitudesMany attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalnessd. Behaviors and skillstwo levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways.Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural communication scholars would use another term “situational features” to refer to the context.-- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.-- In addition, an individual’s competence may be constrained by the political, economic, and historical contexts.Things We Can Do1.Knowing ourselves2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities3.Empathy4.Knowing ourselves5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we allcarry and that bias the way the world appears to us.6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when aman who is a gaytalks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us toplace them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudesinfluence communication.Appreciate Similarities and Respect DifferencesEmpathyTo improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.。
跨文化交际知识整理-docx
Unit 11 economic globalization(经济全球化）：the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.2 barter system(物物交换）：exchange without money–Farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money.–Human society has always traded goods across great distances.3 global village(地球村）：the world form one community–All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet.4 melting pot(大熔炉）：a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities.5 culture(文化）：can been seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture.6 cultural diversity(文化融合）：refers to the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong.7. Communication(交际）: mean to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.8 intercultural communication(跨文化交际）：communication between people whose cultural backgrounds and distinct(不同）enough to alter（改变）their communicaion。
跨文化交际考试复习题及答案
跨文化交际考试复习题及答案1. 跨文化交际中，什么是文化休克？答：文化休克是指个体在进入一个与自己文化背景不同的新环境时，由于文化差异和适应压力而产生的焦虑、困惑和不适感。
2. 描述霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论中的五个维度。
答：霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论包括五个维度：权力距离、个人主义与集体主义、男性化与女性化、不确定性规避、长期导向与短期导向。
3. 在跨文化交际中，非语言沟通的重要性体现在哪些方面？答：非语言沟通的重要性体现在以下几个方面：肢体语言、面部表情、眼神交流、个人空间、时间观念、服饰和色彩。
4. 如何理解文化相对主义？答：文化相对主义是指在评价一个文化现象时，应从该文化自身的价值观和标准出发，而不是用其他文化的标准来衡量，强调每种文化都有其独特性和价值。
5. 跨文化交际中常见的沟通障碍有哪些？答：跨文化交际中常见的沟通障碍包括语言障碍、文化误解、价值观冲突、非语言沟通差异、刻板印象和偏见。
6. 简述跨文化适应的四个阶段。
答：跨文化适应的四个阶段包括蜜月期、文化休克期、调整期和适应期。
7. 在跨文化交际中，如何有效地处理文化冲突？答：在跨文化交际中，处理文化冲突可以采取以下方法：积极倾听、尊重差异、寻找共同点、建立信任、使用有效的沟通技巧和寻求第三方调解。
8. 跨文化交际能力包括哪些要素？答：跨文化交际能力包括语言能力、文化知识、社交技能、认知灵活性、情感管理能力和适应能力。
9. 描述跨文化交际中的自我意识。
答：跨文化交际中的自我意识是指个体对自己文化身份和价值观的认识，以及这些因素如何影响跨文化互动和沟通的理解。
10. 跨文化交际中，如何提高文化敏感性？答：提高文化敏感性可以通过以下方式：学习不同文化的知识、参与跨文化交流、反思个人的文化偏见、培养开放和尊重的态度、实践跨文化沟通技巧。
跨文化交际复习资料
第一章跨文化交际概述第一节文化、交际和语言1.“文化”的定义这个概念的内涵、外延差异很大，所以文化有广义和狭义之分。
①广义文化的内部结构包括物态文化、制度文化、行为文化、心态文化四个层次。
物态文化层是人类的物质生产活动方式和产品的总和，是可触知的具有物质实体的文化事物。
饮食、服饰、建筑、交通、生产工具以及乡村、城市等。
制度文化层是人类在社会实践中组建的各种社会行为规范构成，行为文化层是人际交往中约定俗成的以礼俗、民俗、风俗等形态表现出来的行为模式。
以民风民俗形态出现，见之于日常起居动作之中，具有鲜明的民族、地域特色。
心态文化是人类在社会意识活动中孕育出来的价值观念、审美情趣、思维方式等主观因素，②狭义文化指意识形态所创造的精神财富，包括宗教、信仰、风俗习惯、道德情操、学术思想、文学艺术、科学技术、各种制度等。
专注于精神创造活动，所以又被称作“小文化”。
2.定势（文化定势）的定义、分类及成因（1）定义：定势指不同社会群体“在人们头脑中的形象。
定势概念应用到跨文化交际上后，称为文化定势。
文化定势指人们在跨文化交际研究或跨文化实际交往中对不同文化背景的民族和国家成员的笼统的，简单的看法，或指一个群体对另一群体成员按某种先入为主的标准或尺度的概括的、形象化的认知。
这些标准或尺度带有较大的主观性，是一种思维方式，一种无视群体内部存在差异、无视普遍性还存在特殊性的思维方式。
（2）分类文化定势可分为“自定势”和“他定势”两类。
前者是指某一个社会和文化群体对本群体共同认可的价值和行为特征普遍性、概括性的表述，这些价值在跨文化交际研究中也常常被称为“自我图像”。
本群体成员往往会不加反思地对这些价值观和行为特征做出简单的认同。
后者是指某一社会和文化群体对另一社会和文化群体的价值观和行为特征的共同认定，也常常被称作“他者图像”。
（3）成因社会和个体。
从孩子出生开始便不断经历着各种各样的教育。
家庭教育,孩子关于世界的认知里就自然而然地打上了父母文化定势的烙印。
《跨文化交际》复习材料
《跨文化交际》复习材料跨文化交际是在不同文化背景下进行有效沟通和交流的能力和技巧。
随着全球化的发展，跨文化交际能力变得越来越重要。
下面是一些跨文化交际的复习材料，供参考。
一、了解跨文化交际的基本概念1.跨文化交际的定义和重要性-跨文化交际是指在不同文化背景下进行有效沟通和交往的过程。
-跨文化交际能力是现代社会中不可或缺的一项重要能力，对于成功开展国际业务、扩大国际影响力等都具有很大的意义。
2.跨文化交际的特点和挑战-文化差异：不同国家、地区的文化差异会影响人们的行为习惯、价值观念等方面。
-语言障碍：不同语言的存在会给跨文化交际带来困难。
-礼仪和习俗：不同国家有各自的礼仪和习俗，不同的行为方式可能会因为文化差异而引起误解。
二、了解不同文化的差异和特点1.文化的定义和特点-文化是指一定时期和地区内人们的集体创造的一种总体性且复杂的社会文明现象。
-文化具有包括价值观念、思维方式、行为习惯等在内的多个方面。
2.不同文化的差异和特点-价值观念：不同文化对价值观念的看法和重视程度存在差异。
-社会习俗：不同文化在社会交往、庆祝活动等方面的习俗也存在较大差异。
-沟通方式：不同文化在沟通方式、语言使用等方面也会出现差异。
-时间观念：不同文化对时间观念的重视程度存在较大差异。
三、学习有效的跨文化交际技巧1.尊重对方文化-学习关于对方文化的基本知识，尊重对方的价值观念和习俗。
-避免对对方文化的偏见和刻板印象，保持开放的心态。
2.提升跨文化沟通能力-学习对方语言，尽量使用对方语言进行交流。
-学习不同文化的非语言沟通方式，如手势、面部表情等。
-长辈尊重：在跨文化交际中，尊重长辈是一种常见的礼节。
3.进行有效的文化调适-了解对方文化的特点，根据对方的文化习俗和行为准则进行调适。
-注意语言和行为的表达方式，避免因文化差异造成的误解。
4.增加跨文化交际的意识-了解跨文化交际的重要性，积极寻求跨文化交流的机会。
-提高自身的文化敏感度，增加对不同文化的了解和尊重。
(完整word版)跨文化交际复习提纲
Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”.2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture.4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communicationd. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg2. The Cultural Onion3.The Cultural Software4.The Cultural Fish5. The Cultural Story6. Culture by Chinese7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture1) Culture is sharedThe members of a culture share a set of ‘ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.2) Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in culturalactivities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols.In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects of the culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail. 5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal Eastern perspective of communicationDefinitions of communication from many Asian countries stress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source（信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sendermust choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.Channel /Medium（渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver amessage.Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and givessome meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators:voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar(2) Physiological Noiseillnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamicb. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High ContextA high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long time to learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc.More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty AvoidanceThis dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguityCultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.\1. Culture Shock◆refers to the traumatic [trɔ:'mætik] experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shockThe honeymoon stage ◊The hostility stage ◊The recovery stage ◊The adjustment stage ◊The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms.linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢”and “铁饭碗”.Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style isconcerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes theimportance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, at hletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “Although I am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct StylesAn elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-Americancultures.An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some NativeAmerican cultures4. Personal and Contextual StyleThe personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.The con textual style highlights one’s role identity and status.Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).5. Instrumental and Affective StyleAn instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Theburden of understanding often rests with the speaker.An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but withthe process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语）oculesics(目光语)olfactics(嗅觉)haptics(触觉行为)chromatics(色彩学)attire (服饰)paralanguagesilencetimespacecontext1)KinesicsKinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception(3) Selection(4) Organization(5) InterpretationThe definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refe rs to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilationis a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.b. Integrationis a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.c. Separation and segregationSeparation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregationd. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.StereotypingStereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection ofpeople. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting.Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers" often keeps women from advancing in the workplace.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998):Competent communicationCompetent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs.Communication CompetenceCommunication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competenceIntercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.c. AttitudesMany attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalnessd. Behaviors and skillstwo levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways.Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural communication scholars would use another term “situational features” to refer to the context.-- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.-- In addition, an individual’s competence may be constrained by the political, economic, and historical contexts.Things We Can Do1.Knowing ourselves2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities3.Empathy4.Knowing ourselves5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we allcarry and that bias the way the world appears to us.6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when a man who is a gaytalks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us toplace them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudesinfluence communication.Appreciate Similarities and Respect DifferencesEmpathyTo improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.。
跨文化交际概论复习资料
跨⽂化交际概论复习资料⼀．基本概念理解1、传播就是信息的传送与接收，⼀⽅发出信息，另⼀⽅接受信息，这⼀过程就是传播。
2、亚⽂化：⼜称集体⽂化或副⽂化，指与主⽂化相对应的那些⾮主流的、局部的⽂化现象，指在主⽂化或综合⽂化的背景下，属于某⼀区域或某个集体所特有的观念和⽣活⽅式，⼀种亚⽂化不仅包含着与主⽂化相通的价值与观念，也有属于⾃⼰的独特的价值与观念，并构成亚⽂化等都是这种亚⽂化。
亚⽂化是⼀个相对的概念。
是总体⽂化的次属⽂化。
3、1948年，哈罗德·拉斯韦尔在《社会传播的构造与功能》⼀⽂中，提出了传播过程的"5w"模式，即：（who）谁、(say what)说什么、（in what channel）通过什么渠道、(to whom)对谁、(with what effects)得到什么效果。
4、传播的构成要素：⼀是基本要素：信源、信宿、信息、媒介、信道、反馈。
⼆是隐含要素：时空环境、⼼理因素、⽂化背景和信息质量。
5、线性传播模式的缺陷：：单⼀，静⽌。
6、语⾔是⽂化的载体，是⽂化的主要表现形式，就像⼀⾯镜⼦，折射出它所在的社会的思想，习俗和⾏为举⽌。
词汇作为语⾔的重要组成部分，不可避免的带有民族⽂化的积淀，不同国家民族之间的⽂化差异，必然在此上体现出来。
7、概念意义：词语中将其与外部世界的现象联系起来的那部分意义。
即，⼀个词语的字⾯意义中所包含的最基本的，最本质的意义成分就是其概念意义。
8、以英汉语⾔对⽐为例，词汇意义具有以下四个特征:词义基本对应、词义平⾏、词义空缺、词义冲突。
9、语⽤规则就是特定⽂化群体关于语⾔交际的规范与约定，包括说话的时机、说话的内容、说话的⽅式、说话的多少以及⾔语⾏为与⾮⾔语⾏为的配合等诸多⽅⾯。
10、交际风格是⾔语⾏为和⾮⾔语⾏为由于受使⽤中不同交际环境的影响或制约⽽形成的⼀系列交际特点的综合表现。
恰当的交际风格的运⽤对交际过程起着积极的促进作⽤，对交际能⼒的培养也起到重要作⽤。
(完整版)跨文化交际复习题和答案解析
判断题T 1 As a phenomenon, intercultural communication has existed for thousands of years. However, as a discipline, its history is only about fifty years. 作为一种现象，跨文化传播已经存在了数千年。
然而，作为一门学科，它的历史只有大约五十年。
F 2 Intercultural Communication as a discipline first started in Europe. 跨文化交际是欧洲第一门学科F 3 Culture is a static entity 静态的实体 while communication is a dynamic process. 文化是一个静态的实体而沟通是一个动态的过程T 4 Culture can be seen as shared knowledge ,what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given 约定的特定的 culture. 文化可以被看作是一种共享的知识，人们需要知道的是在一个特定的文化中扮演适当的行为T 5 Although cultural stereotype has its limitations (over-generalization),it still contributes to a perso n’s cultural cognition.认识、认知文化刻板印象虽有其局限性，但仍有助于人的文化认知。
T 6 In intercultural communication, we should separate one’s individual character from cultural generalization. 在跨文化交际中，我们要把自己的个性和文化的泛化分开。
跨文化交际期末复习资料整理.doc
跨文化交际期末考试资料整理一名词解释1.高语境：指的是人们在交流过程中，运用的一些非语言要素本身的交际手段所形成的一个语境，比如眼神，语气等等。
说话人的语义送达不直接，比较含蓄，不明朗。
主要指亚洲人和拉丁美洲人的交流语境。
例如对高语境的交际者而言，合同可以被看成是双方关系发展的框架，中国人认为如果关系好，人们可以合作调整以适应出现的新情形，毕竟合同只是字词，真正重要的是关系。
2.低语境：指的是说话双方依赖于语言本身进行交际，语言清晰明朗，说话方式比较直接。
主要是指美国、瑞士、欧洲等等。
例如对低语境的交际者而言，合同是双方按约定方式履行的不能更改的承诺，双方按约定的方式获利，美国人总是想在合同中包含所有能应对将来可能出现的问题的语言。
3.副语言：也叫身态语言，是指除语言以外的面部表情、手势动作、身体姿态等表达手段，这些表达手段也叫副语言表情手段。
副语言表情手段运用得当可以对语言表达起到补充、辅助、强化的作用。
可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。
4.形合语言：所谓形就是形式，形合即形式的合拍；形合借助语言形式手段（包括词汇手段和形态手段）来实现词语或句子的衔接。
如中国的古诗词。
5.意合语言：意即意义，意合即追求意义的整合；意合不借助语言形式手段而借助词语或句子所含意义的逻辑联系來实现词或句子的连接。
如英文。
6.耻感文化：本尼迪克特认为所谓的耻感文化指的是“公认的道德标准借助于外部强制力来发展人的良心的社会”。
具体来说有以下三个方面：①强调外在的约束力（社会群体的压力）。
②耻感文化中的个人，其所作所为首先考虑的是他人、社会的评价③强烈的心理反应。
耻感文化具有“他律”的特征。
中国文化某种程度上就是耻感文化。
7.罪感文化：本尼迪克特认为罪感文化就是“提倡建立道德的绝对标准，并且依靠其发展人的良心的社会。
跨文化商务交际复习资料.doc
跨文化商务交际复习资料Unitl一、匹配1 .culture: The total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.munication: A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols,signs,or behavior,or the exchange of thoughts,messages,or information,as by speech,signals,writing,or behavior.3.ethnocentrism： The belief that your own cultural background including ways of an analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal.communication, is superior.4.horizontal communication: The communication at the same level in an organization.5.intercultural communication：The communication between people from different cultures when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture.6.business communication：The communication is within business and administration,aiming at a common objective and profits for both the individuals and organizations.二、判断T：1.Culture is all men's medium; there is no aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture.2.The terms of intercultural communication and international communication can be used interchangeably.3.Culture cannot be known without a study of communication, and communication can only be understood with an understanding of the culture it supports.4.Stereotypes, like culture itself, are learned in a variety of ways. They are the products of limited, lazy, and misguided perceptions.F：1 .When culture is contrasted with nature, it can be defined as "'life way of a population,, in its broad sense, meaning what characterizes the particular way of life of a population.2.The culture shown in an onion consists of two levels: a level of norms and values, or an invisible level, and a visible level of resultant behavior or artifacts of some form.3.With the integration of language into the fabric of culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.4.1n the global village, neighbors communicate free of troubles and difficulties.三、SummaryCulture and Communication%1Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors,institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.%1Only the outward symbols of a culture, 10 percent, are easily visible. The most important aspects ofculture, 90 percent, its norms and values, are far more difficult to grasp. These more profound cultural differences can cause problems when communicating with someone from another culture.(3)Culture has six major characteristics: shared, learned, symbolic, integrated,dynamic, and ethnocentric.%1Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior, or the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing,or behavior.%1There are three business communication patterns in terms of direction: upward communication, downward communication, and lateral communication%1Culture and communication are inseparably linked. Culture gives meaning and provides the context for communication. Besides, meaning is in the person, not in the word.Intercultural Communication%1Intercultural communication is the communication between persons of different cultures, or different cultural backgrounds.%1There are five barriers in intercultural communication: language differences,nonverbal communication, stereotypes, cultural bias on judgments, and high level of stress.(3)Technology has broken down cultural boundaries, and the world is becoming a global village, in which neighbors speak different languages, have different values and different lifestyles Understanding is a measure of communicative success in the global village.四、重点1 .culture文化的广义和侠义in the broad sense:It is estimated that there are more than 164 definitions of culture.In the narrow sense:meaning what characterizes the particular way of life of a population.2.metaphors of culture 文化的比喻(1)the culture iceberg (文化冰山)① Culture above the waterline. ② Culture below the waterline.(2)the culture onion (文化洋葱)%1Culture in the outer layer.%1Culture in the middle layer.(3)Culture in the inner nucleus layer.3.characteristics of culture (文化的特点)%1Culture is shared. ② Culture is learned. (3)Culture is symbolic.%1Culture is integrated. ⑤ Culture is dynamic. ⑥ Culture is ethnocentric.munication (交际的4个特点)① dynamic ② symbolic (3)transactional ④ contextual5 .patterns of communication (沟通方式)%1Upward communication.Upward communication is the communication flowing from subordinates to superiors usually concerning employees5 comments about themselves, their reactions about others,their reactions to practices and policies,and their thoughts about their work.%1Downward communication.Downward communication is the communication flowing from the top of the organizational management hierarchy,telling people in the organization what is important(mission) and what is valued(policy).(3)Lateral communication (or horizontal communication).Lateral,communication or horizontal communication refers to the communication at the same level in an organization.6.barriers in intercultural communication (跨文化交际障碍)%1Language differences.%1Nonverbal communication.(3)Stereotypes .Stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality.%1Cultural bias on judgments.%1High level of stress.Unit 2一、匹配1 .pragmatics： It is the study of how speakers use the language to reach successful communication, and the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behaviors.nguage： It is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols and rules that are used and understood by a large community of people.3.Semantics： It is the study of the meaning of words,a system that relates words to meaning.4.Verbal communication： It is carried out either in oral or in written form with use of words.5.memo： It is a hard-copy document, used for communicating inside an organization,usually short.二、判断T：1 .Language is a means to express and exchange thoughts, concepts, knowledge and information as well as to transmit experience and so on.nguage and culture are closely related, reflecting, influencing and shaping each other.3.Written communication is the communication by means of written symbols,either printed or handwritten.F：1 .Verbal communication is the transferring of thoughts between individuals only via spoken messages.2.Verbal communication is not as clarified and efficient as other ways of communication, e.g. written communication.三、SummaryVerbal Communication%1Verbal communication includes oral communication and written communication.%1Verbal communication can express all kinds of ideas we want to express. It can keep and disseminate information, and can be clearer and more efficient than other ways.(3)Semantics is a system that relates words to meaning,It is the study of the meaning of words. Frequently the same word can be misunderstood by i people.from two countries because of their different cultural backgrounds.%1Pragmatics is the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behaviors. Pragmatics is the study of how speakers use the language to effect successful communication.%1Language is the cornerstone of a culture. Language is part of culture. Language.and culture interact and interplay.Oral and Written Communication%1Generally.y there are three basic communication goals for giving oral presentations in business communication:to inform, to persuade,and to build goodwill.%1Making calls is efficient and convenient for business people to send and receive information in their intercultural communication Most foreign business people have a habit of using telephones for what they are going to do before or after business, most frequently for making appointments.(3)Written communication is the communication by means of written symbols,either printed or handwritten. Letters, memorandums, and reports are the primary means of exchanging written information in business.%1Letter writing is a very important activity in day-to-day business and personal life. A good business letter is brief, straightforward and polite.%1 A memo is a hard-copy document. It is used for communicating inside an organization, usually short. A memo contains To," "From," Date." Subject Heading and Message" sections.@ In a report, we re supposed to report, not embroider or influence. Just state the facts, nothing but the facts. The best reports are written in a style that is clear with a logical structure which is easy to follow, and is concise and comes to the point.四、重点1 .verbal communication's attributes:(言语交际的特点)%1Verbal communication can express all kinds of ideas we want to express.%1Verbal communication can keep and disseminate information.(3)Verbal communication can be clearer and more efficient than other ways.2.skillful and effective verbal communication (有效的言语交际的四个因素)① logical and emotional effects ② objective and subjective factors(3)the needs of the message sender ④ cultural factors3.Words have two major dimensions of meaning, their denotation and connotation.4.(中美文化交际的不同点)① How to address people. ② Different perceptions of titles.(3) How to show gratitude. ④ Conversation topics. ⑤ Being modest.5.Generally, there are three basic communication goals fou giving oral presentations business communication: to inform-to provide others with new information, to persuade-to modify attitudes and behaviors or to reinforce already-existing attitudes and behaviors, and to build goodwill.① Informative Presentations. ② Persuasive Presentations. ③ Goodwill Presentations.6.how to make an effective oral presentation%1Analyze your audience.%1Reduce your residual message.(3)Restrict your main points to three.%1Design your introduction.%1Your pattern of organization must be absolutely clear to your audience.%1Conclude the business presentation with a call to action.%1Deliver your presentation confidently from beginning to end.7.(打电话目的)Most foreign business people have a habit of using telephones for what they are going to do before or after business. Most frequently for making appointments.8.written communication （书面交际方式）① business letters ② business memos ③ business report9.Memos should have the following sections and content：① A "To" ② A "From" ③ A "Date" ④ Subject heading. ⑤ The message.Unit 3一、匹配1 .nonverbal communication: The process by which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages in a given situation or context.2.kinesics： The nonverbal behavior related to the movement of the body or part of the body.3 .complementing: It means that nonverbal behavior can support, but could not replace the verbal message in communication4.proxemics： The study of peoples perception and use of space.5.personal territory： It refers to the space that people have for their own activities.二、判断T：1 .Nonverbal behavior is significant because it spontaneously reflects the subconsciousness.2.As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural communication situation.3. A simple eye gesture might be interpreted in a diversity of meanings across cultures.4.Personal territory can be large or small, which is much related to certain elements such as place, sex, age and character.F：1 .Nonverbal codes play an important part in communication or intercultural communication. But it is not as important as verbal codes.2.We put the index finger and mid finger apart with palm against the receiver to mean "OK," which was first used by Winston Churchill.3.Postures send same messages to all people,e,g. when you stand in an upright position, you impress others as being energetic.4.The British, like Americans, believe that looking someone directly in the eye is a mark of rudeness until a more intimate relationship is established.5.Eyes looking sideways can show one's coldness and superciliousness.lt is impolite to move your head side to side while you are communicating with people, e.g. in India or Pakistan.6.How closely people position themselves to one another during a discussion or talk cannot communicate what type of relationship exists between them.三、Summary1 .Nonverbal Communication%1Nonverbal communication is the process by which nonverbal behaviors are used. Nonverbal communication is everything except the actual words.%1Nonverbal communication plays an important part in intercultural communication, even more important than verbal communication.(3)There are six functions of nonverbal communication in generakaccenting, complementing, contradicting,regulating,repeating and substituting.2.Kinesics%1Kinesics is the nonverbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or of the body as a whole.%1Facial expressions are important in human communication; the meanings people attach to the same expression differ from culture to culture.(3) The same gesture may send different messages to those who have different cultural backgrounds.④ Posture often goes unnoticed to many people, because it follows one' s natural habits, and therefore, it is subconscious in nature.3.Space and Distance%1There are four types of distances. They are intimate distance, personal distance, social distance and public distance.%1Private space refers to the space that people have for their own activities. The use of space is directly linked to the value system of culture.(3)The Chinese value togetherness in their nonverbal communication, while people from English-speaking countries value apartness.四、重点1.(非言语交际的功能)There are six functions of nonverbal communication in general. They are accenting, complementing, contradicting, regulating and substituting.2.(体距) Generally speaking, there are four categories of distances.intimate distance 0-45cm personal distance 45-120cmsocial distance 1.3meters to 3 meters work together or doing business together 1.3-2 meters public distance beyond 3 metersUnit 4一、匹配1 .power distance： The degree to which power differences are expected and accepted by society.2.values： A learned organization of rules for making choices and for resolving conflicts.3.uncertainty avoidance： The degree to which the society is willing to accept and deal with ambiguity and uncertainty.4.masculinity： The degree to which traditional male values are important to a society.5.individualism：The degree to which individual decision-making and action is accepted and encouraged by the society.二、判断T：1 .Where power distance is large, the society believes that there should be a well-defined order of inequality in which everyone has a rightful place.2.1ndividualists prefer self-sufficiency while collectivists give more recognition to their interdependent roles and obligations to the group.3.In high masculinity societies, sex roles are clearly differentiated and men are dominant.4.1n high masculinity societies, people tend to believe that matters of material comfort, social privilege, etc. are related to ability.② Differences in time consciousness. ④ Differences in5. Where uncertainty avoidance is low, the society is comfortable with a low degree of uncertainty and is open to the unknown.6. Where uncertainty avoidance is high, the society is concerned with certainty and security. F ：1 .Large power distance countries such as the United States, Austria, Finland,and Denmark hold that inequality in society should be minimized.2. Where individualism is high, the society emphasizes the role of the group.3. Asian, Latin American, and West African nations are societies high in individualism but low in collectivism.4.1n feminine societies, men and women are considered socially unequal.三、 Summary1 .Cultural Values%1 A value system represents what is expected or hoped for, required or forbidden.lt is the system of criteria by which conduct is judged and sanctions applied.%1 Cultural differences between the West and the East can be highlighted in cognition, relationship with nature, and the concept of truth.%1 The Chinese are collectivist., placing high value on group cooperation and individual modesty. Americans are individualist placing high value on self-reliance and freedom from externally imposed constraints.2. Cultural Dimensions%1 Power distance is the degree to which power differences are expected and accepted by society. %1 Individualism is the degree to which individual decision-making and action is accepted and encouraged by the society.(3) Masculinity is the degree to which traditional male values are important to a society.%1 Uncertainty avoidance is the degree to which the society is willing to accept and deal with ambiguity and uncertainty.四、 重点1 .Comparison Between Chinese Values and American Values (中美价值观比较)① Differences in friendship.(3) Differences in conception of the self.%1 Differences in social relationships.2.cultural dimensions (文化维度)① power distance② individualism/collectivism (3) masculinity/femininity ④ uncertainty avoidance Unit 5一、匹配1. culture shock ： This term expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.2. reverse culture shock ： It refers to the "shock" one experiences upon returning to one's homeculture after growing used to a new one.3.recovery shock： A stage of culture shock characterized by gaining some understanding of the new culture.4.low-context culture： It refers to groups of cultures that value individual orientation and overt communication codes and maintains a heterogeneous normative structure with low cultural demand characteristics.5.repression： A coping mechanism against culture shock in which we pretend that everything is acceptable and nothing bothers us.6.honeymoon stage： A stage of culture shock, in which the new arrivals may feel euphoric and be pleased by all of the new things encountered.7.rejection： A coping mechanism against culture shock in which we think we don't need anybody, and we are coping fine alone.8.high-context culture： It refers to groups of cultures that value group identity orientation and covert communication codes and maintains a homogeneous normative structure with high cultural demand characteristics.二、判断T：1 .People of different cultural backgrounds usually behave and respond in different ways in the same context.2.The term, culture shock, was introduced to describe the anxiety produced when a person moves to a completely new environment, especially when a person arrives in a new country where he is confronted with a new cultural environment.3.For some multinational firms, they can alleviate culture shock by selecting employees for overseas assignments who possess certain personal and professional qualifications.4.1n high-context communication the listener is already "contexted" and so does not need to be given much background information.5.The French culture is a high-context culture; American culture is a low-context one.F：1.The easier it is to adjust to a new culture, the easier it is to readjust to home culture.2.1n high-context culture, that of North America, for example, a large portion of the message is left unspecified and accessed through the context.3.In low-context cultures, people judge what someone is talking about not only by what he is saying but also by the context in which the message occurs.三、Summary1 .Culture Shock%1Culture shock expresses the lack of direction,the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.%1Five stages of culture shock can be identified as: honeymoon stage, hostility stage, recovery stage, adjustment stage and biculturality stage.(3) The symptoms of culture shock include two aspects: physical and psychological.%1People can suffer from the symptoms of culture shock in a new place and in their own country as well.%1There are some mechanisms against culture shock, such as repression, regression, isolation andrejection. Culture shock can be alleviated, or minimized.2.High-context Culture and Low-context Culture① Members of high-context cultures use the context to communicate the message, as both senders and receivers understand the context of the message well.② Members of low-context cultures put their thoughts into words. They tend to think that if thoughts are not solidified in words, they will not be understood correctly or completely.四、重点1 .feelings of culture shock （文化休克的感受）%1Familiar signs and symbols are lost.%1Familiar cues are removed.（3） All cultures are not exactly the same.2.stages of culture shock （文化休克的阶段）%1the honeymoon stage%1the hostility stage（3）the recovery stage%1the adjustment stage%1the biculturality stage3.two aspects of culture shock （文化休克的两个方面）%1Physical symptoms of culture shock. Some of the physical symptoms of culture shock include: too much sleep or too little sleep, eating too much or having no appetite, frequent minor illnesses, upset stomachaches or headaches, and a general feelings of uneasiness.%1Psychological symptoms of culture shock. Some of the psychological symptoms of culture shock include: loneliness or boredom, homesickness, idealizing home, feeling helpless and dependent, irritability and even hostility, social withdrawal, excessive concern for health or security, rebellion against rules and authority, feeling like you have no control over your life, feeling unimportant and being a foreigner, crying, negative stereotyping of people in the host country.4.1t may be that an inverse relationship exists between ease of adjustment to an unfamiliar culture and degree of reverse culture shock: The easier it is to adjust to a new culture, the harder it is to readjust to home culture.5.defense mechanisms against culture shock （文化休克的防御机制）%1Repression. The first coping mechanism is called "repression."This happens when we pretend that everything is acceptable and that nothing bothers us.%1Regression. The second one is called “regression."This occurs when we start to act as if we are younger than we actually are. We act like a child. We forget everything and sometimes we become careless and irresponsible.%1I solation. The third kind of defense mechanism is called "isolation." We would rather be home alone, and we don't want to communicate with anybody. With isolation, we try to avoid the effects of culture shock. Isolation is one of the worst coping mechanisms we can use because it separates us from those things that could really help us.%1Rejection. The last type of defense mechanism is called "rejection." With this coping mechanism, we think we don't need anybody. We feel we are coping fine alone, so we don't try to ask for help.6.alleviating culture shock （减缓文化休克）① Learning throughout your stay. （3）Master simple tasks.⑤ Learn to live with ambiguity.⑦ Be flexible and resourceful. ② Get involved.④ Try to understand. @ Be empathetic. （§） Be humorous.Unit 6一、匹配1 .introduction： The formal presentation of one person to another, in which people get to know each other and establish relationships with each other.2.etiquette： It refers to manners and behavior considered acceptable in social and business situations.3.supers titions： Beliefs that are inconsistent with the known laws of science or what society considers to be true and rational.4.customs： They are behaviors generally expected in specific situations and are established, socially acceptable ways of behaving in given circumstances.5.taboos： Practices or verbal expressions considered by a society or culture as improper or unacceptable.二、判断T：1 .Shaking hands at different time will leave different impressions upon the person you are addressing.2.1n Europe and North America, business cards are far less formalized and are used merely to keep track of who*s who during a hectic meeting schedule.3.It is rude to season without tasting and this may actually reflect negatively on your character by implying that you are prone to making hasty decisions before checking out the facts.4.1n Europe, people hold the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right hand throughout a meal.5.In the United States, a businessman who is invited for dinner to the private home of a business contact is expected to write a thank-you note shortly after the event.6.Taboos often are rooted in the beliefs of the people of a specific region or culture and are passed down from generation to generation.F：1 .Nonverbal greetings include shaking hands, kissing, bowing and making introductions.2.Clothes make the man or the woman and the reality is that how you look goes a long way toward leaving a great first impression.3.The goal at a cocktail party is to meet as many people as possible. Everyone expects to get into deep discussions.4.Some businesspersons maintain that American humor is helpful to export and appreciate.三、Summary1 .Introductions and Greetings%1An introduction is the formal presentation of one person to another, in which people get to know each other and establish relationships with each other.%1Proper greetings can make you appear polite and sociable in intercultural business communication.2.Handshaking and Exchanging Business Cards①Shaking hands is an expression of mutual trust and respect, and it is a way to send greetings in business situation.② Presenting a card with two hands conveys respect and an appreciation of the importance of the ritual in most Asian cultures.3.Dressing and Dining%1People communicate through what they wear, their hair style, and the polish of their shoes and even the look of their fingernails.%1Though each culture has its own peculiarities when it comes to dining customs,some basic dining etiquette tips are workable in most countries.4.Social Customs%1Customs are behaviors generally expected in specific situations and are established, socially acceptable ways of behaving in given circumstances.%1Attitudes toward time and punctuality vary in different cultures.(3) The way people from different cultures send invitations and express appreciation for hospitality differs.5.Gift Giving and ReceivingIn many cultures it is appropriate to bring smalll gifs when one is invited to enjoy hospitality, though what kind of gifts is suitable and when to open gifts varies across cultures.6.Humor, Superstition and Taboos%1While humor is a universal human characteristic, what is perceived as humorous varies from culture to culture.%1Superstitions are beliefs that are inconsistent with the known laws of science or what society considers to be true and rational.(3)Taboos often are rooted in the beliefs of the people of a specific region or culture and are passed down from generation to generation.四、重点1 .social customs (社会习俗的不同点)Customs vary not only country but also by region or location within a country.%1punctuality%1invitations(3) meeting people at a cocktail in the U.S.2.An invitation specifies a time, a date, and a place.。
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1 .monochronic time (M Time) : It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time isperceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future.2.polychronic time (P Time) : schedules several activities at the same time. In theseculture people emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.3.intercultural communication : is a face-to-face communication between people fromdifferent cultural backgrounds4.host culture is the mainstream culture of anyone particular country.5.minority culture is the cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation tothe host culture.6.subculture is a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.7.multiculturalism is the official recognition of a country^ cultural and ethnic diversity.8.cross-cultural communication is a face-to-face communication between reprentativesof business,government and professional groups from different cultures.9・ high-context culture : a culture in which meaning is not necessarily contained in words. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. 10.low-context culture : a culture in which the majority of the information is vested in theexplicit code.11.perception: in its simplest sense,perception is ,as Marshall singer tells us/^the processby which an individual selects, evaluates,and organizes stimuli from the externalworld” In other words, perception is an internal process whereby we convert thephysical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences.Non-verbal communicationIt refers to communication through a whole variety of different types f signal come into play, including the way we more, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance we stand from each othe匚• IndividualismIndividualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence, individual expression, and even privacy.13> ParalanguageThe set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning.12.人际交际interpersonal communication: a small number of individuals who are interactingexclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability to adapt their messagesspecifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretaions from (hem•指少数人之间的交往他们既能根据对方调整自己的信息，又能立即从对方那里获得解释。
13.内文化交际intracultural communication is defined as communication between and amongmembers of the same culture .Jn同一文化内某成员之间的交际，总的来说，同一种族，政治倾向宗教，或者具有同样兴趣的人们之间的交际。
跨民族交际interthnic communication : refers to communication between people of the same race ,butdifferent ethnic backgrounds .指同一种族，不同氏族背景的人们之间的交际。
14. 跨种族交际interracial communication:occurs when the sender and the receiver exchangingmessages are from different races that pertain to different physical characteristics.指信息源和信息来自不同的种族，种族具有不同的身体特征。
跨地区交际interregional communication:refers to the exchange of messages between members of the dominant culture within a country.指一个国家内主流文化成员之间的信息交换过程Context 场景The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication.All communication has seven components: the source, encoding, the message, the channel, the receiver, decoding, feedback.The Inferential Model of communication four presumptions: linguistic presumption, communicative presumption, presumption of literalness, conversational presumptions.Conversational presumptions five aspects：1relevance： the speaker's remarks are relevant to the conversation2sincerity: the speaker is being sincere3truthfulness: the speaker is attempting to say sth true4quantity: the speaker contributes the appropriate amount of information5quality:the speaker has adequate evidence for what she or he says.The Message Model cannot account for:1disambiguation 2 underdetermination of reference3 underdetermination of communicative intent4nonliterality 5indirection 6 non communicative acts.Six characteristics of culture directly affect communication:1learned2transmitted from generation to g3based on symbols 4 subject to change 5 integrated 6EthnocentricThe primary characteristics of communication include:1no direct mind-to-mind contact2we can only infer3communication is symbolic4time-binding links us together5we seek to define the world6communication has consequence7communication is dynamic8communication is contextual9communication is self reflectiveFunctions of nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication has its own unique functions in interpersonal communication. We will sum up some of the important ways of nonverbal communication in regulating human interaction.\ Repeating Complementing \ Substituting Regulating\Six important communication functions:1 indicate degrees of attentiveness, interest, and arousal2influence altitude change and persuasion3regulate interaction 4 communication emotions5define power and status relationships6and assume a central role in impression managementculture : what the behavior and customs mean to the people who are following themAn shared artifact (the material and spiritual products people produce)shared Behavior (what they do)shared Concepts (beliefs, values, world views ........ what they thinkCulture means:(a)The arts, customs, and habits that characterize a particular society or nation.(b).The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.5.What are the tour characteristics of culture? Dynamic/ shared/ learned/ ethnocentricCulture is shared. All communications take place by means of symbols.Culture is learned. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one，s social environment, not from one^s genes. Enculturation(文化习得)：All the activities of learning one，s culture are called enculturation .Culture is dynamic. (P6)Culture is subject to change. It's dynamic rather than static, constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures. Acculturation(文化适应)：the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.Culture is ethnographic(文化中心主义).Ethnographic is the belief that your own cultural background is superior. Ethnocentrism: the belief that your own culture background is superio匚6.What are the six characteristics of communication?Dynamic/ irreversible/ symbolic/ systematic/ transactional/ contextualCommunication is dynamic.Communication is ongoing, ever-changing activity. A word or action does not stay frozen when you communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action.Communication is irreversible.Once we have said something and someone else has received and decoded the message, the original sender cannot take it back.Communication is symbolic.Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated・Symbols are vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person.Communication is systematicCommunication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a large system. It takes place in a physical and a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction. Communication is transactionaL (P8)A transactional view holds that communicators are simultaneously sending and receiving messages at every instant that they are invoIved in conversation.Communication is contextual. (P8)All communication takes place within a setting or situation called a context. By context, we mean the place where people meet, the social purpose for being together, and the nature of the relationship. Thus the context includes the physical, social，and interpersonal settings.Studying Intercultural Communication Three main obstacles:• Culture lacks a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.• Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientationBarriers to Intercultural CommunicationAnxietyJAssuming similarity instead of differenceEthnocentrismStereotypes & prejudiceNonverbal bahavioursLanguageThe Whorf hypothesisLanguage shapes thought patternsLinguistic determinism:Languages determine nonlinguistic cognitiveprocesses- That is, learning a language changes theway a person thinks.Linguistic relativity:The resulting cognitive processes vary fromlanguage to language・ Thus, speakers of differentlanguages are said to think in different ways。