范文食品工艺学夏文水.pptx

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食品工艺学1章0.pptx

感观功能保健功能
质构：硬度、黏性、韧性、弹性、酥脆度、稠度
风味：气味有香气、臭味、水果味、腥味等。味道有酸、甜、苦、辣、咸、麻、鲜等。
功能因子、功能性食品
食
三、食品的特性
安全性保藏性方便性营养和易消化性感观功能的易接受性外包装的可靠性加工技术的先进性
品
四、食品管理
普通食品：有营养与感观两者功能的食品
特殊膳食用食品：为满足某些特殊人群的生理需要，或某些疾病患者的营养需要，按特殊配方而专门加工的食品。
保健食品：具有特定保健功能的食品。即适宜于特定人群食用，具有调节机体功能，不以治疗疾病为目的的食品。（营养强化食品：针对某一功能添加营养强化剂。）
第二节食品加工工艺
一、食品加工
（一）加工的概念
乳制品
Canned Mushroom 罐头类
dehydrated garlic flake 干藏类
酱黄瓜腌渍制品
按保藏方法分类
冷冻类
烟熏制品
发酵肉制品
辐射制品
发酵乳制品
方便食品
功能食品（保健食品）
休闲食品
快餐食品
按产品特点分
疗效食品
工程食品（模拟食品）
婴儿食品
……
二、食品的功能
营养功能
外观：大小、形状、色泽等
4、按产品特点分：方便食品、功能食品、休闲食品、快餐食品、疗效食品、工程食品、婴儿食品等。
5、按食用对象分：老年、儿童、婴儿、妇女、运动员、航空、军用。
焙烤制品罐头制品
饮料
按加工工艺分
挤压制品糖果巧克力
速冻制品（绿芦笋）
发酵制品
干制品
果蔬制品

食品工艺学

o 食品工业企业达19316个，就业人数达 403.7万，占全国工业企业就业总人数的 7.3%。
o 食品工业是整个工业中吸纳城乡就业人数最多、与农业关联度最强的产业。 •食品工业是国民经济的重要支柱产业
PPT文档演模板
食品工艺学
我国食品工业特色
白酒固体发酵，蒸馏技术豆豉、酱油生产技术蔬菜腌制（发酵）技术肉类烟熏保藏
PPT文档演模板
食品工艺学
二、食品工艺
1. 工艺概念
• 食品工艺就是将原料加工成半成品或将原料和半成品加工成食品的过程和方法；
• 加工过程和方法就是由加工操作和加工步骤组合起来的；整个过程是加工工艺流程，
PPT文档演模板
食品工艺学
2. 食品工艺流程
通过应用加工操作得到食品的工艺流程例子： • 桔子浓缩汁 • 速冻豌豆 • 果蔬罐头 • 消毒乳 • 土豆片
PPT文档演模板
食品工艺学
食品工业还存在一些问题：
o 食品质量安全百姓不太满意 o 经营方式较粗放 o 市场集中度较低 o 恶性竞争比较严重 o 品牌建设滞后 o 行业自律不足等
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食品工艺学
专栏1 2000年和2005年食品工业主要产品的产量（万吨）
产品
2000年 2005年五年累计增长（%）年均增长率（%）
4学时
第二章食品的脱水 6学时
第三章食品的热处理与杀菌 8学时
第四章食品冷冻 6学时
第五章食品的腌渍发酵和烟熏处理 4学时
第六章食品的化学保藏 2学时
第七章食品的辐射保藏 3 学时
第八章食品加工工艺 3学时
共计 36学时
PPT文档演模板
食品工艺学
本课程教材及课程网页

食品工艺学夏文水ppt课件

16
三、食品的特性
1 安全性 2 方便性 3 保藏性
无毒无害卫生食用使用运输有一定的货架寿命
17
四、加工工艺
1. 食品加工概念将食物（原料）经过劳动力、机器、能量及科学知识，把它们转变成半成品或可食用的产品（食品）的过程原料——产品加工
18
加工
预处理清洗分离粉碎单元操作加热冷却干燥关键工序杀菌消毒食品添加剂调味保存包装维持由于加工操作带来的产品的
食品工艺学
1
食品工艺学
第一篇绪论第二篇食品加工的原料和材料第三篇果蔬加工工艺第四篇软饮料加工工艺第五篇粮油加工工艺学
2
本课程的主要参考书
1. 《食品工艺学》（上）无锡轻工业学院、天津轻工业学院合编，中国轻工业出版社，1984
2. Food Processing Technology P.J.Fellows 3.《食品加工原理》，夏文水等译，2001，中国轻工业出版社；
第一功能
14
2 感观功能
为了满足视觉、触觉、味觉、听觉的需要，使多吃吃好
外观：大小、形状、色泽、光泽、稠度质构：硬度、粘性、韧性、弹性、酥脆风味：气味、香臭
味道酸甜苦辣咸鲜麻第二功能
15
3 保健功能
调节人体生理功能，起到增进健康、恢复疾病、延缓衰老、美容等作用
第三功能新发展的功能
食品工业是整个工业中为国家提供积累和吸纳城乡就业人数最多、与农业关联度最强的产业。
35
总结食品工业是一个永不衰竭的行业；是一个充满变化、有活力的行业；我国国民经济的基础或支柱产业；
我国食品工业发展很快，成绩巨大，但差距也大，有着很大的发展空间。为大家提供了一个发挥聪明才智的舞台。发展我国食品工业还需要大家的不懈努力。

食品工艺学教材(PPT61页).pptx

氢钙、焦磷酸氢钠等。
七乳化剂
乳化剂是一种多功能的表面活性剂。
硬脂酰－2－乳酸钙、硬脂酰－2－乳酸钠、各种
（ CSL ）
（ SSL ）
蒸馏单甘酯、大豆磷脂等。
七乳化剂
八食盐
1 盐在面包中的作用 2 盐在面包中的添加方法及使用量
§4 面包生产工艺
面包的生产过程一般可分为：原辅材料的处理、面团的调制、面团发酵、整形、醒发、烘焙、冷却和包装。
分为白砂糖、绵白糖两种。白砂糖是以甘蔗为原料加工而成的颗粒状食糖。绵白糖是以甜菜为原料加工而成的细小颗粒状食糖。另外还有方糖，冰糖都是以白糖为主料加工而成的正六面体或多面晶体状砂糖再制品。
（2）红糖
是未经洗蜜和漂白的糖，表面附着的糖蜜较多，而且还含有色素，胶质等非糖成分。广义的红糖又可细分为赤砂糖和红糖两种，其中赤砂糖是机制未经洗蜜的糖，红糖是用手工制成的土糖。
褐色反应（亦称美拉德反应）：是指氨基化合物的自由氨基与羰基化合物的羰基之间发生的发应，其最终产物是黄黑色素的褐色物质，故称褐色反应。
影响褐色反应的因素有温度、糖的种类、还原糖量和PH值。
（8）抗氧化性糖溶液具有抗氧化性，有利于防止油脂氧化酸败。
3 糖在烘焙食品中的工艺性能（1）改善烘焙食品的色、香、味、形；（2）作为酵母的营养物质；（3）作为面团改良剂；（4）对面团吸水率及搅拌时间的影响；（5）提高制品的贮存寿命；（6）提高营养价值。
国家面粉质量标准规定：特制一等粉和特制二等粉的水分为13.5%；标准粉和普通粉的水分为13.0% 。
（2）蛋白质
小麦籽粒中蛋白质的含量和品质不仅决定小麦的营养价值，而且小麦蛋白质还是构成面筋的主要成分，与面粉的烘焙性能有着极为密切的关系。

食品工艺学—夏文水(2019版)

一、绪论1、什么是栅栏技术？就是利用抑制微生物生长的因素如温度、水分活度、pH和防腐剂等，用多个障碍因子来抵抗腐败变质，使保藏处理更加温和，避免用单个和强烈的条件。

（3分）还可以利用高压、脉冲电场、脉冲光等非热因素与传统障碍因子结合，将有利于提高保藏效果和食品质量。

（2分）其原理可归结为：高温处理（F）、低温冷藏（t）、降低水分活度（Aw）、酸化（pH）、降低氧化还原电势（Eh）、添加防腐剂（Pres）、竞争性菌群及辐照等因子的作用。

2、商品保质期和保存期有何区别？答：商品的保质期和保存期这两个概念是不同的，一般来说，商品保存期长于保质期。

（1分）保质期指产品在正常条件下的质量保证期限，保质期前商品的品质和营养价值均未改变，消费者可放心购买。

（2分）保存期是指产品的最长保存期限。

超过保存日期的产品失去了原产品的特征和特性，丧失了产品原有的使用价值，消费者不能购买食用。

（2分）3、说出食品保藏的四大基本原理。

（每点1分，共4分）答：①完全生机原理—维持食品最低生命活动的保藏方法，如冷藏法、气调法。

②假死原理—抑制变质因素活动的保藏食品的方法，如冷冻、干藏腌制等。

③不完全生机原理—运用微生物发酵的食品保藏方法。

④无生机原理—利用无菌原理的保藏方法，如罐藏、辐照保藏、无菌包装。

4、在食品工艺学中，食物和食品的区别？答：食物是指可供人类食用或者具有可食性的物质。

食品是指各种供人食用或者饮用的成品和原料以及按照传统既是食品又是药品的物品，但不包括以治疗为目的的物品。

经过加工制作的食物统称为食品，这样一个食品的概念包含了食物和食品。

二、关于干制与脱水：1、为什么干酪中会有很多孔？答案：快速干燥时奶酪时其表面硬化，内部蒸汽压的迅速建立会促使奶酪变得多孔。

2、什么是干制食品的复原性和复水性?答: 干制品的复原性就是干制品重新吸收水分后在重量、大小和性状、质地、颜色、风味结构、成分以及可见因素（感官评定）等各个方面恢复原来新鲜状态的程度干制品的复水性：新鲜食品干制后能重新吸回水分的程度，一般用干制品吸水增重的程度来表示3、自由水的概念：是指食品或原料组织细胞中易流动（1分）、容易结冰（1分）也能溶解溶质（1分）的之部分水，又称为体相水，可以把这部分水和食品非水组分的结合力视为零。

夏文水-食品工艺学-第五章-第一节食品的腌制保藏[52页]

15.6 0.900 14.11
21.3 0.850 22.40
蔗糖在水中的溶解度很大，饱和溶液的百分浓度可达67.5%，以质量摩尔浓度表示则为 6.08mol/kg，该溶液的渗透压很高，足以是使微生物发生脱水，严重地抑制微生物的生长繁殖，这是蔗糖溶液能够防腐的主要原理。
表5-2 20℃时蔗糖溶液的渗透压
前景广阔
酱腌菜产品在国内有着巨大的消费市场，不论是日常佐餐，还是旅游、野餐等，都是必不可少的佳品。根据酱腌菜的包装和档次，在不同的市场销售。
普通的酱腌菜产品一般集中在农贸市场，中小商店，由于包装简易和产量较少，通常供应本地市场。
大型企业的产品和一些知名品牌，包装精美、品质优良，保质期长，可以在全国范围销售，并有实力进入超市、大型商场等场所，日销售量大，影响面广，具有较大的经济效益。
布尔改进 Π ＝[ρ1/(100Mr)]cRT
式中： Π ── 渗透压(MPa) ρ1 ── 溶剂的密度(kg·m-3或g·L-1) R ── 气体常数(8.314J·K-1·mol-1) T ── 绝对温度(K) C ── 溶液浓度(100g或kg溶剂中溶质的g数或kg数) Mr ── 溶质相对分子质量
图5-3腌鲱鱼时盐浓度对食盐的内渗量的影响
1干盐；4，5>20%
（三）温度
➢由扩散渗透理论可知，温度越高，扩散渗透速度越迅速； ➢选择适宜的温度必须考虑微生物的作用； ➢肉类在室温较高下容易腐败，一般在低温10℃以下进行. ➢利用高温加速腌制，盐水锅中煮干；
图5-4食盐水腌制小沙丁鱼时食盐的渗透速度
第五章食品的腌渍发酵和烟熏处理
第一节食品的腌渍保藏第二节食品的发酵保藏第三节食品的烟熏处理第四节半干半湿食品

食品工艺学—夏文水版(简答题)

江南大学硕士研究生入学考试业务课考试大纲课程名称：食品工艺学一、考试的总体要求食品工艺学是研究食品加工和保藏的一门应用科学，作为从事食品科学与工程专业的一名考生，应掌握食品保藏和加工基本原理、相关技术和工艺、食品原料特性以及典型代表食品等专业知识，了解食品加工条件和因素对食品质量方面的影响，了解食品工艺学的范围和内容，了解食品工业的发展和进展。

二、考试的内容及比例1.食品的概念:包括食品的功能与特性；食品加工工艺概念；食品工业及其发展趋势包括我国食品工业的概况；食品工艺学的研究内容和范围。

（5-10%）2.食品的脱水：食品干藏原理：包括食品中水分存在的形式、水分活度与食品保藏性的关系；食品的干燥机制：包括干燥机制、干制过程的特性和影响干制的因素；干制对食品品质的影响：包括干制过程中食品的主要变化、干制品的复原性和复水性、贮藏水分含量以及合理选用干制工艺条件。

食品的干制方法：包括人工干制的四大类方法、食品干制方法的选择。

干制品的包装和贮藏：包括包装前干制品的预处理、干制品的包装和贮藏。

（10-20%）3.食品的热处理与杀菌：热处理原理：包括微生物的耐热性、食品的传热、杀菌强度的的计算及确定程序；热处理技术：包括商业杀菌、巴氏杀菌、热烫；热处理与产品质量：包括商业杀菌与产品质量、巴氏杀菌与产品质量、热烫与产品质量；（10-20%）4.食品冷冻：食品低温保藏原理，包括低温对于反应速度影响、低温对于酶的影响、低温对于微生物的影响；食品的冷却与冷藏：包括食品的冷却、食品的冷藏和回热；低温气调贮藏：气调贮藏对果蔬与其他制品的保藏效果及病原菌控制；食品的冻结与冻藏：包括食品冻结、冻结对食品品质的影响、食品的冻结方法；冻制品的包装和贮藏：包括冷冻过程中食品质量的变化、冻制食品的解冻；冷耗量与冻结时间预测；冷冻食品包装与贮藏；（10-20%）5. 食品的腌渍发酵和烟熏处理：食品的腌渍保藏：包括食品腌渍保藏的理论基础、腌制防腐原理、影响腌制的因素、腌制品的成熟、食品的腌制方法。

食品工艺学课件(PPT 65张)

本课程教材及课程网页
1. 《食品工艺学》 , 夏文水主编，中国轻
工业出版社，2007，1 国家级规划教材
2. 食品工艺学国家精品课程网页 /jpkc
主要参考书
1. 《食品加工原理》，夏文水等译， 2001，中国轻工业出版社； 2. Principles of Food Processing Dennis R.Heldman and Richard W.Hartel 1997
1. 安全性
• 指食品无毒、无害、无副作用；与“食品
卫生”为同义词；
•有微生物、化学、物理方面
微生物：细菌总数、致病菌、霉菌等；
化学：重金属铅砷汞、农药残留、药残、
激素、滥用化学添加剂或用量超标；
物理：杂质、外形、异物
2. 保藏性
有一定的货架寿命或保质时间
食品在一定时间内保持品质或食品品质降低
食品工艺学其他参考书
1.《肉制品加工原理与技术》，夏文水主编，2003，化学工业出版社； 2. 《乳制品生产技术》，张国农等译，2002，中国轻工业出版社； The Technology of Dairy Products，1998，UK, Ralph Early 3.《水产品加工技术》，夏文水等译 , 2002，中国轻工业出版社； Fish Processing Technology, 1997，UK, G.M.Hall
到不能被消费者接受的时间被定义为食品货架寿命或货架期；
取决于加工方法、包装和贮藏条件；消费者选择食品的依据之一；
3. 方便性
便于食用、携带、运输、贮藏；
易拉罐、易拉盖、易拉袋；外包装、纸盒、箱子等；
净菜、配菜；
开袋即食
四、食品管理

《食品工艺学》课件

蒸菜烹饪
优点：保持食材的自然口味、保持营养成分不流失。缺点：可能导致食材过软、口感单一烹饪温度和时间可以影响食物的质地、口感和风味。
2 调料和香料
3 烹饪方法
添加不同的调料和香料可以改变食物的味道和风味。
选择合适的烹饪方法可以使食物更加美味和健康。
原料切割
根据食品加工的要求，将原材料进行适当的切割，以便更好地利用和加工。
原料研磨
将坚硬的原料研磨成适当的粒度，以方便处理和加工，并提高食品的质地。
不同加热方法的优缺点
烤箱烹饪
优点：均匀加热、保持食物的汁液和营养物质。缺点：加热时间较长、可能使食物过干。
炒菜烹饪
优点：快速、保持食材的嫩度和口感。缺点：易烧焦、营养素流失较快。
3
加工和调味
将处理好的原料进行加工和调味，添加适量的调料和香料以增加食品的口感和味道。
4
包装和贮存
将加工好的食品进行包装和贮存，以延长其保质期，并确保食品的卫生和安全。
原料处理的重要性
1 确保食品安全
适当的原料处理可以去除潜在的细菌和有害物质，确保食品的安全性和卫生。
2 提高食品质量
原料处理可以改善食品的质地、口感和味道，提高食品的整体质量。
3 培养创新和解决问题的能力
通过案例研究和实践项目，学生将培养解决食品加工问题的能力。
课程内容
食品加工工艺简介
探索食品加工的定义、意义和流程，了解不同的加工方法。
食品烹饪和加热工艺
探讨不同的烹饪方法和加热技术，以及它们对食品质量和安全的影响。
食品原料处理工艺
研究食品原料的处理过程，包括清洗、消毒、切割和研磨。
《食品工艺学》PPT课件

食品工艺学夏文水

二关于食品科学
借用Food Science （Norman)的定义食品科学可以定义为应用基础科学及工程知识来研究食品的物理、化学及生化性质及食品加工原理的一门科学。
食品科学
食品加工
食品分析
食品科学
食品工程
食品微生物
五个基础框架
1. 食品的基础研究领域（或者称之为狭义食品科学）：包括食品化学，研究食品的组成、结构、物化生化特点及加工和使用过程中的变化的一门科学。 2. 食品微生物领域：环境对食品腐败的作用以及微生物对食品本身及食品制造过程的影响、微生物的检验、公共健康等问题的一门科学 3. 食品加工领域：即研究食品原材料特点、食品保藏原理、影响食品质量、包装及污染的加工因素、良好生产操作及卫生操作的一门科学——这也是本课程的主要研究内容 4.食品工程领域：即研究食品加工过程中的工程原理及单元操作的科学，工程原理包括物料与能量平衡、热力学、流体；流体流动、传热与传质等等。 5.食品分析领域：分析食品产品及组分的质量特点、化学边的原理
•原料一经采收或屠宰后即进入变质过程，品质决不会随贮藏时间的延长而变好
影响(原料)品质的因素：微生物的影响；酶在活组织、垂死组织和死组织中的作用；物理化学因素热、冷、水分、氧气、光、时间
2. 按照变质可能性将原料分类
极易腐败原料（1天~2周）如肉类和大多数水果和部分蔬菜采收（屠宰、切割）、搬运、包装、贮藏条件可能强烈影响其品质冷藏温度应该合理（某些果蔬会冻害）中等腐败性原料（2周~2月）柑橘、苹果和大多数块根类蔬菜冷害问题稳定的原料（2~8月）粮食谷物、种子和无生命的原料如糖、淀粉和盐等
四、加工工艺
1. 食品加工概念

《食品工艺学》--修订版

《食品工艺学》教学大纲课程编号：课程名称：食品工艺学总学时数：36一、说明（一）《食品工艺学》的课程性质：食品工艺学是研究食品加工和保藏的一门科学，作为食品科学专业的一门主干专业课程和学位课程，它的主要任务是探讨食品资源利用、原辅材料选择、保藏、加工、包装、运输以及上述因素对食品质量、货架寿命、营养价值和安全性等方面的影响。

通过本课程的学习，使学生掌握最基本的食品保藏和加工的专业知识，为今后进一步学习食品领域的专业课程或从事食品科研、产品开发、工业生产管理及相关领域的工作打下理论基础。

（二）教材及授课对象：教材：《食品工艺学》；编者：夏文水编授课对象：生物技术本科专业（三）《食品工艺学》的课程目标（教学目标）：《食品工艺学》是一门涉及很多工艺原理和技术，应尽可能结合实际进行教学，是学生获得必要的专业知识和技能。

1. 系统学习和掌握食品保藏和加工的基本原理、方法和主要技术装备，并能正确运用食品加工技术原理，分析。

解决食品加工中的主要问题。

2. 掌握食品生产、流通和销售过程中食品腐败变质的原因及其控制方法，深入了解食品原辅材料的性质对加工过程产生的影响，特别是某些特殊成分对产品质量的影响。

3. 明确有关食品生产中主要工艺条件和方法的选择依据，进一步掌握工艺理论及其应用。

4. 对食品科学技术的新发展应有一定的了解。

（四）《食品工艺学》课程授课计划（包括学时分配）（五）教学建议：以课堂讲授结合多媒体讲座和讨论为主，辅以课外作业、单元测验、答疑等，在课程中可以进行课程设计，培养学生对该课程知识综合运用能力。

（六）考核要求：考查二、教学内容第一章绪论主要教学目标：使学生能够对食品加工原料的来源及对原料的加工要求有一个大概了解；了解食品工业的发展及其前景。

教学方法及教学手段：采用板书和教学课件及多媒体课件相结合，课堂上师生互动，采用启发式和提问式的教学方式，并且课堂上学习的表现记入学生的平时成绩。

教学重点及难点：食品加工原料的特性和要求。

食品工艺学期末考研复习笔记(夏文水版)

食品工艺学笔记总结第一章绪论 (1)第一节食品的加工概念 (2)第二节食品加工原料的特性和要求 (3)第三节食品的质量因素及其控制 (4)第四节食品工业的发展及其前景 (5)第五节食品工艺学的主要研究内容和范围 (5)第六节本课程的地位 (7)第二章食品的脱水加工 (8)概述 (8)第一节食品干藏原理 (9)第二节食品干制的基本原理 (11)第三节干制对食品品质的影响 (16)第四节食品的干制方法 (17)第五节干制品的包装和贮藏 (24)第三章食品的热加工 (26)第一节热处理的目的 (26)第二节热处理原理 (27)第三节热处理技术 (34)第四节热处理与食品质量 (38)第四章食品的冷冻保藏 (38)第一节食品低温保藏的基本原理 (39)第二节食品的冷却 (39)第三节食品的冻结 (42)第四节食品的回热与解冻 (45)第五章食品腌渍发酵和烟熏保藏 (46)第一节食品的腌渍保藏 (46)第二节食品的发酵保藏 (52)第三节烟熏保藏烟熏的历史 (55)第四节半干半湿食品 (58)第六章食品的化学保藏 (59)第一节概述 (59)第二节食品添加剂及其使用问题 (59)第三节化学防腐剂 (60)第四节抗氧化剂 (62)第七章食品辐射保藏 (63)第一节概述 (63)第一章绪论第一节食品的加工概念一、食物与食品1 食物——供人类食用的物质称为食物。

是人体生长发育、更新细胞、修补组织、调节机能必不可少的营养物质，也是产生热量保持体温、进行体力活动的能量来源。

除少数物质如盐类外，几乎全部来自动植物和微生物。

2 食品——经过加工制作的食物统称为食品。

食品的种类对食品不同的人关心的侧面不同；不同地区也有不同的情况食品分类的方法：按加工工艺分；按原料种类分；按产品特点分；按使用对象分：老年、儿童、婴儿、妇女、运动员、航空、军用。

二. 食品的功能食品对人类所发挥的作用；人类吃食品的目的；人类对食品的要求；1．营养功能（第一功能）蛋白质、碳水化合物（糖）、脂肪、维生素、矿物质、膳食纤维。

食品工艺学课件

⾷品⼯艺学课件Processing of fruitsInstructor: mingfeng zheng(郑明锋) phd.Email:vanheng@/doc/bca037d13186bceb19e8bb68.htmlCell: 138********注意：课件全部根据⽼师提供的ppt整理，在编号上可能会有些问题，所以⼤家将就着看，祝⼤家考试顺利。

Chapter one：introductionFruit quality and preprocessingObjectsThrough the introduction, the students knowThe relationship between quality of fruit and the processed product,The relationship between composition of fruit and the processed product,Quality attributes of fresh fruits, and quality measurementspreprocessing methods and technologies1.1 classification of fruitsFruits are commonly classified by growing region as follows. Temperate zone, subtropical, and tropical. Growing region and environmental conditions specific to each regionsignificantly affect fruit quality. Examples of fruit grown in each region are listed below:1) temperate zone fruits2) subtropical fruits3) tropical fruits(1) temperate zone fruitsPome fruits(仁果类): apple, asian pear (nashi), european pear, quince榅桲果Stone fruits: apricot杏, cherry, nectarine, peach, plumSmall fruits and berries: grape (european and american types), strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, blackberry, cranberry (2) subtropical fruitsCitrus fruits: grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, pummelo, tangerine, and mandarinNoncitrus fruits: avocado, cherimaya, fig, kiwifruit, olive, pomegranate(3) tropical fruitsMajor tropical fruits: banana, mango, papaya, pineappleMinor tropical fruits: carambola, cashew apple, durian, guava,longan, lychee, mangosteen, passion fruit, rambutan1.2 quality of raw materialsThe quality of processed fruit products depends on their quality at the start of processing; How maturity at harvest, Harvesting methods,Post harvest handling proceduresMaintenance in fresh fruits between harvest and process initiation.Quality attributes of fresh fruitsAppearance、exture factors、flavor components、nutritional quality、safety factorsAppearance factorsSize、shape、color、freedom from defects and decay.Texture factorsFirmness, crispness, juiciness.Flavor componentsSweetness, sourness (acidity), astringency, (收敛),bitterness, aroma, off-flavors,Nutritional qualityFruit's content of vitamins (a and c are the most important in fruits), minerals, dietary fiber, carbohydrates, proteins. Safety factorsResidues of pesticides, presence of heavy metals, mycotoxins produced by certain species of fungi, microbial contamination.1.3 losses in fresh fruits after harvastWater loss,Physical injuries,physiological breakdown, decayLoss of acidity, flavor, color, and nutritive valueFactors influence fruit qualityIn the orchard,During transportation,Throughout the handling system (sorting, sizing, ripening, and storage).The total time between harvesting and processingMinimizing the delays throughout the post harvest handling system greatly reduces finality loss, especially in highly perishable fruits such as strawberries, blackberries, apricots, and cherries.1.4 contribution of fruits to human nutritionEnergy (calories)VitaminsMineralsDietary fiberThe us. Department of agriculture and other organizations currently encourage consumers to participate in the "five a day" program which focuses on consumption of five servings of either fruit or vegetables each day.Energy (calories)(1) carbohydrates: banana, breadfruit, raisin葡萄⼲(2) proteins & amino acids: nuts, dried apricot and fig(3) fats. Avocado, olive, nutsFruits typically contain between 10% and 25% carbohydrates, a small amount (less than1.0%) of proteins, and a very small amount (less than 0.5 %) of fat. Carbohydrates, sugars,and starches are broken down to co2, water, and energy during metabolism. Carbohydrates and fats provide most of the calories the body requires for heat and energy.Vitamins(1) fresh fruits and vegetables contribute about 91% of vitamin c, 48% of vitamin a, 27% of vitamin b6, 17% of thiamin硫胺(维⽣素b1) to diet.(2) the following fruits are important contributors (based on their vitamin content and the amount consumed) to the supply of indicated vitamins in the u.s. Diet:*vitamin a: apricot, peach, cherry, orange, watermelon, cantaloupe*vitamin c: strawberry, orange, grapefruit, banana, apple, cantaloupe* niacin烟酸: peach, banana, orange, apricot"*riboflavin核黄素: banana, peach, orange, apple* thiamin: orange, banana, grapefruit, appleMinerals(1) fresh fruits and vegetables contribute about 26% of the magnesium镁and 19% of the iron to the u.s. Diet.(2) the following fruits are important contributors to the supply of indicated minerals in the us. Diet:* potassium钾: banana, peach, orange, apple* phosphorus磷: banana, orange, peach, raisin, fig*calcium: tangerine, grapefruit, orange* iron: strawberry, banana, apple, orangeDietary fiber(1) all fruits and nuts contribute to the dietary fiber in the diet. Dietary fiber consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin⽊质素, and pectic substances, which are derived primarily from fruit cell walls and skin.(2) the dietary fiber content of fruits ranges from 0.5-1.5% (fresh weight basis).(3) dietary fiber plays an important role in relieving constipation by increasing water-holding capacity of feces. Its consumption is also linked to decreased incidence of cardiovascular disease, diverticulosis, and colon cancer.factors influefncing composition and quality of fruitsPreharvest factors(1) genetic: selection of cultivars, differences in raw fruit composition, durability, and response to processing. Fruit cultivars grown for fresh market sale will not be the optimal cultivars for processing.(2) climatic: temperature, light, wind--climatic factors may have a strong influence on nutritional quality of fruits. Light intensity significantly affects vitamin concentration, and temperature influences transpiration rate, which will affect mineral uptake and metabolism. ?(3) cultural practices: soil type, soil nutrient and water supply, pruning修剪, thinning, pest control-fertilizer addition may significantly affect the mineral content of fruit.1. 5 maturity at harvest and harvesting methodMaturity at harvest is one of the primary factors affecting fruit composition, quality, and storage life. Although most fruits reach peak eating quality when harvested fully ripe, they are usually picked mature, but not ripe, to decrease mechanical damage during postharvest handling. Harvesting may also mechanically damage fruit; therefore, choice of harvest methodshould allow for maintenance of quality.Postharvest factors1) environmental，2) handling methods，3) time period between harvesting and consumption(1) environmentalTemperature, relative humidity, atmospheric composition,(2) handling methodsPostharvest handling systems involve the channels through which harvested fruit reaches the processing facility or consumer. Handling methods should be chosen such that they maintain fruit quality and avoid delays.(3) time period between harvesting and consumptionDelays between harvesting and cooling or processing may result in direct losses (due to water loss and decay) and indirect losses (decrease in flavor and nutritional quality).Fruit maturity, ripening, and quality relationshipsMaturity at harvest is the most important factor that determines storage life and final fruit quality. Immature fruits are of inferior quality when ripened. Overripe fruits are likely to become soft and with insipid flavor soon after harvest. Fruits picked either too early or too late in the season are more susceptible to physiological disorders and have a shorter storage life than those picked at mid-season.Maturity and ripeningIn general, fruits become sweeter, more colorful, and softer as they mature.Some fruits are usually picked mature but unripe so that they can withstand the postharvest handling system when shipped long distances. Most currently used maturity indices are based on a compromise between those indices that would ensure the best eating quality to the consumer and those that provide the needed flexibility in transportation and marketing.Carbohydrates（碳⽔化合物）Carbohydrates : fresh fruits vary greatly in their carbohydrate content, with a general range being between 10% and 25%;. The texture, taste, and food value of a fresh fruit is related to its carbohydrate content. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose are the primary sugars found in fruits.Fructose is sweeter than sucrose, and sucrose is sweeter than glucose.Starch is converted to sugar as the fruits mature and ripen.Proteins（蛋⽩质）Fruits contain less than 1% protein (as opposed to 9-20% protein in nuts such as almond, and walnut). Changes in the level and activity of proteins resulting from permeability changes in cell membranes may be involved in chilling injury. Enzymes, which catalyze metabolic processes in fruits, are proteins that are important in the reactions involved in fruit ripening and senescence.Enzymes in fruits：（Organic acids（有机酸）Organic acids are important intermediate products of metabolism. The krebs (tca) cycle is the main channel for the oxidation of organic acids in living cells, and it provides the energy required for maintenance of cell integrity. Organic acids aremetabolized into manyconstituents, including amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.Citric acid、malic acid、tartaric acid、oxalic acidPigments（⾊素）Pigments undergo many changes during the maturation and ripening of fruits.(1) loss of chlorophyll (green color), which is influenced by ph changes, oxidative conditions, and chlorophyllase action(2) synthesis and/or revelation of carotenoids (yellow and orange colors)(3) development of anthocyanins (red, blue, and purple colors.Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin a. Carotenoids are very stable and remain intact in fruit tissues, even when extensive senescence has occurred.Phenolic compounds（酚类化合物）Total phenolic content is higher in immature fruits than in mature fruits and is the main substrate involved in enzymatic browning of cut, or otherwise damaged, fruit tissues when exposed to air.Enzymatic browning（酶促褐变）Enzymatic browning occurs due to the oxidation of phenolic compounds and is mediated, in the presence of o2, by the enzyme polyphenoloxidase (ppo). The initial product of oxidation is usually o-quinone, which is highly unstable and undergoes polymerization to yield brown pigments of higher molecular weight. Polyphenoloxidase catalyzes the following tworeactions:Volatiles（挥发性）Volatiles are responsible for the characteristic aroma of fruits. They are present in extremely small quantities (c <100µg/g fresh wt.).Volatile compounds are largely esters（酯）, alcohols, acids, aldehydes（醛）, an d ketones (low-molecular weight compounds).VitaminsThe water-soluble vitamins includeVitamin c,Thiamin硫胺(维⽣素b1),Riboflavin核黄素,Niacin烟酸, vitamin b6,Folacin叶酸, vitamin b12, biotin维⽣素h. Fat soluble vitamins include vitamins a, d, e, and k.Fat-soluble vitamins are less susceptible to postharvest losses.Vitamin cAscorbic acid is most sensitive to destruction when the commodity is subjected to adverse handling and storage conditions. Losses are enhanced by extended storage, highertemperatures, low relative humidity, physical damage, and chilling injury. Postharvest losses in vitamins a and b are usually much smaller than losses in vitamin c.1.7 biological factors involved in postharvest deterioration (变坏) of fruits ?Respiration (呼吸作⽤)Ethylene productionTranspiration (蒸腾作⽤)Physiological disordersPhysical damagePathological breakdownRespirationStored organic materials (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products with a release of energy. Oxygen (o2) is used in this process, and carbon dioxide (co2) is produced.The loss of stored food reserves in the commodity during respiration hastens senescence as the reserves that provide energy to maintain the commodity's living status are exhausted. ?Food value (energy value) for the consumer is lost; it has reduced flavor quality, with sweetness especially being lost; and salable dry weight is lost (especially important for commodities destined for dehydration). The energy released as heat.Ethylene productionEthylene, the simplest of the organic compounds affecting the physiological processes of plants, is produced by all tissues of higher plants. As a plant hormone, ethylene regulates many aspects of growth development, and senescence and is physiologically active in traceamounts (less than 0.1 ppm).Transpiration or water lossWater loss is the main cause of deterioration because it results not only direct quantitative.Losses (loss of salable weight) hut also in loss of its appearance, loss of cripsness, andjuiciness), and nutritional quality.The dermal system (outer protective coverings) governs the regulation of water loss by the commodity.Physiological disorders(1) freezing injury :usually results in immediate collapse of the tissues and total loss.(2) chilling injury when fruits (mainly those of tropical and subtropical origin) are held at temperatures above their freezing point and below 5-15℃, depending on the commodity. ?(3) heat injury results from exposure to direct sunlight or to excessively high temperatures.Symptoms include surface scalding, uneven ripening, excessive softening, and desiccation. ?(4) very low (<1%) oxygen and/or elevated (>20%) carbon dioxide concentration can result in physiological breakdown of all fruits.Physical damageVarious types of physical damage (surface injuries, impact bruising, vibration bruising, etc.) Are major contributors to deterioration. Mechanical injuries are not only unsightly, but also accelerate water loss, stimulate higher respiration and ethylene production rates, and favor decay incidence.Pathological breakdownDecay is one of the most common or apparent causes of deterioration; however, attack by many microorganisms usually follows mechanical injury or physiological breakdown, which allows entry to the microorganism. Pathogens can infect healthy tissues and become the primary cause of deterioration.Environmental factors influencing deterioration of fruits（影响⽔果变坏的环境因素）Temperature，Relative humidity，Air movement，Atmospheric composition，Ethylene，Harvesting procedures Postharvest handling proceduresDumping、Sorting、Sizing、Cooling、Storage、RipeningDumping：Fresh fruits should be handled with care throughout the postharvest handling system in order to minimize mechanical injuries. Dumping in water or in flotation tanks should be used for fruits. If dry dumping systems are used, they should be well padded bruising. Sorting：Manual sorting is usually carried out to eliminate fruit exhibiting defects or decay. For some fruits, it may also be necessary to sort the fruit into two or more classes of maturity or ripeness.Mechanical sorters, which operate on the basis of color, soluble solids, moisture, or fat content, are being implemented and may greatly reduce time and labor requirements. Sizing：In some cases, sizing the fruits into two or more size categories may be required before processing. Sizing can be done mechanically on the basis of fruit dimension or by weight.Mechanical sizing can be a major source of physical damage to the fruit if the machines are not adequately padded and adjusted to the minimum possible fruit drop heights Ripening：Ripening before processing may be required for certain fruits (banana, kiwifruit, mango, papaya, peach, pear, plum, melon) that are picked mature but unripe. Ethylene treatment can be used to obtain faster and more uniform ripening. The optimum temperature range for ripening is 15-25℃and, within this range, the higher the temperature, the faster the ripening. Relative humidity should be maintained between 90% and 95 % during ripening. Cooling：Cooling is utilized to remove field heat and lower the fresh fruit's temperature to near its optimum storage temperature. Cooling can be done using cold water (hydrocooling) or cold air (forced-air cooling or "pressure cooling"). Highly perishable fruits, such as strawberries, bush berries, and apricots, should be cooled to near 4℃within six hours of harvest. Other fruits should be cooled to their optimum temperature within twelve hours of harvest. Storage：Short-term or long-term storage of fresh fruits may be needed before processing to regulate the product flow and extend the processing season. The relative humidity in the storage facility should be kept between 90% and 95%.To reduce decay, elevated c02 (15-20%) may be added to the atmosphere within pallet covers for strawberries, bush berries, and cherries, and sulfur dioxide (200 ppm) fumigation may be used on grapes.1.8 quality measurementsMany quality measurements can be made before a fruit crop is picked in order to determine if proper maturity or degree of ripeness has developed.ColourColour may be measured with instruments or by comparing the colour of fruit on the tree with standard picture charts. TextureTexture may be measured by compression by hand or by simple type of plungers.Soluble solidsAs fruit mature on the tree its concentration of juice solids, which are mostly sugars, changes. The concentration of soluble solids in the juice can be estimated with arefractometer or a hydrometer液体⽐重计.Acid contentThe acid content of fruit changes with maturity and affects flavour. Acid concentration can be measured by a simple chemical titration on the fruit juice. But for many fruits the tartness and flavour are really affected by the ratio of sugar to acid. Sugar to acid ratioIn describing the taste of tartness of several fruits and fruit juices, the term "sugar to acid ratio" or "brix to acid ratio" are commonly used. The higher the brix the greater the sugar concentration in the juice; the higher the "brix to acid ratio" the sweeter and lees tart is the juice.1.9 preprocessing1.9.1 harvestingThe above and other measurements, plus experience, indicate when fruit is ready for harvesting and subsequent processing.1.9.2 reception - quality and quantity1.9.3 temporary storage before processing1.9.4 washingHarvested fruit is washed to remove soil, micro-organisms and pesticide residues.Fruit washing is a mandatory processing step; it would be wise to eliminate spoiled fruit before washing in order to avoid the pollution of washing tools and/or equipment and the contamination of fruit during washing.1.9.5 sortingFruit sorting covers two main separate processing operations:Removal of damaged fruit and any foreign bodies (which might have been left behind after washing);Qualitative sorting based on organoleptic criteria and maturity stage.Mechanical sorting for size is usually not done at the preliminary stage. The most important initial sorting is for variety and maturity.1.9.6 trimming and peeling (skin removal)This processing step aims at removing the parts of the fruit which are either not edible or difficult to digest especially the skin.Up to now the industrial peeling of fruit and vegetables was performed by three procedures: Mechanically;By using water steam;Chemically; this method consists in treating fruit and vegetables by dipping them in a caustic soda solution at a temperature of 90 to 100°c; the concentration of this solution as well asthe dipping or immersion time varying according to each specific case.1.9.7 cuttingThis step is performed according to the specific requirements of the fruit processing technology.1.9.8 blanchingA brief heat treatment to vegetables some fruits to inactivate oxidative enzyme systems such as catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, and lipoxygenase. ?When the unblanched tissue is disrupted or bruised and exposed to air, these enzymes come in contact with substrates causing softening, discoloration, and the production of off flavors. ?It is most often standard practice to blanch fruits in order to prevent quality deterioration. ?Although the primary purpose of blanching is enzyme inactivation.There are several other benefits blanching initially cleanses the product;Decreases the microbial load,Preheats the product before processing.Softens the fruit, facilitates compact packing in the can.Expell intercellular gases in the raw fruitImproved heat transfer during heat processing.Water blanching is generally of the immersion type or spray type as the product moves on a conveyor.Steam blanching often involves belt or chain conveyors upon which the product moves through a tunnel containing live steam.adequacy of blanching is usually based on inactivation of one of the heat resistant enzymes (peroxidase or polyphenol oxidase).During the blanching process, it is imperative that certain enzymes that have the potential to cause flavour and textural changes be inactiviated. The process involves a brief heattreatment applied to most vegetables and also to some fruits in order to inactivate oxidative enzyme system such as catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase,ascorbic acid oxidase, and lipoxygenase.When unblanched tissue is disrupted or bruised and exposed to air,these enzymes come in contact with substrate causing softening,discoloration, and the production of off-flavours.Since this action can potentially occur during the period prior to heat processing, it is most often standard practice to blanch fruits in order to prevent quality deterioration.1.9.9 ascorbic/citric acid dipAscorbic acid or vitamin c minimises fruit oxidation primarily by acting as an antioxidant and itself becoming oxidised in preference to catechol⼉茶酚-tannin compounds.It has been found that increased acidity also helps retard oxidative colour changes and so ascorbic acid plus citric acid may be used together. Citric acid further reacts with (chelates) metal ions thus removing these catalysts of oxidation from the system.1.9.10 sulphur dioxide treatmentSulphur dioxide may function in several ways:Sulphur dioxide is an enzyme poison against common oxidising enzymes;It also has antioxidant properties; i.e., it is an oxygen acceptor (as is ascorbic acid);Further so2 minimises non enzymatic maillard type browning by reacting with aldehyde醛groups of sugars so that they are no longer free to combine with amino acids;Sulphur dioxide also interferes with microbial growth.In many fruit processing pre-treatments two factors must be considered:Sulphur dioxide must be given time to penetrate the fruit tissues;So2 must not be used in excess because it has a characteristic unpleasant taste and odour, and international food laws limit the so2 content of fruit products, especially of those which are consumer oriented (e.g. Except semi-processed products oriented to further industrial utilisation).5.2.11 sugar syrupSugar syrup addition is one of the oldest methods of minimising oxidation.Sugar syrup minimises oxidation by coating the fruit and thereby preventing contact withatmospheric oxygen.Sugar syrup also offers some protection against loss of volatile 挥发性的fruit esters 酯and itcontributes sweet taste to otherwise tart fruits.It is common today to dissolve ascorbic acid and citric acid in the sugar syrup for addedeffect or to include sugar syrup after an so 2 treatment.QuestionsWhat factors influence the quality of fruits after harvest?How to maintain the fruit in good quality before the processing begin?第⼀节果蔬原料特性新鲜果蔬原料的特点 ? 果蔬原料的化学成分原料的化学成分与加⼯的关系1.新鲜果蔬原料的特点易腐性、季节性、区域性2.果蔬中的化学成分（chemical composition in fruits and vegetables ）3.化学成分与加⼯的关系（relation between chemical composition and processing ）3.1 ⽔分(water)果蔬中⽔的含量：⼤多数在80%以上，含⽔量⾼的如冬⽠(wax gourd)可达96%以上。

夏文水《食品工艺学原理》期末复习笔记

夏文水《食品工艺学原理》期末复习笔记一、绪论1. 食品的加工概念∙食物与食品的定义及分类：食物是指可供人类食用的物质，是人体生长发育、更新细胞、修补组织、调节机能必不可少的营养物质，也是产生热量保持体温、进行体力活动的能量来源，除少数物质如盐类外，几乎全部来自动植物和微生物。

经过加工制作的食物统称为食品。

食品分类的方法很多，可以按加工工艺分，如罐头食品、冷冻食品、干制食品等；按原料来源分，有肉制品、乳制品、水产制品等；按产品特点分，有健康食品、营养食品、功能食品等；按食品对象分，有老年食品、儿童食品、妇女食品等。

∙食品的功能与特性：食品具有营养功能，提供蛋白质、碳水化合物、脂肪、维生素、矿物质、膳食纤维等营养和能量；具有感观功能，满足视觉、触觉、味觉、听觉的需要，包括外观、质构和风味等方面；还具有保健功能，调节人体生理功能，起到增进健康、恢复疾病、延缓衰老、美容等作用。

食品的特性包括安全性，无毒无害卫生；方便性，食用、使用、运输方便；保藏性，有一定的货架寿命。

∙食品加工工艺及目的：食品加工是将食物（原料）经过劳动力、机器、能量及科学知识，把它们转变成半成品或可食用的产品（食品）的过程。

加工过程包括预处理（清洗、分离、粉碎）、单元操作（提取、加热、冷却、干燥、浓缩、纯化）、关键工序（杀菌、消毒）、食品添加剂（调味、保存）和包装等。

食品加工的目的是满足消费者要求，延长食品的保存期，增加多样性，提高附加值。

2. 食品加工原料的特性和要求∙食品原料主要组成：食品原料主要来自农、林、牧、渔及副业部门生产的初级产品，如粮食、植物油、糕点、糖果、制糖、屠宰及肉类加工等。

∙影响原料加工的因素：影响原料加工的因素包括原料的质量标准和来源管理。

企业应与可靠的供应商建立长期的合作关系，并建立供应商管理体系，对供应商进行评估和监督，确保他们能够提供稳定质量的原料。

3. 食品的质量因素及其控制∙食品质量因素的分类：食品的质量因素包括物理因素（外观因素、质构因素、风味因素）、营养因素、卫生因素和耐储藏性。