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Benchmarking of human resource management in thePu b lic sector: Prospects, pro blems and challengesDavidM AkinnusiOrganisational/Industrial Psychology and Human ResourcesManagementNorth West UniversitySouth AfricaCorrespondence to: David M Akinnusie-mail: david.akinnusi@nwu.ac.zaABSTRACTThis paper reviews the role of humanresource management(HRM)which, today, plays a strategic partnership role in management. The focus of the paper is on HRM in the public sector, where much hope rests on HRM as a meansof transforming the public service and achieving muchneeded service delivery. However, a critical evaluation of HRM practices in the public sector reveals that these services leave much to be desired. The paper suggests the adoption of benchmarking as a process to revamp HRM in the public sector so that it is able to deliver on its promises. It describes the nature and process of benchmarking and highlights the inherent difficulties in applying benchmarking in HRM. It concludes with some suggestions for a plan of action. The process of identifying “best ” practices in HRM requires the best collaborative efforts of HRM practitioners and academicians. If used creatively, benchmarking has the potential to bring about radical and positive changes in HRMin the public sector. The adoption of the benchmarking process is, in itself, a litmus test of the extent to which HRM in the public sector has grown professionally.Keywords: benchmarking, benchmarking process, human resource management,public sector, public sector managementIn any organised human activity, human beings naturally take precedence over other resources, as it is they and they alone who are capable of directing and utilising other resources. Effective human resource management(HRM) has, therefore, becomecrucial and critical to the achievement of individual, organisational, community, national and international goals and objectives. Ironically, even though humanbeings are widely considered as the most important assets of any organisation or nation, their development, motivation and utilisation have not always occupied the central place in management(Bendix, 1996, p. 4-10). In the history of management hought, the neglect of the humanside of enterprise brought the scientific school of management to its knees and led to the rise of the humanrelations and the behavioural schools of thought which firmly succeeded in putting human beings as the core of management (Carrell, Elbert & Hartfield, 1995). In the practical world, the commodification or de-personalisation of human beings during the industrial revolution was also associated with the rise of trade union movements, leading to government interventions and regulations and the emergence of labour relations and personnel administration as fields of study (Bendix, 1995, p. 7). In the 1990s, personnel management metamorphosed into humanresource managementin clear recognition of its strategic role in the overall performance of organisations (Authur, 1994; Cascio, 1995; Huselid, 1995; Gerber, Nel & van Dyk, 1998).THE STATE OF HRM IN SOUTH AFRICAThe history of South Africa, rising from the ashes of the apartheid regime, is replete with cases of poor HRM, to the point of constrictingits development more than a decade after its independence (Deputy President, Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, 2006). The Deputy President while launching the Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA) remarked that:Nothing short of a skills revolution by a nation united will extricate us from the crises we face. Weare addressing logjams, some ofwhich are systemic and therefore in some cases entrenched even in post-apartheid South Africa. The systemic nature of someof our challenges undermine our excellent new policies, at least in the short term, hence the need for interventions such as JIPSAto enhance implementation of our policies(.za/speeches/2006/06032810451001.htm)Historically, South Africa has performed very poorly in practically all the criteria on the liability side of human resources balance sheet as measured by the World Competitiveness Ratings (1998, 1999). Some of these include equal opportunity, skilled labour, Aids, worker motivation, brain drain, unemployment, alcohol and drug abuse, values of the society, illiteracy, dependency ratio, human development index and competent managers. The field of labour relations (LR), like its human resources counterpart, reflects the country 's socio -political history which wascharacterised by deep divisions along racial and political lines, discrimination, unfair labour practices and gross distortions in the labour market systems, resulting in serious confrontations between the social partners and perennial industrial unrest (Bendix, 1996, p. 71-104).These stark realities have prompted the democratic government to enact a series of laws designed to bring radical changes in the areas of HRM and labour relations. Some of these include:• Occupational Health and Safety Act No 85 of 1993• Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 and Labour Relations AmendmentAct No 127 of 1998• South African Qualifications Act No 58 of 1995• Basic Conditions of Employment Act No 104 of 1997• Employment Equity Act No. 55 of 1998• Skills Development Act No 97 of 1998• Skills Development Levies Act No. 9 of 1999• Promotion of Equality and the Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 • White Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service, 2000The intention of these Acts was to create a healthy, humane, justand equitable workplace or society, free from discrimination and oppression and in which people and workers are educated and continuously trained to meet the challenges of nationaldevelopment and globalisation in a peaceful industrial climate. In 2006, the nation launched the Joint Initiative on Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA) to develop skills that are most urgently needed as part of the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (AsgiSA), which was to propel South Africa at a development trajectory of6%GDPby 2010. The implementation and the realisation of these Acts and initiatives require, among other things, managers and, especially, human resource professionals, whose responsibility it is to effectively manage the human resources of their organisations. For its own part, the South African Board of Personnel Practice has proposed a bill, the HumanResource Profession Bill (2005), which intends to professionalise the practice of HRM in South Africa.The focus of this paper is on HRM in the public sector, where the challenges are most acutely felt. The Government White Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service (2000) notes that national departments and provincial administrations employ approximately 1,2 million people, who account for more than 50%of all public expenditure.It declares that “people are therefore the Public Service 's most valuable asset, and managing human resources effectively and strategically must be the cornerstone of the wider transformation of the Public Service ”. Appropriately, Government has embraced the shift offocus from personnel administration to HRM. Therefore, Government 'svision of HRMin the Public Service is that it will “result in a diverse, competent and well-managed workforce, capable of, and committed to, deliveri ng high quality services to the people of South Africa ”. Itfurther stressed that the practice of HRM would be underpinned by the following values which derive from the Constitution: fairness, accessibility, transparency, accountability, participation and professionalism.However, the White Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service (2000) was quick to point out the inadequacies and out-dated practices of HRM in the public sector, describing various aspects of it in the following ways: (It is) over-centralised, excessively bureaucratic and rule-bound. It is focused on form rather than substance and results. Human resource planning is weak; post-filling and promotion criteria over-emphasize educational qualifications and seniority and little or no emphasis is placed on the requirements of the job to be done. Performance management is also underdeveloped.All these inadequacies and the racial imbalance simply mean that Government's avowed desire to transform public service delivery by putting people first (via the “Batho Pele principles ”) would be greatly frustrated by an inefficient and ineffective management, in general, and lacklustre state of human resource management, in particular.More than a decade after independence, the state of HRM in SouthAfrica has not changed as drastically as expected at either the macro ormicro level. This is due to a number of factors including the following(Gerber, Nel and van Dyk, 1998; Bowmaker-Falconer, Horwitz, Jain & Taggar, 1998; White Paper on HRM,2000; Horwilt, Browning, Jain & Steenkamp, 2002;/ipp/guardian/2008/05/27/115219.html):1. Reluctance by corporations to embrace transformation and major changes impliedor required by the various legislations.2. Reluctance on the part of trade unions to buy into the perceived capitalist agendaof the newgovernment, leading to a shaky alliance between government and itsalliance partners, the Congress of South African Trade Unions (Cosatu) and South African Communist Party (SACP).3. Fear of reverse discrimination by whites, sparking off emigrationin large numbers and leading to only modest gains in the area of employment equity and diversity management.In short, although South Africa is armed with formidable legislative armoury to create a humane society and organisational environments conducive to HRM, the fact remains that it will take many more years to undo the legacy of apartheid in “creating structural inequalities in the acquisition of education, work skills and access to managerial, professional and occupational positions ” (Horwitz, Browning, Jain & Steenkamp, 2002). This situation, therefore, calls for innovative practices such as benchmarking, the focus of this studyAIMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE PAPERThe role of benchmarking will be discussed in the context of the above concerns. The aim of this paper is to advocate the adoption of benchmarking as a tool to revamp, in order for Government to be able to deliver on its promises. The objectives are to describe the nature and process of benchmarking, to highlight the inherent difficulties in applying benchmarking in HRMand to suggest a plan of action. Accordingly, the restof this paper is structured, first, to highlight the nature and process of benchmarking and then to review the literature on benchmarking as applied to the HRM function. The problems and prospects of benchmarking in HRM are highlighted and discussed. In conclusion, approaches andsuggestions for using benchmarking to improve HRMpractices in the public sector are made.BENCHMARKING OF HRMBest practice in the case of HRM refers to high performance work practices such as recruitment, selection, performance management and training that mayin turn have an impact on the institution 's performance and, ultimately, on the competitive advantage of an organisation (Huselid, 1995; Schuler & MacMillan, 1984). The search for the best practice in HRM is driven by two major considerations. The first is the fact that labour costs are generally high everywhere and South Africa is not an exception. The second is that evidence highlighting the value of HRM to an organisation mayhelp the humanresource function to gain strategic status (Torrington & Hall, 1996).A range of HRM practices often incorporated into these analyses includes the following: incentive plans, training and development, recruitment and selection, compensation, industrial relations and performance appraisals. These have been identified as high-performance work practices that can lead to lower employee turnover, greater productivity and better corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995; Huselid & Becker, 1996). Other potential best practices are occupational health and safety (Nelson, 1994) and enterprise bargaining, reflecting management quality and Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) and Affirmative Action (AA) policies as indicators of human resource utilisation. The ultimate benefit of strategic HRMto an organisation isits ability to facilitate HRM's contribution to the organisation in theacquisition and maintenance of a sustainable competitive advantage (Teo, 1998). One way to achieve improvements in competitiveness, which is the focus of this paper, is through benchmarking HRM best practices.The Rodwell, Lam and Fastenau (2000) paper is a significant contribution to benchmarking for two major reasons. Firstly, it is an attempt by academics to seek the“best ” set of HRM practices which distinguishes poor from better performing organisations. In this respect, their example is worth emulation, as the set of best practices is contingent on the nature of the industry and the environment investigated. Rodwell et al's (2000) study surveyed the financeindustry in Australia where, they found, counter-intuitively, that a lack of written policies on health and safety was one of the major “best ”practices. It is immediately apparent that the findings of this study are not only limited to the industry and the country studied, but also cannot be generalised to the finance industry of another country, say South Africa, where the issue of safety has taken on dramatic importance in that industry in the era of bombings of ATM cash points and cash-in-transit heists that are a daily occurrence in South Africa, with Crime Statistics reporting a 74% rise in cash-in-transit heists in June 2008(/stories/200609280232.html, accessed in July 13, 2008). SUGGESTIONS FOR BENCHMARKING HRM IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR Benchmarking presents managers of public sector institutions in South Africa with the challenge of venturing to compare their functions, not only internally among themselves, but also against other best-run government departments or best-run companies in South Africa. Admittedly, there are differences in the ethos and cultures of public and private sector organisations; nevertheless, the call for the public service to be more results oriented can only be met by understanding and learning frompractices of their private sector counterparts and initiating creative and appropriate changes. Benchmarking is no longer the monopoly of the private sector. Publicsector institutions in most of Western countries are using benchmarking to meet the enduring challenge to provide maximum value for money —i.e. highest quality at least cost (see, also Sedgwick, 1995; and Dorsch & Yasin, 1998).As for HRM managers in public sector institutions in South Africa, benchmarking presents them with the challenge of moving out of their cocoons. Benchmarkingpresents HRM professionals in the public sector with a golden opportunity to improve their image and deliver on the Government hope that: “Human resourcemanagement in the Public Service should become a model of excellenee, …..The management of people should be regarded as a significant task for those who havebeen charged with the responsibility a nd should be conducted in a professional manner ” (White Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public Service, 2000; italicised for emphasis)Research results have clearly indicated that investments in human resources are a potential source of competitive advantage, with increase in overall HRM effectiveness leading to increase in the performance of the institutions concerned (Huselid, et. al., 1997). The practical implication of this is that improving HRM efficiency and effectiveness will hold off the threat of downsizing, increase job satisfaction and servicedelivery. Benchmarking may be the technique which could bring about a true revolution in HRMin the public service. For this to happen, the following suggestions are made:1. Human resource managers in the public service must improve their skills instrategic human resource, since the adoption of benchmarking should focuson strategic rather than operationalobjectives, if it is to succeed.2. Academics in collaboration with public sector HR managers should searchfor the “best ” combination of HRM practices in theirrespective sectors.3. Meanwhile, there are benchmarking tools such as peer reviews, excellentmodels or even Investors in People, which could be adopted as ways ofstimulating creative changes in the human resource arenas.4. The Government of South Africa should follow the American, European,Canadian and Australian 's examples of instituting national awards for bestpractices in public sector managementin general or in HRM in particular.It is hoped that HRMdirectors and managers in national, provincial and municipal councils would embrace the challenge of benchmarking in order to make the desired impact on service delivery, productivity and job satisfaction of their employees. This challenge is enormous , considering the desperate state of human resource management problems enumerated at the beginning of this paper. It is aprocess of a guided tour and fundamental change. The adoption of the benchmarking process is, in itself, a litmus test of the extent to which HRM managers have grown professionally by implementing a set of internally consistent policies and practices, ensuring that the institution 's humancapital contributes to the achieve of government's objectivesREFERENCES[1] Arthur, J. B. (1994). The effects of human resources management systems onmanufacturing performance and turnover. Academyof ManagementJournal , 37(3), 670-687.[2] Auluck , R. (2002). Benchmarking: Atool for facilitatingorganisational learning.Public Administration and Development, 22(2), 109-2002.[3] Bendix, S. (1996). Industrial Relations in the new South Africa . Third Edition. CapeTown: Juta & Co.[4] Bowmaker-Falconer, A., Horwitz, F. A. Jain, H. & Taggar, S. (1998).Employment Programmes in South Africa: Current Trends. Industrial RelationsJournal, 29(3), 222-233.[5] Camp, R. C. (1989). Benchmarking: The search for industry best practices that leadto superior performance . Milwaukee: ASQC Quality Press.[6] Camp, R. C. (1992). Learning from the best leads to superior performance. Journal ofBusiness Strategy , 13(3), 3-6.[7] Lema, N. & Price A. (1995). Benchmarking - performanee improvement towardcompetitive advantage. Journal of Management Engineering , 11(1), 28-37.[8] Loffler, E. (2001). Quality awards as a public sector benchmarking concept in OECDmembercountries: some guidelines for quality award organizers.Public Administration and Development , 21(1), 27-40.[9] Republic of South Africa (1995). South African Qualifications Act No 58of 1995. Retrieved July 15, 2008, from the World Wide Web:http://llnw.creamermedia.co.za/articles/attachments/02709_saqualauth act58.pdf [10] Republic of South Africa (1998), Employment Equity Act No. 55 of 1998,Government Gazette No 19370, 19 October 1998.[11] Republic of South Africa (1998), Skills Development Act No 97 of 1998, RetrievedJuly 15, 2008, from the World Wide Web:http://llnw.creamermedia.co.za/articles/attachments/03387_sklldevac9 7.pdf [12] R epublic of South Africa (1999), Skills Development Levies Act No. 9 of 1999,Government Gazette No 1984, 30 April 1999.[13] Teo, S. T. T. (1998). Changing roles of Australian HRM practitioners.Research and Practice in Human Resources Management , 6(1), 67-84.[14] Torrington, D. & Hall, L. (1996). Chasing the rainbow: how seeking status thoughstrategy misses the point of the personnel function. Employee Relations, 18(6), 87-97.[15] Treadwell, J. & Maguire, J. (1995). Benchmarking corporate services:ASouth Australian publicsector case study. Australian Journal of PublicAdministration , 54(3), 408-514.[16] Watson, G. H. (1993). Strategic Benchmarking: Howto measure company'sperformance against the world 's best. Wiley: Chichester.[17] Zairi, M. & Ahmed, P. (1999). Benchmarking maturity as we approach the nextmillennium. Total Quality Management Journal , 4(5), 810-816.。

工商管理文献翻译

Understanding Customer Requirements1 Listening to Customers Through Research1.1Using Marketing Research to Understand Customer ExpectationsFinding out what customers expect is essential to providing service quality, and marketing research is a key vehicle for understanding customer expectations and perceptions of services, In services, as with any offering, a firm that does no marketing research at all is unlikely to understand its customers. A firm that does marketing research, but not on the topic of customer expectations, may also fail to know what is needed to stay in tune with changing customer requirements. Marketing research must focus on service issues such as what features are most important to customers, what levels of these features customers expect, and what customers think the company can and should do when problems occur in service delivery. Even when a service firm is small and has limited resources to conduct research, avenues are open to explore what customers expect.One of the biggest challenges facing a marketing researcher is converting a complex set of data to a form that can be read and understood quickly by executives, managers, and other employees who will make decisions from the research. For example, database management is being adopted as a strategic initiative by many firms, but merely having a sophisticated database does not ensure that the findings will be useful to managers. Many of the people who use marketing research findings have not been trained in statistics and have neither the time nor the expertise to analyze computer printouts and other technical research information. The goal in this stage of the marketing research process is to communicate information clearly to the right people in a timely fashion. Among considerations are the following: Who gets this information? Why do the need it? How will they use it? Does it mean the same thing across cultures? When users feel confident that they understand the data, they are far more likely to apply it appropriately. When managers do not understand how to interpret the data, or when they lack confidence in the research, the investment of time, skill, and effort will be lost.1.2 Using Marketing Research InformationConducting research about customer expectations is only the first part of understanding the customer, even if the research is appropriately designed, executed, and presented. A service firm must also use the research findings in a meaningfulway–to drive change or improvement in the way service is delivered. The misuse(or even nonuse)of research data can lead to a large gap in understanding customer expectations. When managers do not read research reports because they are too busy dealing with the day-to-day challenges of the business, companies fail to use the resources available to them. And when customers participate in marketing research studies but never see changes in the way the company does business, they fell frustrated and annoyed with the company. Understanding how to make the best use of research – to apply what has been learned to the business – is a key way to close the gap between customer expectations and management perceptions of customer expectations. Managers must learn to turn research information and insights into action, to recognize that the purpose of research is to drive improvement and customer satisfaction.The research plan should specify the mechanism by which customer data will be used. The research should be actionable: timely, specific, and credible. It can also have a mechanism that allows a company to respond to dissatisfied customers immediately.1.3Upward CommunicationIn some service firms, especially small and localized firms, owners or managers may be in constant contact with customers, thereby gaining firsthand knowledge of customer expectations and perceptions. But in large service organizations, managers do not always get the opportunity to experience firsthand what their customers want.The larger a company is, the more difficult it will be for managers to interact directly with the customer and the less firsthand information they will have about customer expectations. Even when they read and digest research reports, managers can lose the reality of the customer if they never get the opportunity to experience the actual service. A theoretical view of how things are supposed to work cannot provide the richness of the service encounter. To truly understand customer needs, management benefits form hands-on knowledge of what really happens in stores, on customer service telephone lines, in service queues, and in face-to-face service encounters. If gap 1 is to be closed managers in large firms need some form of customer contact.2Building Customer Relationships2.1Relationship MarketingRelationship marketing essentially represents a paradigm shift within marketing –away from an acquisitions/transaction focus toward a retention/relationship focus.Relationship marketing (or relationship management) is a philosophy of doing business, a strategic orientation, that focus on keeping and improving relationships with current customers rather than on acquiring new customers. This philosophy assumes that many consumers and business customers prefer to have an ongoing relationship with one organization than to switch continually among providers in their search for value. Building on this assumption and the fact that it is usually much cheaper to keep a current customer than to attract a new one, successful marketers are working on effective strategies for retaining customers.It has been suggested that firms frequently focus on attracting customer (the “first act”) but then pay little attention to what they should do to keep them (the “second act”). Ideas expressed in an interview with James L. Schorr, then executive vice president of marketing at Holiday Inns, illustrate this point. In the interview he stated that he was famous at Holiday Inns for what is called the “bucket theory of marketing.” By this he meant that marketing can be thought of as a big bucket: It is what sales, advertising, and promotion programs do that pours business into the top of the bucket. As long as these programs are effective, the bucket stays full. However, “There’s only one problem,”he said, “there’s a hole in the bucket,”When the business is running well and the hotel is delivering on its promises, the hole is small and few customers are leaving. When the operation is weak and customers are not satisfied with what they get, however, people start falling out of the bucket through the holes faster than they can be poured in through the top.The bucket theory illustrates why a relationship strategy that focuses on plugging the holes in the bucket makes so much sense. Historically, marketers have been more concerned with acquisition of customers, so a shift to a relationship strategy often represents changes in mind set, organizational culture, and employee reward systems. For example, the sales incentive systems in many organizations are set up to reward bringing in new customers. There are often fewer(or not) rewards for retaining current accounts. Thus, even when people see the logic of customer retention, the existing organizational systems may not support its implementation.Relationship value of a concept or calculation that looks at customers from the point of view of their lifetime revenue and/or profitability contributions to a company.The lifetime or relationship value of a customer is influenced by the length of an average “lifetime,” the average revenues generated per relevant time period over the lifetime, sales of additional products and services over time, referrals generated by the customer over time, and costs associated with serving the customer. Lifetime value sometimes refers to lifetime revenue stream only; but most often when costs are considered, lifetime value truly means “lifetime profitability.”If companies knew how much it really costs to lose a customer, they would be able to accurately evaluate investments designed to retain customer. One way of documenting the dollar value of loyal customers is to estimate the increased value or profits that accrue for each additional customer who remains loyal to the company rather than defecting to the competition. This is what Bain & Co. has done for a number of industries, The percentage of increase in total firm profits when the retention or loyalty rate rises by 5 percentage points. The increases are dramatic, ranging from 35 to 95 percent. These increases were calculated by comparing the net present values of the profit streams for the average customer life at current retention rates with the net present values of the profit streams for the average customer life at 5 percent higher retention rates.With sophisticated accounting systems to document actual costs and revenue streams over time, a firm can be quite precise in documenting the dollar value and costs of retaining customers. These systems attempt to estimate the dollar value of all the benefits and costs associated with a loyal customer, not just the long-term revenue stream. The value of word-of-mouth advertising, employee retention, and declining account maintenance costs can also enter into the calculation.The emphasis on estimating the relationship value of customers has increased substantially in the past decade. Part of this emphasis has resulted from an increased appreciation of the economic benefits that firms accrue with the retention of loyal customer. (Our Strategy Insight for this chapter describes ways that firms explicitly demonstrate this appreciation to customer.) Interestingly, recent research suggests that customer retention has a large impact on firm value and that relationship value calculations can also provide a useful proxy for assessing the value of a firm. That is, a firm’s market value can be roughly determined by carefully calculating customer lifetime value. The approach is straightforward: Estimate the relationship value of a customer, forecast the future growth of the number of customers, and use these figures to determine the value of a company’s current and future base. To the extent that the customer base forms a large part of a company’s overall value, such a calculation can provide an estimate of a firm’s value —a particularly useful figure for young, high-growth firms for which traditional financial methods(e.g., discounted cash flow) do not work well.2.2Customer Profitability SegmentsCompanies may want to treat all customers with excellent service, but they generally find that customers differ in their relationship value and that it may be neither practical nor profitable to meet (and certainly not to exceed) all customers’expectations. Federal Express Corporation, for example, has categorized its customers internally as the good, the bad, and the ugly ––based on their profitability. Ratherthan treating all its customers the same, the company pays particular attention to enhancing their relationship with the good, tries to move the bad to the good, and discourages the ugly. Other companies also try to identify segments —or, more appropriately, tiers of customers — that differ in current and/or future profitability to a firm. This approach goes beyond usage or volume segmentation because it tracks costs and revenues for segments of customers, thereby capturing their financial worth to companies. After identifying profitability bands, the firm offers service and service levels in line with the identifying segments. Building a high-loyalty customer base of the right customers increases profits.Although some people may view the FedEx grouping of customers into “the good, the bad, and the ugly” as negative, descriptive labels of the tiers can be very useful internally. Labels are especially valuable if they help the company keep track of which customers are profitable.Virtually all firms are aware at some level that their customers differ in profitability, in particular, that a minority of their customers accounts for the highest proportion of sales or profit. This finding has often been called the “80/20 rule”— 20 percent of customers produce 80 percent of sales or profit.In this version of tiering, 20 percent of the customers constitute the top tier, those who can be identified as the most profitable in the company. The rest are indistinguishable from each other but differ from the top tier in profitability. Most companies realize that there are differences among customers within this tier but do not possess the data or capabilities to analyze the distinctions. The 80/20 two-tier scheme assumes that consumers within the two tiers are similar, just as conventional market segmentation schemes typically assume that consumers within segments are similar.However, more than two tiers are likely and can be used if the company has sufficient data to analyze customer tiers more precisely. Different systems and labels can be helpful. One useful four-tier system, includes the following:1.The platinum tier describes the company’s most profitable customer, typicallythose who are heavy users of the product, are not overly price sensitive, are willing to invest in and try new offerings, and are committed customers of the firm.2.The gold tier differs from the platinum tier in that profitability levels are not ashigh, perhaps because the customers want price discounts that limit margins or are not as loyal. The may be heavy users who minimize risk by working with multiple vendors rather than just the focal company.3.The iron tier contains essential customers who provide the volume needed toutilize the firm’s capacity, but their spending levels, loyalty, and profitability are not substantial enough for special treatment.4.The lead tier consists of customers who are costing the company money. Theydemand more attention than they are due given their spending and profitability and are sometimes problem customers —complaining about the firm to others and tying up the firm’s resources.Not that this classification is superficially reminiscent of, but very different from, traditional usage segmentation performed by airlines such as American Airlines. Two differences are obvious. First, in the customer pyramid profitability rather than usage defines all levels. Second, the lower levels actually articulate classes of customers who require a different sort of attention. The firm must work either to change the customers’ behavior — to make them more profitable through increases in revenue —or to change the firm’s cost structure to make them more profitable through decreases in costs.Examples of effective use of the customer pyramid approach exist in a number of business contexts. Financial services firms are leading the way, perhaps because of the vast amounts of data already housed in those firms. In 1994 Bank One realized that all financial institutions had grossly overcharged their best customers to subsidize others who were not paying their way. Determined to grow its top-profit customers, who were vulnerable because they were being underserved, Bank One implemented a set of measures to focus resources on their most productive use. Next it identified the profit drivers in this top segment and thereby stabilized its relationships with key customers.Once a system has been established for categorizing customers, the multiple levels can be identified, motivated, served, and expected to deliver differential levels of profit. Companies improve their opportunities for profit when they increase shares of purchases by customers who either have the greatest need for the services or show the greatest loyalty to a single provider. By strengthening relationships with the loyal customers, increasing sales with existing customers, and increasing the profitability on each sale opportunity, companies thereby increase the potential of each customer.Whereas profitability tiers make sense from the company’s point of view, customers are not always understanding, nor do they appreciate being categorized into a less desirable segment. For example, at home companies the top clients have their own individual account representative whom they can contact personally. The next tier of clients may be handled by representatives who each have 100 clients. Meanwhile, most clients are served by an 800 number, an automated voice response system, or referral to a website. Customers are aware of this unequal treatment, and many resist and resent it. It makes perfect sense from a business perspective, but customers are often disappointed in the level of service they receive and give firms poor marks for quality as a result.Therefore, it is increasingly important that firms communicate with customers so they understand the level of service they can expect and what they would need to do or pay to receive faster or more personalized service. The most significant issues result when customers do not understand, believe they have been singled out for poor service, or feel that the system is unfair. Although many customers refuse to pay for quality service, they react negatively if they believe it has been taken away from themunfairly.The ability to segment customers narrowly based on profitability implications also raises questions of privacy for customers. In order to know who is profitable and who is not, companies must collect large amounts of individualized behavioral and personal data on consumers. Many consumers today resent what they perceive as an intrusion into their lives in this way, especially when it results in differential treatment that they perceive is unfair.Prudent business managers are well aware that past customer purchase behavior, although useful in making predictions, can be misleading. What a customer spends today, or has spend in the past, may not necessarily be reflective of what he or she will do(or be worth) in the future. Banks serving college students know this well — a typical college student generally has minimal financial services needs ( i.e., a checking account) and tends to not have a high level of deposits. However, within a few years that student may embark on a professional career, start a family, and/or purchase a house, and thus require several financial services and become a potentially very profitable customer to the bank. Generally speaking, a firm would like to keep its consistent big spenders and lose the erratic small spenders. But all too often a firm also has two other groups they must consider: erratic big spenders and consistent small spenders. So, in some situations where consistent cash flow is a concern, it may be helpful to a firm to have a portfolio of customers that includes steady customers, even if they have a history of being less profitable. Some service providers have actually been quite successful in targeting customers who were previously considered to be unworthy of another firm’s marketing efforts. Paychex, a payroll processing company, became very successful in serving small business that the major companies in this industry did not think were large enough to profitably serve. Similarly, Progressive Insurance became very successful in selling automobile insurance to undesirable customers — young drivers and those with poor driving records — that most of the competition did not feel had a sufficient relationship value. Firms, therefore, need to be cautious in blindly applying customer value calculations without thinking carefully about the implications.2.3Relationship ChallengesGiven the many benefits of long-term customer relationships, it would seem that a company would not want to refuse or terminate a relationship with any customer. Yet, situations arise in which either the firm, the customer, or both want to end (or have to end) their relationship.The assumption that all customers are good customers is very compatible with the belief that “the customer is always right,” an almost sacrosanct tenet of business. Yet any service worker can tell you that this statement is not always true, and in some cases it may be preferable for the firm and the customer to not continue their relationship.A company cannot target its services to all customers; some segments will bemore appropriate than others. It would not be beneficial to either the company or the customer for a company to establish a relationship with a customer whose needs the company cannot meet. For example, a school offering a lock-step, daytime MBA program would not encourage full-time working people to apply for its program, nor would a law firm specializing in government issues establish a relationship with individuals seeking advice on trusts and estates. There examples seem obvious. Yet firms frequently do give in to the temptation to make a sale by agreeing to serve a customer who would be better served by someone else.Similarly, it would not be wise to forge relationships simultaneously with incompatible market segments. In many service businesses(such as restaurants, hotels, tour package operators, entertainment, and education), customers experience the service t ogether and can influence each other’s perceptions about value received. Thus, to maximize service to core segment, an organization may choose to turn away marginally profitable segments that would be incompatible. For example, a conference hotel may find that mixing executives in town for a serious educational program with students in town for a regional track meet may not be wise. If the executive group is a key long-term customer, the hotel may choose to pass up the sports group in the interest of retaining the executives.3 Service Recovery3.1 The Impact Of Service Failure And RecoveryService recovery refers to the actions taken by an organization in response to a service. Failures occur for all kinds of reasons —the service may be unavailable when promised, it may be delivered late or too slowly, the outcome may be incorrect or poorly executed, or employees may be rude or uncaring. All these types of failures bring about negative feelings and responses from customers. Left unfixed, they can result in customers leaving, telling other customers about their negative experiences, and even challenging the organization through consumer rights organizations or legal channels.Research has shown that resolving customer problems effectively has a strong impact on customer satisfaction, loyalty, word-of-mouth communication, and bottom-line performance. That is, customers who experience service failures but who are ultimately satisfied based on recovery efforts by the firm, will be more loyal than those whose problems are not resolved. That loyalty translates into profitability, Customers who complain and have their problems resolved quickly are much more likely to repurchase than are those whose complaints are not resolved. Those who never complain are least likely to repurchase.Similar results were reported in a study 720 HMO members in which researchers found that those who were not satisfied with service recovery were much more likelyto switch to a different health care provider than were those who happy with how their problems were addressed. The study also found that satisfaction with service recovery was the second most important factor out of 11 service attributes in predicting overall customer satisfaction. The most important, not surprisingly, was perceived medical outcome.An effective service recovery strategy has multiple potential impacts. It can increase customer satisfaction and loyalty and generate positive word-of-mouth communication. A well-designed, well-documented service recovery strategy also provides information that can be used to improve service as part of a continuous improvement effort. By making adjustments to service processes, systems, and outcomes based on previous service recovery experiences, companies increase the likelihood of “doing it right the right the first time.”In turn, this reduces costs of failures and increases initial customer satisfaction.Unfortunately, many firms do not employ effective strategies. A recent study suggests that 50 percent of customer who experienced a serious problem received no response from the firm. There are tremendous downsides to having no service recovery strategies. Poor recovery following a bad service experience a service failure, they talk about it to others no matter what the outcome. That recent study also found that customers who were satisfied with a firm’s recovery efforts3.2How Customer Respond To Service FailuresSome customers are more likely to complain than others for a variety of reasons. These consumers believe that positive consequences may occur and that there are social benefits of complaining, and their personal norms support their complaining behavior. They believe they should and will be provided compensation for the service failure in some form. They believe that fair treatment and good service are their due, and that in cases of service failure, someone should make good. In some cases they feel a social obligation to complain —to help others avoid similar situations or to punish the service provider. A very small number of consumers have “complaining”personalities — they just like to complain or cause trouble.Consumers who are unlikely to take any action hold the opposite beliefs. They often see complaining as a waste of their time and effort. They do not believe anything positive will occur for them or others based on their actions. Sometimes they do not know how to complain —they do not understand the process or may not realize that avenues are open to them to voice their complaints. In some cases noncomplainers may engage in “emotion-focused coping” to deal with their negative experiences. This type of coping involves self-blame, denial, and possibly seeking social support. They may feel that the failure was somehow their fault and that they do not deserve redress.Personal relevance of the failure can also influence whether people complain. If the service failure is really important, if the failure has critical consequences for theconsumer, or if the consumer has much ego involvement in the service experience, then he or she is the more likely to complain. Consumers are more likely to complain about services that are expensive, high risk, and ego involving (like vacation packages, airline travel, and medical services) than they are about less expensive, frequently purchased services (fast-food drive-through service, a cab ride, a call to a customer service help line). There latter services are simply not important enough to warrant the time to complain. Unfortunately, even though the experience may not be important to the consumer at the moment, a dissatisfying encounter can still drive him or her to a competitor next time the service is needed.If customers initiate actions following service failure, the action can be of various types. A dissatisfied customer can choose to complain on the spot to the service provider, giving the company the opportunity to respond immediately. This reaction is often the best-case scenario for the company because it has a second chance right at that moment to satisfy the customer, keep his or her business in the future, and potentially avoid any negative word of mouth. Customers who do not complain immediately may choose to complain later to the provider by phone, in writing, or via the Internet. Again, the company has a chance to recover. Researchers refer to these proactive types of complaining behavior as voice responses or seeking redress.Some customers choose not to complain directly to the provider but rather spread negative word of mouth about the company to friends, relatives, and coworkers. This negative word-of-mouth communication can be extremely detrimental because it can reinforce the customer’s feelings of negativism and spread that negative impression to others as well. Further, the company has no chance to recover unless the negative word of mouth is accompanied by a complaint directly to the company. In recent years, customers have taken to complaining via the Internet. A variety of websites, including web-based consumer opinion platforms, have been created to facilitate customer complaints and, in doing so, have provided customers with the possibility of spreading negative word-of-mouth communication to a much broader audience. Some customers become so dissatisfied with a product or service failure that they construct websites targeting the firm’s current and prospective customers. On these sites, angry customers convey their grievances against the firm in ways designed to convince other consumers of the firm’s incompetence an evil.Finally, customers may choose to complain to third parties such as the Better Business Bureau, to consumer affairs arms of the government, to a licensing authority, to a professional association, or potentially to a private attorney. No matter the action (or inaction), ultimately the customers determine whether to patronize the service provider again or to switch to another provider.3.3Customers’ Recovery ExpectationsWhen they take the time and effort to complain, customers generally have high expectations. They expect the firm to be accountable. They expect to be helped。

工商管理外文文献及翻译

工商管理外文文献及翻译The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction AfterDesignAuthor：Waddle,T odd W.Nationality：UKDerivation：Cost Engineering; Feb2008, Vol. 50 Issue 2, p14-21It has become evident from recent news articles that inflationary pressures and increased construction activity are causing many building projects to come in well over owner's budgets. This trend has increased dramatically over the past few years, as much of the construction industry has been impacted by an unprecedented increase in the cost of construction. The historical rate of increase in construction cost has been under five percent per year, as reported by the Engineering News Record. Over the last few years, the industry has seen a significant increase from historical escalation rates, up to 10-15 percent per year in many regions of the US. These increases have been caused by a variety of factors, including the following.Shortage of steel resulting from rapid growth in China.Demand for materials in the US resulting from increased hur ricane damage. ? Rising oil prices leading to higher manufacturing and transportation cost. ? Rising labor cost because of increased construction activity .To be successful in having over budget projects awarded, the building contractor has had to take a proactive role in working with owners and design teams to reduce project cost to amounts that owners are able to award. This cost reduction is normally accomplished through the following methods.value engineering;scope reduction;Value EngineeringValue engineering (VE) has been defined as a systematic method to improve the value of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost.It is a primary tenet of value engineering that quality not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value improvements . VE is a process originating at General Electric Company (GE) during World War II. Because of shortages of skilled labor, raw materials, and component parts, engineers at GElooked for acceptable alternates and often found substitutions that resulted in reduced costs and/or product improvement.GE developed a systematic process that they called value analysis. Over the years the name gradually changed to VE. The basic steps of VE include the following：Information gathering: project requirements defined, function analysis.Alternates: various ways of meeting the requirements and functions.Evaluation: asses sment of alternates on how well they meet requirements and costs savings.Presentation: selection of best alternatives to be presented to client for decisions.True VE evaluates life cycle costs such as initial cost, maintenance cost, operational cost, life span, time value of money, replacement cost, and frequency of replacement. VE canbe undertaken at any stage of the building design process; however, it is most effective in the early stages, since it is less costly to make changes to preliminary documents .Scope ReductionScope reduction involves identifying areas of the project scope of work that can be reduced in quality, quantity, or both in a manner that is acceptable to the owner.Scope reduction items of work often consist of material or equipment substitutions that lower the cost of the project, but may not be an equal substitute. An example of quantity scope reduction would be to reduce the guttering system on a pitched roof from the entire roof perimeter to entrances only. A quality scope reduction example would be to provide vinyl composition floor tiles (VCT) in lieu of ceramic floor tiles.After a project has been determined to be out of budget because of high bids, the project is normally either cancelled, redesigned and re-bid, or negotiations are held with the low bidder to reach an acceptable contract amount. For the building contractor that is selected for negotiations, this is an opportunity to move toward project award and to also build a relationship of trust and openness with the owner and design team that could lead to future projects.First, the building contractor should meet with the owner and design team to fully understand the owners project requirements, priorities, life cycle considerations, and budget.Next, the building contractor's role is to use his estimating and construction expertise to analyze various components and systems within the project for alternate solutions. The contractor should also bring in key subcontractors and suppliers who are often able to identify alternate materials and/or systems withintheir specialties. Each division of work should be examined and evaluated for VE solutions. In past years, this process and service was considered part of the building contractors overhead. However, in today's market, some contractors will negotiate rates and be reimbursed for the time and effort that they spend in this process in the event that theproject is not awarded to them.The work breakdown structure (WBS) can be a helpful tool to the building contractor in analyzing the various components and systems within a building project. The WBS is a tree-type structure of functional systems used to classify the project on a level-by-level basis . This breakdown structure facilitates the evaluation of each system of the project from the building foundations to the completed sitework.Questions to Ask or Areas and/to Consider by WBSThis section provides a list of areas for the building contractor to examine and/or questions to ask in the WBS system level format for cost saving alternatives. Some of these changes can be accomplishedwithout major re-design cost and incorporated into the construction documents in the form of an addendum. Other changes listed would require extensive re-design and time delays.SUBSTRUCTURE—Have alternate types of foundation system been considered?wood piles in lieu of precast;drilled caissons vs. piles;mat foundations in place of piles or caissons.—Evaluate sand base in place of gravel or stone under slab on grade. SUPERSTRUCTURE—Have alternate types of building structures been evaluated?structural steel, precast concrete, cast in place concrete, light gauge steel framing or wood framing systems.—Compare Alternate Stair Systems.steel pan stairs vs. precast concrete or cast in place concrete.EXTERIOR CLOSURE—Evaluate exterior wall systems.Light gauge metal framing in lieu of reinforced concrete masonry units.Can wall widths or gauges be reduced?—Compare sheathing systems.Fiber sheathings in place of cement boards.—Review alternate wall insulation systems.Batt insulations, rigid insulation materials, loose fill block insulation.—Consider alternate exterior wall veneers.Conventional stucco versus exterior insulation finish system.Brick or precast in lieu of stone.—Evaluate alternate glazing systems.Can exterior glazed areas be reduced?Storefronts in lieu of curtainwalls if code allows.Painted aluminum in lieu of stainless steel or brass framing.—Review exterior entrances.Manual entrance doors in place of automatic entrances.Automatic entrances in lieu of revolving doors.Cedar entrance doors rather than mahogany.—Examine exterior railing systems.aluminum or cable systems in lieu of glass;standard designs in place of custom elements;ROOFING—Evaluate the specified roofing with alternative materials.Combined metal decking/insulation systems in lieu of separate systems.Interior batt insulation in place of rigid roof insulation.Built-up roofing vs. single ply membranes.Fib erglass or concrete tiles in lieu of clay tiles.Painted metals in place of copper.Can the specified gauge of metal roofing be lowered?Eliminate or reduce the guttering system?Can skylights be reduced or styles changed?Are standard warranties specified?INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION—Examine interior wall systems.Can light gauge metal-framed walls be used in lieu of concrete masonry units?Can wall thicknesses or gauges be reduced?Are drywall systems being used in lieu of plaster? Examine inte rior doors and hardware.Are the specified doors standard sizes or custom?Have alternate wood door species been considered?Have alternate hardware styles or manufacturers been compared?Can manual doors be used in lieu of automatic?Are the doo rs pre-machined for hardware installation?Compare pre-finishing doors with finishing on-site.—Review interior specialties.Have alternate types of toilet partitions been considered?Prefinished metals vs. plastic laminates.Can vinyl corner guard s be used rather than metal?Metal lockers vs. wood.Have special partitions been evaluated?Plastic veneers in lieu of wood.Can the sound rating be reduced?Defer installation?Has the access flooring system been evaluated?Standard floor f inishes rather than custom?INTERIOR FINISHES—Evaluate interior wall finishes.Painted wall finishes in lieu of wallcovering.Epoxy coatings in place of tile finishes.FRP instead of stainless steel.Are textured drywall systems being used rather than plaster?—Examine interior floor finishes.Resilient flooring vs. ceramic or wood.Ceramic flooring in lieu of stone.Tile or stone in place of terrazzo.Alternate carpet manufacturers.—Review alternate ceiling finishes.Standard ceiling vs. custom.Fiber ceiling vs. metal.CONVEYING SYSTEMS—Review specified elevators and escalators.Have alternate manufacturers been considered?Are standard interior elevator cab finishes specified or custom?Can glass walls be eliminated?Are sta ndard warranties specified?SITE PREPARATIONHas a site work analysis been performed to balance cuts and fills.SITE IMPROVEMENTSCan paved areas be reduced or more economical paving materials used?? Has resurfacing existing parking areas been conside red rather than new parking construction?Have alternate types of enclosure walls been considered?Have landscaping alternatives or substitutions been considered?Seeding in place of sodding.Reduce or change tree and plant materials.Use existin g trees and other existing landscaping.SITE CIVIL/MECHANICAL UTILITIESHave alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?Can existing site utilities be abandoned rather than removed?SITE ELECTRICAL UTILITIESHave alternate exterior lighting p ackages been compared?Have alternate utility piping materials been evaluated?CONTRACTOR OVERHEAD AND PROFITCan phasing be reduced to shorten the project duration?Can the start of the project be timed to avoid cost impact of winter conditions?F or high-rise projects; have crane and hoisting options been compared? ? Can the Owner include the Builders Risk policy?.Breaking down and analyzing the components of a building project through the work breakdown structure can aid in reduction summaries also reveal that the mechanical, electrical and plumbing(MEP) systems typically offer the greatest opportunity for cost savings due to their total significance to a project. The MEP systems normally make up between 30 to 50 percent of a building project's cost.The owners of the illustrated projects accepted cost reducing changes ranging from 6 to 14 percent of the original low bids. These reductions allowed themto meet their particular budgets and have their projects constructed by incorporating the changes into addendums. Some projects may be so far over budget that substantial structural and/or building redesigns are unavoidable. However, building contractors can play a major role in bringing projects into budget—using their past experience along with their subcontractor and supplier networks to develop cost reduction alternatives that may not have been previously considered by owners and/or design teams.设计阶段后承包商在降低施工成本方面所扮演的角色作者：Waddle,Todd W.国籍：英国出处：营销的智慧与计划2008.11.05，第14-21页从最近的新闻报道中可以明显的看出，通货膨胀的压力和建筑产业的不断发展使很多工程项目超出了业主的预算。

工商管理专业企业薪酬管理中英文对照外文翻译文献

企业薪酬管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Enterprise Salary Reward Management Salary the overall function of function and the management of human resource that rewards is consistent also for is can attract and encourage the human resource needed by enterprise from labor economy angle speak salary reward have 3 great merits can: guarantee function, encourage function and regulation function. Referring to the angle of the management of human resource salary reward should embody and play mainly it's encourage function the salary with reasonable establishment reward management system is every problem that enterprise needs solve. In recent years, as enterprise manages , mechanism change and establish modern enterprise system step by step needs, the built-in wages degree of assignment system of enterprise the self who changes enterprise into gradually from government behavior. Therefore how to meet market needs establish with modern enterprise system appearance the supplemental salary, that suits enterprise self development reward management system and distribution scheme, high limit land development enterprise human resource Ian can, become every important program of current Chinese enterprise.Salary the substance that rewarded , it is that enterprise, for employee, is the contribution done by enterprise that function and purpose salary reward , include realization Jig effect , the corresponding repayment and that effort, time, knowledge, ability, experience and creation pay that paid out or thank. Essentially, it is a kind of fair distribution principle that exchanges or trades and has embodied socialist market economy. And according to contribution distribution for implicit the meaning of the exchange of equal value of intrinsic, have reflected the law of value of the market of labor force.Salary the overall function of function and the management of human resource that rewards is consistent, it is also to be able to attract and encourage the human resource needed by enterprise. Say from labor economy angle, salary reward have 3 great merits can ─ guarantee function, encourage function and regulation function. Referring to the angle of the management of human resource salary reward should embody and play mainly it's encourage function.The existent problem of the traditional wages degree of assignment system is internal to lack fair sense, the external income degree of assignment system that lacks the traditional state-owned enterprise of competition ability major special Zhen is implement planned instruction and policy regulation, wages management system from in the restriction that gets planned economy , employee Ian can reality play will not often arouse the notice of people, so, the distribution of wages is major to wait according to standing, educational background, title and administrative rank, and overlook as every employee does , work analysis, do not more consider the discrepancy of working post and the contribution of employee.For realizing enterprise goal fully. It is very fair that this kind of system look , but actually is for working value negate , is hard to embody trunk the good dry difference of bad, horizontal difference in degree, its result can only be the "everybody eating from the same pot" of equalitarianism. Therefore under market economic condition continue this kind of practice Hour fruit is enterprise recruit do not enter person also reserve do not live person, is internal to lack fair sense , is external to lack competition ability.Salary reward is the contribution that enterprise does for employee for enterprise, include realization Jig effect, the time, knowledge, ability, experience and creation and effort that paid out are corresponding as paying to repay or thank , are a kind of fair distribution principle that exchanges or trades and has embodied socialist market economy essentially, and according to contribution distribution for implicit the meaning of the exchange of equal value of intrinsic, have reflected the law of value of the market of labor force.On knowledge with the mistake district in operation pass , the function understanding that rewarded for salary on pass frequently in quite, notice salary only the function of health protection that rewards , and have overlooked salary reward encourage function. No matter going to work , do not perform duty from time to tome , have to enterprise to make contribution, " go to work to take money" have become perfectly justified; Bonus in considerable level on have lost the meaning of award, become regular additional wages. What enterprise employee accumulates for a long period is that inertia and safe sense make salary reward and have lost, should be some to encourage function. Though along with enterprise, being thorough as reforming , the manager of human resource also begins to explore new method on salary rewards system , but when designing distribution scheme often lack for modern salary reward the knowledge of theoretical and design method, make scheme deviate from the law of value of the market of labor force.Now, in the wages system of state-owned enterprise and the most of domestic joint stock companies, do not consider that outside and the internal balance of distribution are balanced. The management of human resource replace labor personnel management not the simpledisplacement of noun, it signifies that from thought and theory, the method of arriving is basic as utilizing to change. Thus each manager must meet the development of socioeconomic culture; system accepts new management thought, theory and method, sets up the brand-new management concept of human resource.Design salary scientifically to reward the distribution scheme Japanese economic friendship association of central section encourage condition for the first big small and medium sized business to third production department carry out investigation, show as a result: In initiating vigor factor wages the only row position of 8th, and in weakening vigor factor, wages row is in the first place. It is been wages high that this explains and can not initiate vigor, and wages low definite reduction, vigor, therefore the difference in degree of pay for promote employee enthusiasm aspect influence great. Now a lot of western companies in salary reward aspect the experience of having explored some successes , share for example profit , profit share , stock option, employee holds share plan ( EOSP ) , is balanced to tally to block , key Jig effect index and group team spirit, and when establishing salary to reward policy, have considered the relation of short period, mid-term and long-term pay fully , and design for special talent " special salary reward scheme ", purpose is to make salary reward distribution scheme with encourage machine made , arouse creativity and the working enthusiasm of employee group team fully.Reward salary to fit into market economic category manage will salary reward fit into market economic category manage , from the distribution mechanism, 3 distribution management big aspects and degree of assignment system, carry out bold innovation. The degree innovation of assignment system is basic, distribution machine made innovation is crucial, management innovation is basic.Establish in order to press Lao distribution is main part. According to the salary the distribution of factor of production reward distribution structure establishment press Lao distribution with press factor of production distribution combination get up salary reward the degree of assignment system, it is the inevitable requirement of the development of socialist market economy, therefore modern enterprise salary reward distribution structure should be with press Lao distribution is main part , press Lao distribution with press factor of production the basic general layout distribution. Part is the income degree of assignment system in the row in cost, part is in tax Hour the degree of essential factor of assignment system of row in profit, make salary reward the technical, knowledge capital profit of distribution scheme design and employee labor income and employee appearance suit.Lead into market distribution mechanism, make the market and price of labor force conform the market price of labor force is the market labor rate that forms through marketcompetition, is decided by the supply demand relations of labor force. Therefore when designing salary to reward distribution scheme, will consider the market price of labor force, establish the price system of labor force of different post, post and related enterprise, regard it as the basic salary of enterprise inside to reward San shine standard, with the fully embodiment value of labor force, guide the reasonably floating and optimization disposition of labor force.Consider both enterprise benefit, establish the high benefit capital of senior engineer, the distribution idea of low being it low wages press Lao distribution must be the benefit distribution that created according to labor, if a product that worker offers (service) the needs that can not satisfy society, that Me him can not get the labor pay that reflects with market price, therefore must consider both the economic benefits of enterprise.According to employee working ability and accomplishment, pull open distribution gap reasonably, hang pay and contribution ability finger working complete level, through the goal reached or the effect realized, the latent ability that reflects and has denotes knowledge with ability synthesize to gr asp level as well as experience accumulation level. Salary the role that rewards for is will encourage employee all abilities of having self play, but these abilities must be level and the knowledge of place post first needs. Work accomplishmentwork Jig the size of effect, from the difference in ability can difference. Therefore the pay that worker gets should not be also identical. It is for enterprise, what is beneficial to it really is that the actual labor accomplishment of worker, therefore contribute big have to serve move should get higher pay.Establishment the salary " found on people " reward the system Japanese Hamburg shop of McDonald’s can give employee family members every year always the bonus of a considerable number; When they pass birthday, can send person to send last fresh flower. American chain hospital company in salary reward payment in much a extra bonus ─ " have oxygen sport challenge plan ", employee must reach every month minimum standard as jog 30 miles, play wall ball for 15 hours above etc., can be just qualified bonus. Haier in salary reward the system design of payment aspect is difference " the horse in 1000 the competitive platform " it is not same to put up and have built " ", as ordinary employee carries out , " 3 works coexist , development conversion " ─ excellent worker, qualified worker and trial worker, enter factory worker all recently have certain probation period , expire acceptable turn for qualified worker, otherwise, excellent worker turns probably because of working fault, is qualified worker or trial worker. It is 4 level development checks that according to excellent middle-level administrator, what Haier carry out is taking regularly check result as basis, it is " give your a ship, advance or retreat to float Sheen lean self " to design for the base salary ofbrainpower, according to the commission of economic benefits that new product gets in the market, get salary to reward.It is identical that the effect of leading work depends on the campaign in subordinate mainly, but each subordinate does not let in the aspects such as ability and wishes. Therefore leader must so implement different leading way as subordinate is going to analyze and find out discrepancy carefully , then can get the leading effect of the best. It is also such toreward systematic design for salad rye, employee demand has discrepancy, different employee or same employee in not at the same time wait demand possible difference. Forlow wages crowd, the role of bonus is very important; For taking in higher crowd especially knowledge share is with management cadre , promote post , respect personality, appointment title and encouragement the freely degree etc. of innovation and work look more important; For being engage in , it is heavy, dangerous. The physical labor with bad environment staff, the possibilities such as labor protection, labor condition and post subsidy are effective. Therefore to make salary reward system to develop larger effect, first want the needs for employee have ample understanding. If leader wants to make encouraging level for subordinate reach the biggest demand that melts and must value them, knows the variation of demand and makes positive reaction, embody really found on people thought.企业薪酬管理薪酬管理的功能和人力资源管理的功能总体来说是一致的。

工商管理外文参考文献翻译

工商管理外文参考文献翻译外文参考文献翻译题目: 城市之星客户服务管理浅析学院: 经济管理学院专业:工商管理班级: 0601学号: 200607080130学生姓名: 雷月茜导师姓名: 胡琳完成日期: 2010年04月23日一、外文参考文献原文All too often, marketers of homogenous products fail to identifytheir competitive advantage, resulting in dismal results. Similarly, SME participants find it difficult to identify such competitive advantages. Fortunately, the Franchise Model facilitates the notion of ‘ being in business for yourself, but not on your own’. The reason for this caseis to facilitatecompetitive advantage within a Home Entertainment SME Franchise environment, enabling participants to successfully compete with thecorporate environment. The outcome is to identify and implement Service Profit Chain (Heskett et al, 1997) initiatives, linking customer service to long term profitability and growth.The home video industry is a product of technology. Prior to the introduction of the home VCR in 1976, there was no way to watch movies at home, except as shown on broadcast television, and no one had thought of a retail store where movies could be rented for the night. In the course of the past quarter-century, those VCR's and those video rental stores became the foundation for a US$ 17 billion industry.This study researches the Home Entertainment Video Rental industry, consisting predominantly of SME home entertainment outlets. The particular analysis is in a leading South African Franchise system, consisting of family owned ‘Franchisees’.The service profit chain will centre on analysis from the 'gurus' on the topic, specific reference to " The Service Profit Chain- how Leading Companies Link Profit and Growth to Loyalty, Satisfaction, and Value, as depicted by Heskett. J, Sasser. W, Schlesinger. L, (1997). Concepts, models and frameworks will also be researched from leading customer service oriented organizations, including Southwest Airlines, Xerox, Wal-mart, Taco Bell, Au Bon Pain Restaurants, British Airways, and other relevant leaders in their respective fields.The service profit chainwill be analysed from the above sources, whereby customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and customer value are linked to the long term profitability and growth of Blockbusters Video.CRM systems have become the rule for customer service centers. Now managers are taking the next step; to arm their agents with a knowledge base that can deliver fast, accurate answers. They are reaping the benefits of integrating a true knowledge management system with CRM - such as decreasing escalation rates, shorter call times and increased first call resolution.Customer relationship management (CRM) solutions have been widely accepted by1global enterprises seeking to improve customer satisfaction and retention. But it takes more than just technology to maintain customer relationships. It takes improved business processes and a method for providing customers with the information that they demand in anefficient and effective manner. This is where knowledge management (KM) comes in to play in the customer interaction center.Today, industry experts recommend customer service and support knowledge bases as a critical component of successful CRM. According to Tim Hickernell, senior analyst with the META Group, "Service strategies that include knowledge bases, accessible to both agents and customers across all deployed points of interaction, can optimize cost of service and increase customer satisfaction by providing a more consistent customer experience." META concludes that by 2004, companies seeking customer service superiority will add cross-channel knowledge bases and escalation capabilities .Knowledge management is often an enterprisewide initiative...a discipline that encompasses managing and sharing knowledge across all departments within an organization. However, quite often organizations choose to kick-off KM on a departmental basis. With customersatisfaction as a mission-critical driver for all businesses, especially today when repeat business from existing customers can make or break a company, many companies are choosing to invest in knowledge managementfor their customer contact centers. Other common implementations occur within IT help desks, human resources departments and sales organizations. It's important to remember that organizations must tailor KM processes and tools to the specific needs and goals of each department.Today, knowledge management is not just for agents accessing a knowledge base. Allowing customer access to self-service knowledge bases is a must. The bonus of Web self-service (also referred to as e-service or online self-help) is that customers are happier with your company if they can quickly and easily find answers without having to contact the call center, and companies can reduce operating expenses by deflecting queries to the Web.It's not enough, however, to put the information on the Web and ask your customer to go find it. You need to make the information timely, accurate, easy to find and in the format that most customers want. By knowledge-enabling your online customer service, you empower customersto find answers quickly through dynamic FAQs or knowledge search engines.Both FAQs and search engines must generate dynamic responses in order to be useful, meaning that they must learn and adapt from usage. This type of technology is referred to as a self-learning2search engine. To be considered a true self-learning search, the system must learn from previous experiences had by customers withsimilar issues. It must be self-organizing, in that it is always moving the most relevant information to the top of the search results. It also must be tied into a reporting system that monitors knowledge usage - which items in the knowledge base are being used most frequently and which are not being accessed.At its simplest, customer service is being influenced andrevitalized by information technology. Regardless of how one visualizes customer service, either from a logistics or marketing perspective, information technology now assumes an important role in customer service. Information technology is a powerful tool or enabler in the arena of customer service. Information technology is essentially in the processof migration, from the support function to the front-line functions where the customer is served, as indeed is customer service itself.In particular, the degree of marketing orientation and itsrelationship to both customer service and information technologyrequires further quantitative measurement. A greater understanding would facilitate marketing managers in identifying other areas in which information technology may be of use.One of the most remarkable features of the debate on workplaceskills over the last few years has been the increasing emphasis placedon soft skills and attitudes. In part this is because work itself is changing. The rise of the service sector has meant that increasing numbers of people in employment are (at least in part) delivering a service and are themselves part of the process being sold. This is perhaps most dramatically apparent where the ‘service’ is itself entertainment. In Disneyworld staff are expected to be physically attractive, friendly, helpful, smiling and able to follow scripted exchanges (Van Maanen, 1991). But these dramatic elements and the emphasis on aesthetic and emotional ‘skills’ are not restricted to the entertainment industry, rather they are increasingly accepted as a‘normal’ aspect of servicework (Hancock and Tyler, 2000). So staff in restaurants, bars and hotels are hired on (and groomed in) aspects of their looks (Nickson et al., 2001); flight attendants are monitored onlooks, weight and consistent helpfulness (Hochschild, 1983); andcall centre workers are expected to infuse their voice with appropriate emotions (Callaghan and Thompson, 2002; Wray-Bliss, 2001; Taylor andT yler, 2000). Even official reviews of the state of the nation’s skills emphasis personal qualities and attributes (Skills Task Force). Work, it seems, is increasingly about appearing, being andfeeling as well as doing.The picture presented in these organisations is not one of opening the public sector to3market forces or responsiveness to customers but of confusion. Here additional levels of monitoring and new performance measures are introduced and customer service was emphasised often over areas where those serving have little control. As might be predicted, the implications for employee skills are also mixed. At one level training, at least in areas relevant to customer service, is increasing at others technical skills still needed to complete the work are not being reproduced and it is difficult to see, rhetorical or structurally, many incentives for them to be developed in the future.Most chief executives say that customer satisfaction is a number-one priority for their companies. Given a little background information on what has really transpired in their companies, however, many will admit that pressures for short-term results create thinking processes and decisions that often negatively impacts customer service. Management needs to carefully and critically assess how their companies have performed at developing and implementing a customer-focused service strategy.Too many companies limp along with less than top-notch customer service.Well-intentioned goals to achieve and sustain a high level of customer service often exist. Yet, customer service is often one ofthose perpetual problems in the process of being solved, but without measurable results. Executive management is often very frustrated with the seeming inability to solve the customer service competitive dilemma once and for all.Customer service is a competitive weapon that can easilydifferentiate one supplier from another. A lot of talk today is centered on quality, new processes and systems, continuous improvement and the like, b ut it must be aimed at customer satisfaction or it isn’t worth muchover the longer term. The same old way of doing business is just not good enough; the complex job of redefining and implementing new processes, policies, systems and measurement are mandatory to solidify your company’s future.In most industries, customers have become more sophisticated and demanding of their supply chains. Suppliers that offer the most in customer-defined quality products, pricing and quickorder turnaroundwill outperform their competitors and easily gain more marketshare in the future as customers clamor for more. For management, a high level of customer service must become a measurable result.The discipline to adhere to a good customer service and operational strategy can create substantial rewards. A notable example of effective strategy and disciplined adherence is Dell Computer. Dell provides its customers with a quality product, flexible product configurations,4quick response and a reasonable price. The marketplace responded by buying more and more product from Dell and its stock went up 10.000 percent over the past five years.World class companies have taken more market share by providing notably better customer service. Executives know that to stand out in a crowded field of competitors, customer service is a very critical component in achieving and maintaining a high level of customer satisfaction. When pressures move the organization to meet only performance goals and measurements such as overhead absorption, shipping dollar targets, labor efficiency, purchase price variance and the like, however, customer service often takes a back seat to these other concerns. The result can be a plunge in customer satisfaction and ultimately, if allowed to continue, an erosion in market share.Finally, and in broad terms, the evolution and revolution of customer service will continue and therefore deserves further investigation. Specifically, empirical research should aim tocrystallize the transitional process and variables necessary for an organization to broaden its definition and understanding of customer transaction service to customer relationship service. This should assist marketing academics and managers face the competitive challenges of a new century.二、外文参考文献翻译很多时候，营销的同质产品不能确定自己的竞争优势，在令人沮丧的结果产生。

工商管理英文文章

工商管理英文文章Business ManagementBusiness management refers to the process of organizing, coordinating, and controlling various business activities to achieve the desired goals and objectives of a company. It involves a range of activities, such as strategic planning, organizing resources, leading and motivating employees, and monitoring performance.Strategic planning is a crucial aspect of business management. It involves setting long-term goals and objectives for the company and formulating strategies to achieve them. Strategic planning helps a company identify its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, and develop plans to leverage its strengths and minimize weaknesses. It also involves analyzing the external environment, including market trends, competitor strategies, and regulatory factors, to identify opportunities and threats.Organizing resources is another key function of business management. It involves allocating and arranging various resources, such as financial, human, and physical resources, to ensure the smooth running of business operations. Effective resource management helps optimize the utilization of resources, leading to increased productivity and cost savings. It also involves designing organizational structures and processes that facilitate effective communication, coordination, and decision-making within the company.Leading and motivating employees is an essential aspect of business management. Effective leadership is crucial for inspiringand guiding employees towards achieving the company's goals. It involves providing a clear vision, setting performance expectations, and fostering a positive work environment. Motivation strategies, such as rewards, recognition, and development opportunities, help boost employee morale and productivity. Effective communication and teamwork also play a significant role in leading and motivating employees.Monitoring performance is a critical function of business management. It involves tracking and evaluating the performance of various business activities and processes to ensure that they are aligned with the company's goals. Key performance indicators (KPIs) are used to measure progress and identify areas for improvement. Regular performance reviews and feedback sessions help in identifying and addressing performance gaps. Monitoring performance enables companies to make informed decisions and take corrective actions to enhance overall business performance.In today's rapidly changing business environment, effective business management is more important than ever. It enables companies to adapt to market trends, stay competitive, and achieve sustainable growth. It involves analyzing data, leveraging technology, and embracing innovation to drive business success. Moreover, strong ethical and social responsibility practices are integral to responsible business management.In conclusion, business management encompasses a range of activities aimed at achieving desired business goals and objectives. It involves strategic planning, organizing resources, leading and motivating employees, and monitoring performance. Effectivebusiness management enables companies to navigate the challenges of the business landscape and achieve sustainable success.。

工商管理外文翻译外文文献英文文献企业文化的变革

The Evolution of the Culture of EnterpriseAbstractAt the top echelons of contemporary business, managers are becoming concerned with the unsustainability of the way companies now operate. A transformation of basic business strategies appears more and more indicated. For such transformation to be effective, the culture of the enterprise--the goals it pursues and the vision of these goals entertained by managers and collaborators--needs to change. Consequently there is a growing questioning of the viability of the typical culture of today's enterprise, and a search for more functional and timely concepts for creating anew and more timely cultural pattern.The leading edge of the globally operating world of business is becoming keenly concerned with changes in today's social, economic, and ecologic environment. At the top echelons of management an intense search is under way for up-to-date modes of thinking and acting. It comes to the fore in the emphasis managers place on corporate strategy, corporate identity, corporate philosophy, even corporate ethics. An organizational revolution is underway, as managers seek to communicate their vision with their collaborators. The importance of communication among all branches and levels of the enterprise is becoming recognized. It is also recognized that the company can only function when people under-stand what goals management pursues, and what their own role is in the achievement of the goals.Enterprise cultureThe ongoing transformation of the enterprise culture is a positive factor in our changing and unpredictable world. It means that companies are becoming moresensitive to the changes that obtain in their environment, and more ready to respond to them. The new emphasis on management and company ethics also suggests that businesses are willing to assume the responsibility that goes with their larger role in society. Global enterprises wield unprecedented power and influence, and the transformation of their culture will be a critical factor in deciding the evolution of our interdependent socio-economic and ecologic systems–and therewith our individual and collect future.The transformation of the enterprise culture is timely: the company culture dominant for most of this century became obsolete. It focused on the workings of the enterprise without much regard for its social and ecologic environment; it operated on the premise that the business of business is business--if it comes up with good products or services, it fulfills all its obligations vis-a-vis society and nature. The self-centered methods of the traditional management philosophy no longer produce acceptable results--they are like concentrating all one's skills on flying an airplane and paying scant attention to the airspace in which one is flying. The captains of contemporary business cannot be solely concerned with the internal functioning of their aircraft: they must also set a course in reference to climatic conditions, current position and projected destination, and the traffic on the network of routes criss-crossing the globe. That traffic is diversified and complex. It includes, in addition to customers, suppliers, distributors, R&D partners, technology subcontractors, and governmental departments and ministries, and numerous other cooperative and competitive aircraft, together with the social, ecologic, and even cultural milieu of the various bases of operation.Global companies no longer resemble a giant mechanism, controlled by those on top. This is new in the history of modern business. For most of the 20th century, top management could command the company structures without being influenced by, or even much concerned with, its lower echelons. Motivation for task-fulfillment wascreated by material incentives bolstered by threats; individual creativity and initiative were dismissed as unnecessary nuisance. Power was concentrated, together with responsibility and overview; middle management had access only to the information that was immediately relevant to its tasks. Following the recipes prescribed in Frederick Taylor's "scientific management", the distribution of tasks was established at headquarters and the company's functions were divided into individual work components. Planning was based on a belief in control and predictability, effects were traced to causes, and causes were quantitatively analyzed. Company operations based on cause-effect chains were given value independent of time and place: as in a machine, it was held that the same input would always produce the same output. This was the philosophy of the leading companies of the 20th century; the model for success at General Motors and Standard Oil, and the rest of the Fortune 500 group.The economic growth-environment of the post-war period did not provide grounds to modify, or even question, this philosophy. Almost anything an enterprising manager would try had a knack of succeeding; he could even engage in personal bravado. Technological progress seemed assured, and expanding markets seemed to distribute the benefits of growth. The post-war economy welcomed all entrepreneurs; they could grow as the economy did. Long-term costs, if any, were hidden in the long term. In that regard businessmen were fond of quoting Keynes: in the long term we shall all be dead. If things get better and better, why bother to look further than one's nose? There was no need to worry whether or not there would be progress, it was enough to guess what shape it would take, and how the company could benefit from it.In the 1970s and '80s the situation had changed. The economic growth curve flattened out and optimistic extrapolations failed to come true. Social alienation and anomie rose, and technology produced unexpected side-effects: scares and catastrophes at Three Mile Island, Bhopal, and Chernobyl, the ozone hole over theAntarctic, recurrent instances of acid rain and oil spill, and worsening environmental pollution in cities and on land. Belief in progress was shaken. Intellectuals and youth groups found it necessary, and some segments of society fashionable, to espouse the view that technological advance is dangerous and should be halted. Environmental effects and social value-change began to enter as factors in the equations of corporate success, and leading managers, together with consultants and management theorists, began to reexamine their operative assumptions.By the late 1980s further changes occurred in the operating environment. Environmental concerns moved from the fringes of society into the marketplace; people proved amenable to paying higher prices for products they deemed environmentally friendly; and they were known to boycott companies that remained environmentally polluting or unresponsive. New information and communication technologies came on line, markets became integrated and internationalized, product cycles became shorter and product lines diversified, and clients and consumers demanded shorter delivery times and higher quality. Competition moved into the global arena. Under these circumstances classically run hierarchical enterprises proved unable to cope. The centralization of information and its slow one-way penetration to lower echelons produced fatal mistakes-and then terminal rigidity. The companies that survived did so by transforming themselves into team-oriented multi-level decision-making and implementation structures, often in the nick of time.In the late 1990s the diffusion of information and the growth in the intensity and number of interfaces between people, departments, and divisions have radically changed the company's operative structures. Not only information, also people emerged as the key resource of the enterprise; teamwork proved to be the best way this resource could be tapped. The boundary between the company and its economic, social, and ecologic environment turned fuzzy. Within the business sphere fusions, alliances, and partnerships became commonplace. In many cases the core activities ofthe enterprise came to be sub-contracted, and work relations with other firms became as operative as company-based organizational structures. Reliance on distributors and suppliers, and linkage to local communities and ecologies turned into standard parameters of corporate functioning.Under these circumstances, there is a dire need for new and adapted management concepts. There is no dearth of advice. Theorists speak of activity bundling and the company' capacity to sustainably capture the highest portion of the total industry value-added chain's profit margin; strategy specialists emphasize the need for management to focus on dynamic competitive positioning and customer-driven processes; technology consultants stress the importance of anticipatory R&D in both products and processes; and organizational experts insist on the need for learning within net-worked teams operating beyond established company structures. Leading managers realize that their vision of the company's functioning within its global environment, and its adaptability to changes and trends in that environment, is at least equal in importance to their ability to formulate strategy and carry out operations.Management guru Tom Peters called intellectual capital a company's greatest resource, and consultants Gary Hamel and named future vision its greatest competitive advantage, more valuable than a large bank account or a lean organization. Managers who possess intellectual capital and future vision have a sense of purpose, avoid wasting time on useless experiments and dead-ends, and elicit deep commitment from their collaborators. In today's world effective leadership calls for a sound knowledge not only of current company operations and resources, but of its ability to reach strategic, financial, and organizational objectives in the years ahead. This requires considerable acumen. Because the future, as Charles Handy pointed out, could be most anything, but is not likely to be a continuation of the past.Though the enterprise needs a new and different culture, that culture must be efficient: it must enable executives to cope with ever less predictable economic conditions; offer sufficient flexibility to use new technologies as they come on line; develop adaptability for the company to enter new fields of activity and leave old ones as the opportunities present themselves; and keep track of the growing interdependence of the company with its partners and competitors and its economic and financial environment. But the new culture must also be ethical. It must recognize the impacts of the enterprise on society and on nature, and even on the conditions that we bequeath on future generations. And it must be ready to accept responsibility for these impacts.Accepting responsibility in the sphere of society and nature is not only good common sense, it is also good business sense. There are no longer definite boundaries where where a company ends and society and nature begins. The basic enduring interests of the enterprise and its social and ecological environment coincide. What is good for society and for nature is also good for the company--hence what is ultimately good for the company must also be good for society and for nature. This coincidence of interests will not change in the future; on the contrary, it will become more pronounced. The successful managers of the future will be those that recognize this fact and act on it. They will be effective as well as ethical: leaders of responsible corporate citizens in the global socio-economic-ecological system that is already emerging worldwide.Corporate cultureCorporate culture is the glue, if you will, that holds an organization together. It incorporates an organization’s values, its norms of behavior, its policies and its procedures. The most important influence on corporate culture is the national culture of the country in which the corporation is based. That may seem obvious, but thereare other factors that also help to shape a corporation’s culture—its views of and its interactions with the “outside world.” The ownership structure of the company will go a long way in defining a corporate culture. For example, the culture of a family-owned firm is likely to be quite different from that of a publicly held company. Also, the industry that the corporation is part of will help shape its cultural values. For example, a high-tech computer software firm (a relatively young industry) is likely to have a much more informal and entrepreneurial culture than say that of an investment bank (a mature industry). And, likewise, an organization in a service industry will have a different culture than that of a manufacturing or mining company. Differences in the corporate culture of organizations in the same home culture and industry may still be profound—sometimes as profound as the differences between national cultures themselves.Corporate-culture componentsLike national culture, corporate culture has some basic components that make up the whole. While national cultural components include such things as language, religion, and humor, the components of corporate culture tend to be more utilitarian. No one single component can reveal the true internal make-up of a corporation but when they are taken as a whole, they present a clear picture of a company’s values and goals. The key corporate cultural components are:●The system of rewardsWhat type of employee behavior is appreciated and rewarded? Do risk takers move up in management ranks or does the corporation reward loyalty and long-term service instead?●Hiring decisionsThe type of individual a company hires says much about its culture. Is a company ready to grow and accept new ideas by hiring a diverse workforce or is it content tokeep hiring the same type of individual to build a homogeneous workforce?●Management structureDoes the corporation have a rigid hierarchical structure? Is it managed by an executive committee or a dominating chairman?●Risk-taking strategyWhat is the corporation’s view of risk? Does it encourage taking chances, trying new products and markets? Or is it content with well-established markets and products?●Physical settingIs the office an open plan that encourages communication and a sense of egalitarianism? Or are management offices segregated from the staff workplace? Is headquarter a monument to ownership or a functional working environment?National cultural influencesAs explained previously, Asians place a high value on concept associated with social harmony, while Westerners put greater emphasis on individuals’ rights and responsibilities. It is no surprise to find that Japanese corporations almost always place great emphasis on group harmony in their corporate cultures. They design a system that rewards conformity, hire staff that is relatively homogeneous and tend to shy away from risk-taking and the entrepreneurial spirit. By the same token, it should be no surprise that many American corporations are likely to hire an entrepreneurial type and reward risk. There is no escaping the fact that a national culture shapes corporate responsibilities, practices and traditions.A pair of studies, one regarding six Asian nations completed in 1996 by Wirthlin Worldwide, and one regarding North America conducted in 1994 by David I. Hitchcock of the center for strategic and International Studies, revealed striking differences between the most cherished values of Asian and North American businessexecutives. These studies underscore the point that national cultures do have paramount influence on the formation of corporate cultures.In Asia the top seven values listed by executives were:1.hard work2.respect for learning3.honesty4.openness to new ideas5.accountability6.self-discipline7.self-relianceThe top seven north American (United States and Canada)values were:1.freedom of expression2.personal freedom3.self-reliance4.individual rights5.hard work6.personal achievement7.thinking for one’s selfCause and effectIf you look at the traits emphasized by the business executives, you can begin to build a corporate culture—albeit a stereotype—of an Asian firm and a North American firm and to understand the differences in management technique and skills between Asian corporations and North American ones. In Asia, there is no mention of individual rights or any hint of reward for “thinking for one’s self.” Hence, the type of organizational structure that5 has emerged across Asia is one of a very hierarchical, bureaucratic corporation that values such int angibles as “respect for learning” and“honesty.” By the same token, taking the values stressed by North American executives, you would expect to find corporations that are less structured and more entrepreneurial than Japanese ones—and, in general, that is very much the case. Remember, though, that within the same home culture, you still get vast differences in corporate culture. While IBM and Compaq may be in the same country and in the same industry, their corporate cultures in many ways are different.One interesting footnote from these studies was that female Asian executives had a value profile that more closely resembled that of North American. Asian women focus more on independence and self-reliance while Asian men focus more on harmony and order. This difference may be due to the fact that women have been shut out of the “old boys’ network” and have been forced to rely more on entrepreneurial skills than Asian males to succeed.Profitable corporate cultureThe concept of corporate culture is all well and good but does the concept have any measurable impact on a corporation’s bottom line or on staff behavior? It certainly does, though the impact is difficult to quantify. Having a strong corporate culture provides a clear sense of identity for staff, clarifies behavior and expectations and usually makes decision making fairly easy because so much is already defined. People know where they stand and what is expected of them. However, a strong corporate culture also has a downside. Any corporation that has an entrenched culture will find change difficult. The inabilities to be flexible, to act quickly and to change rapidly are all competitive disadvantages in the global market economy. A weak corporate culture will simply have little influence on employee behavior.Then it comes to the bottom line, it is important for a corporation to have a culture of accountability. With a strong accountability culture, a corporation can avoid imposing a costly monitoring system which often hurts employee morale anddiminishes productivity.Finally, if you have a weak or mistrusting corporate culture, employees will vote “with their feet.” In a tight labor market the bad workers will drive out the good and the situation gets even worse. A corporation will always need some type of controls but the goal is to have as few controls as possible—just enough to ensure that people don’t violate the rules.Employee reactionsIn truth, measuring the positive or negative impact of a corporate culture on a company’s bottom line re mains an elusive goal. Most companies do not quantify the effects of corporate culture. According to a 1996 global survey of business executives in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Holland, the United Kingdom and the United states done by the consultants Proudfoot PLC, only38 percent of companies indicated that they measured the effects of their efforts to change corporate culture. Yet 86 percent claimed their culture change programs are successful. Methods of measurement included employee surveys the most common practice overall), meetings, independent surveys and informal feedback. Despite the inability to measure impact, more than half of all executives surveyed (52percent) felt that corporate culture contributes a great deal to the success of their companies. They just couldn’t say how much with any great amount of certainty.Views of successThe main goal of any corporation is to be successful. But how you define success will, of course, have an impact on how you organize our business and its culture. Again, the influence of national culture and local expectations play a paramount role in determining the corporate view. Wirthlin Consulting’s Worldwide Monitor finds what consumers in 13 countries view as for a corporation. Most consumers saidproducing the very best products and services defined success (indicating their individualistic cultures). However, in Japan, the most notable attribute was caring about the country’s social and environmental needs—a throwback to the culture’s emphasis on the importance of the group over the individual. In Italy, if a company was well run and well managed, then it was thought to be successful--an indication of concern about that culture’s history of chaotic politics and business management. In Mexico, a stable and profitable corporation was the benchmark of success. From these responses you can see the difficulties of attempting to set up a corporate culture that can effectively move across borders and meet the diverse needs of consumers in different countries.The ideal corporate cultureIt would be impossible to give precise detail on what the perfect type of corporate culture should be for a global company. It depends so much on the cultures you are operating in, the subject industry and the basic cultural components. However, there are some basic traits:Any culture needs to develop a sense of accountability among staff and employees.It needs to be coherently transmitted across cultures. If it is too akin to the headquarters’ culture, employees simply won’t accept it.Think locally, act consistently. While flexibility is important, there must be a consistent application of principles across cultures.It must be attuned to the competitive requirements of the world market and be able to change to adapt to new market conditions.Ervin Laszlo， The Journal of General Evolution. 1998, Vol. 52. pp. 181-186.企业文化的变革艾尔文.拉兹洛在当代商业的高层阶级中，经理们开始考虑不能保持公司现在的运行模式。

工商管理专业Strategic-marketing营销策略大学毕业论文英文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：营销策略文献、资料英文题目：Strategic marketing文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：工商管理（金融企业方向）班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14外文翻译专业：工商管理（金融企业管理方向）外文原文：Strategic marketing①No matter how good the organization's products or services, unless their value can be communicated to potential customers, the organization will fail in its mission. This co mmunication is the responsibility of the marketing function within the organization. A ccording to the American Marketing Association, marketing is "an organizational func tion and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to custo mers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization an d its stakeholders." Strategic marketing examines the marketplace to determine the ne eds of potential customers and the nature of the competitors in the market, and attemp ts to develop a strategy that will enable the organization to gain or maintain acompetit ive advantage in the marketplace. Operational marketing is built upon the foundation set by the strategic marketing function and implements various plans and strategies (in cluding a development of the appropriate marketing mix) to attract customers and fost er customer loyalty.Methods for Product & Service MarketingThere a number of ways to market one's products or services including advertising, di rect response, sales promotions, and publicity. However, unless one understands the n eeds of the customer, the market, and the industry as well as the strengths and weakne sses of the competition, these approaches are unlikely to be successful. Strategic mark eting helps an organization sharpen its focus and successfully compete in the marketpl ace. Strategic marketing is concerned with two components: The target market and the①Marketing strategy (Research: A. Ruth marketing organization and marketing, America press 2008: 1-1)best way to communicate the value of one's product or service to that market. The de velopment of a viable marketing strategy depends on several key dimensions. First, as with any global strategy within the organization, a successful marketing strategy need s to be endorsed by top management within the organization. Marketing strategy is als o political in nature: Powerful units within the organization may disagree on the best marketing strategy and an accord may need to be negotiated. Marketing strategies ma y also be affected by organizational culture and the assumptions that this engenders. F or example, if the organization has always marketed its widgets to business executives , it may fail to see the potential for marketing to lower level personnel within the orga nization or even for personal use to adults or teenagers.Factors that Implement Strategic Marketing Plan DevelopmentThere are a number of factors that should impact the development of a strategic mark eting plan for the organization. The first of these comprises the assets and skills that th e organization already possesses or that it can readily acquire. For example, if an orga nization has a significant programming department on the payroll, it would be feasible for it to make and market application software. However, if these personnel are alrea dy involved in other work and are not free to work on a new software project and the organization cannot afford to hire additional programmers, starting a new software lin e would be inadvisable at best. The second factor that must be considered when devel opinga marketing strategy is the market drivers. These are various political, economic, sociocultural, and technological forces that can influence the wants and needs of the c onsumer base. For example, the need to be able to handle increasing volumes of infor mation and data has led to widespread use of information technology in many industri es. Similarly, the need for a college education for an increasing number of jobs has led to a proliferation of for-profit institutions of higher education. Factors Impacting Marketing StrategyMarket drivers, however, are not the only external force that shapes one's market strat egy. The nature of the competition in the marketplace is also very important in determ ining whether or not a marketing effort will be successful. Virtually no business is wit hout competition. When buying a computer, one must choose between Mac and PC.Most soft drinks on the market are manufactured by one of two companies who offer very similar products. There is a variety of choices available when deciding where to f ill up one's car, yet most of the fuels available at the pump are virtually the same. Eac h of these businesses has its own market position and strives to keep its market share t hrough marketing efforts. Part of the strategic marketing effort is to decide how best t o differentiate oneself from the competition.Another external factor that impacts how one can best position oneself in the market i s the stage of the market or the industry life cycle. Some organizations excel, for exa mple, at being the first on the market with an innovation or new product. Others excel at taking the innovation and adapting it to the needs of the marketplace (e.g., lower pri ce, different features). In addition, there are various strategic windows that affect an or ganization's ability to successfully compete in the marketplace. A strategic window is a limited time period during which there is an optimal fit between the needs of the ma rketplace and the competencies of the organization. For example, as computer storage technology continues to evolve, the methods by which people store data and informati on change. Punch cards and magnetic tape gave way to 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch disks. T oday, more and more people are storing data and information on memory sticks instea d, and many computers are not even made with disk drives. The concept of using pun ch cards is as foreign and antiquated in most people's minds as using an abacus. Once the strategic window begins to close, it is typically best that the organization look for another opportunity.Development of Competitive StrategyTo help meet their goals and objectives, many businesses develop a competitive strate gy that will increase their competitive advantage. There are three generic approaches f or competitive strategies: (1) the provision of low cost products or services, (2) differe ntiation of products from those of the competition, and (3) focus on the market niche. Low Cost StrategyThe goal of the low cost strategy is to gain a larger market share. This is done by offer ing acceptable quality products or services at prices lower than those of the competitio n. The expectation in this strategy is that the organization will earn an acceptable return on investment by increasing volume of sales. The basic methods used in low-cost le adership strategies include reduction of overhead, buying or production costs and focu sed marketing strategies. For example, a restaurant may reduce the price of wine with the intention of making up the shortfall in profits by selling more than they did at the higher price. Similarly, a big box store may use a combination of effective manageme nt and information technology practices to reduce operation costs in order to deliver t he lowest possible prices on its merchandise.Product DifferentiationA second generic approach to competitive strategy is product differentiation. In this a pproach, the business attempts to differentiate itself from its competitors by producing a product or offering a service whose quality is perceived by customers to have uniqu e features or characteristics that set it apart from similar offerings. This strategy attem pts to build customer loyalty by offering something of value that is offered by no one else in the marketplace. In this strategy, the necessity of keeping the price of the produ ct or service down becomes less important because customers are frequently willing t o pay more to get their favorite brand. However, value can be a subjective quality and brand loyalty is not necessarily sufficient to make this strategy successful. There is a p oint beyond which most customers are no longer willing to pay a premiumprice. How ever, if carefully managed, a differentiation strategy can be highly successful. For exa mple, Merrill Lynch was able to differentiate itself from its competitors by offering int egrated financial services to attract the most desirable investors. This strategy yielded not only a well recognized and highly valued brand that differentiated Merrill Lynch f rom its competitors, but also resulted in substantial customer loyalty and a competitiv e advantage in the marketplace.Niche MarketingAnother generic approach to competitive strategy is niche marketing. In this approach , the organization seeks to gain a proportion of the total sales of a given type of produ ct or service within the marketplace. This strategy requires a concentration on one or more specific market segments based on characteristics such as buyer group, portion o f a product line or market, or geographical area. For example, rather than marketing itself as a generalist, a management consulting firm might specialize in working with th e telecommunications industry or only with businesses on the west side of metropolita n Chicago. A niche market strategy is indicated in situations where the business believ es that it can better serve a segment of the market rather than the entire market. For ex ample, in the illustration of the management consulting firm, the founding partners ma y have come out of the telecommunications industry and, therefore are more familiar with the nuances of the industry than they are with other industries. This approach put s the organization in a unique position (through a type of differentiation) to be better a ble to market to that focused segment than to the market as a whole. Consideration of Competitors in the MarketplaceTo be successful, analysis of the marketplace needs to consider not only the needs of t he customer base and the relationship between these needs and the value that can be o ffered by the organization's product or service, but also the state of the industry as a w hole as well as the position of the organization's competition within that industry. As o pposed to a market that can be defined as a group of customers with similar buying ne eds, an industry is a group of organizations (i.e., competitors) that offer similar produc ts or services to the market. Different organizations offering similar products or servic es, however, will not necessarily have the same window of opportunity. Therefore, it i s important to understand how competing firms view the market in order to develop a strategic marketing plan that will yield a significant competitive advantage. Factors that Influence Industries & the Competition within ThemThere are several factors that influence industries and competition within industries. G overnment regulation can significantly influence the profitability of an industry. Withi n the parameters set by this factor, however, there are additional factors that influence how competition works within an industry. If a number of organizations all offer simil ar products or services, for example, competition within the industry will typically be more intense. This is illustrated, for example, by the marketing slogans of two car rent al agencies several years ago. "We're number one!" exclaimed Hertz. "We try harder!" rejoined Avis. Customers, too, can influence the nature of competition within an indu stry. If the industry becomes larger, it will become more attractive to new entrants offe。

中小型民营企业内部控制研究——工商管理类外文文献翻译、中英文翻译

本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文学院专业年级班别学号学生姓名指导教师年月日摘要 (1)1 选题背景 (2)2内部控制理论的概述 (3)2.1 内部控制的根本性质 (3)2.2内部控制的责任 (3)3 确保内部控制的充分性 (5)4 先天的内部控制 (9)5 结论 (11)Abstract (12)1Background Topics (13)2 Internal control theory outlined (15)2.1 The Fundamental Nature Of Intaral Control (15)2.2 Responsibillty For Internal Control (15)3 Ensuring that the internal control adequacy (17)4 Inherent limitations of internal control (22)5 Conclusion (25)内部控制这个概念已经不是一个新概念。

这篇文章将研究每个公共部门财政经理和董事会成员应该了解的关于内部控制的内容。

在分析了虚假的财政报告的根本原因以后，Treadway 委员会把大部分的责任归咎于内部控制管理的不足。

作为回应，建立Treadway委员会的各个组织成立了一个赞助组织委员会（COSO），设法补救的Treadway委员会揭露出来的问题。

COSO为了确保此架构足够及全面的内部控制，确定了5个重要组成部分：1、控制环境；2、风险评估；3、政策及程序；4、沟通；5、监测与追踪。

一个健全的架构与内部控制是必要的，同时必须意识到这类框架是难于达到一个完美的境界。

内部控制在本质上是一种管理责任。

1选题背景内部控制这个概念已经是毫无新意的。

同样，由于私营部门最近的丑闻事件使得联邦法律重申了这个经常被忽略和议题的重要性，这篇文章将研究每一个公共部门的财政经理及董事会成员还应当了解内部控制的哪些制度。

工商管理外文翻译及译文

外文资料商管031 梅文飞 0364027Competing in the global economy: the innovation challengeRt. Hon. Tony Blair, Lord Sainsbury. Innovation Report.2003.12: 17-31，52-65. Chapter 1 The innovation challengeSummaryGlobal competition is increasing as a result of trade liberalization, technological change and reductions in transport and communication costs. UK based businesses will find it increasingly difficult to compete on low costs alone in labour intensive industries exposed to international competition. The challenge for businesses is to compete on the basis of unique value.We have defined innovation as the successful exploitation of new ideas and it is central to meeting this challenge. It involves investments in new products, processes or services and in new ways of doing business. Measures to develop the skills and creativity of the workforce are often an essential prerequisite. The speed of technological change and market responses make the challenge to innovate urgent and continuous.Overall UK innovation performance appears to be, at best, average compared to our major competitors. This is reflected in the large productivity gap that exists between the UK and its major competitors. Innovation performance accounts for a significant proportion of this gap. On the whole, UK firms face a challenge: how to raise their rate of innovation?Innovation is a complex process so understanding why the UK has a relatively modest innovation performance is not straightforward. We drew on an extensive review of the international innovation literature and consulted with a group of leading experts in the field.As a result we have identified seven critical success factors for innovation performance. They are:Sources of new technological knowledge；Capacity to absorb and exploit new knowledge；Access to finance；Competition and entrepreneurship；Customers and suppliers；The Regulatory environment；Networks and collaboration.They help us to identify current strengths and weaknesses of the UK innovation system. A highly abridged summary is provided in this chapter but the more detailedanalysis is contained in an accompanying economic report.Our vision is of the UK as a key knowledge hub in the global economy. A country that will have maintained its outstanding tradition in the advance of scientific and technological knowledge while developing a similar level of performance in turning knowledge into exciting and novel products and services.The Report complements the Lambert Review of University-Business links as well as the cross-Government Skills Strategy. It makes proposals to strengthen UK performance against all the success factors building upon initiatives that have gone before.What is innovation?1.1. Innovation in this Report is defined as the successful exploitation of new ideas. Ideas may be entirely new to the market or involve the application of existing ideas that are new to the innovating organization or often a combination of both. Innovation involves the creation of new designs, concepts and ways of doing things, their commercial exploitation, and subsequent diffusion through the rest of the economy and society. It is this last–diffusion–phase from which the bulk of the economic benefits flow. Most innovations are incremental–a succession of individually modest improvements to products or services over their life cycle. But a few will be dramatic, creating entirely new industries or markets.1.2. Innovation involves experimentation and risk taking. Some attempts to innovate will fail, but across the economy the successes outweigh the failures. And the failures themselves generate new knowledge, which if evaluated correctly, can improve the chances for future success. The risk of failure justifies the potentially high returns from successes, which provide the incentive to innovate in the first place. Successful innovation-led companies have a number of common characteristics (Box 1.1). Characteristics of innovation-led companies:A worldwide focus, often requiring early expansion overseas;A balanced growth strategy, based on organic growth and targeted acquisitions to enter new markets or acquire critical expertise;A balanced investment strategy;Above average investment in market led research and development;A focus on what really matters to the customer;An innovation culture with corporate leadership that expects growth through development of new products and services.Why is it important now?1.3. Innovation is vital to most businesses operating in the UK if they are to survive and grow in the long term. But there are five reasons why innovation matters more for businesses and the people who work in them today.Markets around the world are being liberalised. This brings opportunities from expanding trade. And firms can locate all or part of the production process or service wherever the economic advantage is greatest. But UK-based firms also face competition from firms in countries with relatively low labour costs and where education and skills levels are high. For example, hourly labour costs in South Korea are just over half UK levels, but the proportion of graduates in the working agepopulation is almost identical.Long-term reductions in the costs of transportation and communication have also opened up new markets and faster global communications mean that consumers learn about new fashions, ideas and products faster than ever before. The cost of sea freight has fallen by two-thirds since 1920, air transport by five-sixths since 1930. Transatlantic telephone calls are now almost free on the Internet.Science and Technology are providing new opportunities for businesses to compete based on exploiting knowledge, skills and creativity to produce more valuable goods and services. Industries are being created, such as Biotechnology, and traditional ones are being transformed (e.g. growth of technical textiles). Because they rely on knowledge and skills, they provide areas where high wage, developed economies can maintain a competitive advantage over low wage, unskilled ones.Services, accounting for over 70% of the economy, are becoming more technology intensive. Technology is being used to improve business processes and customer service in sectors such as retail, hotels and banking, and to develop new products combining creative strengths with the latest technology, such as computer games. Many high technology manufacturers now make more money from services than they do from manufacturing.Increasing environmental concerns are acting as a stimulus to innovation. Demand for environmental improvements– for example, reducing CO2 emissions and volumes of waste – may require changes in the economy and to the way we live. To deliver these changes the market has to generate innovative uses of technology, new ways of doing business and new consumer attitudes.1.4.The speed of changing technology and the extent to which new products and services can change market conditions mean that the challenge to innovate is urgent and continuous. UK-based businesses will find it increasingly difficult to compete on low costs alone in labour intensive industries exposed to international competition. The challenge for businesses is to compete on the basis of unique value.1.5. The UK is not alone in facing this challenge. European leaders agreed at Lisbon in spring 2000 to make the EU “the most dynamic, knowledge-driven economy in the world by 2010”. Innovation is integral to achieving this vision.How is the UK doing?1.6.We have consulted a distinguished panel of leading academic experts in drawing up the analysis underpinning this Report. This analysis has been published separately. The main points concerning the UK’s innovation performance are set out below.The latest international comparisons of data on business R&D show the UK well behind the US and roughly equal to the EU average. However, it is encouraging that after a steady period of decline from 1.5% of GDP in 1981 to 1.16% in 1997, we have seen a move in the right direction, to 1.24% in 2002.Adjusting for size of economy, UK firms’ patenting activity at patent offices in Europe, Japan and the US lies well behind firms in Japan, Germany and the US and is just below the European average.Although systematic data is lacking, it appears that the UK lags behind the US and major Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) economiesin the take- up of best practice improvements such as lean manufacturing.Data from surveys, which rely on broader measures of innovation, paint a similar picture with UK performance weaker than its international peers.1.7.The analysis suggests that UK business faces a challenge: how to raise its rate of innovation?How did we try to explain the causes of UK performance?1.8. Innovation is a complex process so understanding why the UK has a relatively modest innovation performance is not straightforward. To help us do this we drew on an extensive review of the international innovation literature, aided by a panel of experts. We also drew heavily on analysis by the AIM Management Research Forum and the OECD.As a result we have identified seven critical success factors for innovation performance. They help us to identify current strengths and weaknesses of the UK innovation system and to develop proposals to improve its performance.Success factors for UK innovation performance1.9.What follows is a highly abridged version of the supporting analysis, summarizing the UK’s performance against the seven factors:Sources of new technological knowledge play an important role in shaping innovation systems. Science-based technologies are increasing in importance. New products and services tend to embody a wider range of technologies, increasing the complexity faced by individual firms. UK-based firms make extensive use of customers and suppliers as knowledge sources. The UK Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) base is highly productive and the UK has world-class design expertise.The capacity to absorb and exploit knowledge defines a firm’s ability to turn knowledge into new products, processes or services. Fundamentally it is people who create knowledge, manage businesses and innovate. Poor skills amongst managers and the workforce more generally have hindered performance. The culture within UK-owned firms appears to place less emphasis on creativity.All investments in innovation need access to finance. Relatively lower levels of innovation spend are probably more due to a lack of incentives and capacity than a shortage of funds, although some financing gaps exist.Competition provides a stimulus to innovation and helps determine the intensity of competition and the ability of firms to spot opportunities and manage risks. Customers and suppliers put pressure on firms to deliver better quality goods and services and provide opportunities for innovation. Many UK-based firms compete in global markets and the UK is an attractive market for innovative firms from abroad. The regulatory environment affects the possibilities and incentive structures for innovation. OECD comparisons show the UK to be relatively lightly regulated, although there are continuing business concerns about the impact of new regulations. And networks and collaboration are important means of accessing knowledge. Businesses are increasingly looking outside their sectors for opportunities to collaborate.Figure 1.4How Government policies influence innovationthrough which Government – at various levels – influences business innovation.1.11.The Government has already laid the foundations of an innovation-driven economy in areas such as macro-economic policy, fiscal policy, competition policy, trade policy and education and skills.1.12. Since 1997 we have produced three White Papers, “Our competitive future–Building a knowledge driven economy”(1998), “Excellence and Opportunity–a Science and Innovation Policy for the 21st Century” (2000) and “Opportunity for All in a World of Change–Enterprise, Skills and Innovation” (2001). In these we set in motion a series of micro-economic measures to stimulate innovation, such as increased investment in the science base, incentives to encourage research institutions and universities to commercialize their research, and measures to encourage more small businesses to start up and innovate.1.13. Policies and programmers affecting innovation are determined at a variety of levels. In some cases, the role of the UK Government is to influence developments on a European or global scale.Chapter 3 Technology innovationSummaryDeveloped countries around the world have recognized that success in the future will come from businesses increasing the added value from their products, processes and services. Government action to encourage businesses to develop and implement new products and services has become a high priority. Given this, the UK Government needs to harness its resources more effectively in promoting technological innovation. The need to improve the take-up of new technologies3.1.The end of the 20th century witnessed a wave of scientific discovery and technology innovation in a range of areas that have only just begun to change the waywe work and interact with our physical, natural and social environments. For example, the developments of the Internet and mobile communications have transformed people’s access to information.3.2.The pace of change is often quicker than anticipated and the impacts are fundamental. The growth of completely new industries such as biotechnology, software and the digital content industry in the UK, as well as the decline of more traditional sectors, bear very real testimony to this. For example during the 10 year period 1992-2002 the number of biotechnology businesses in the UK has increased from some 165 to 425, and turnover has increased by over six fold (from ￡0.5 billion to ￡3.2 billion).3.3.The UK has a strong indigenous knowledge source available to business through the Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) base and we do have a strong presence in some science-based technologies such as pharmaceuticals, telecommunications and aerospace.Promoting knowledge transfer3.4. The SET base makes a major contribution to knowledge transfer through the publication of research results and the supply of highly skilled people capable of transferring and adapting codified and tacit knowledge. However, there is an additional role that Government can play in providing the opportunities and incentives for translating quality UK science into commercially successful applications.3.5.To simplify arrangements for universities, Higher Education Institutions（HEIF）is to be consolidated into a permanent third stream of knowledge transfer funding to universities, alongside that for teaching and research. More money will be put into the second round of HEIF. The aim is to simplify the funding landscape and ensure that HEIs in England have greater discretion and the flexibility to develop their capacity in a way that best suits their needs and the needs of business.In future, support for technological innovation will be available through five products：Collaborative R&D support is available to meet some of the costs and risks associated with research and technology development, by facilitating collaboration between different businesses and between business and the SET base across the UK. Knowledge Transfer Networks will encourage the diffusion of new and existing technology.Grant for R&D from June 2003 this has been available for individuals and SMEs, and it enables them to meet some of the costs of investing in technology innovation. Grant for Investigating an Innovative Idea – this is a pilot, offering help to SMEs in England to look objectively at their ideas for innovative products, services or processes and to draw up an action plan to take the idea forward.Knowledge Transfer Partnerships provide direct support for knowledge transfer by enabling universities and others in the SET base across the UK to work with businesses using recently qualified people, like graduates, to undertake specific knowledge transfer projects in firms of all sizes.Technology IntermediariesTo complement the above actions, we will work more closely with technologyintermediaries, whose role in technology development and transfer has been undervalued in recent years in both policy development and implementation. Technology intermediaries also have an important role to play at regional level.The principal members of the technology intermediaries’ community are the Research and Technology Organizations. They are a private sector community of effective knowledge-transfer companies. Their objective is knowledge transfer to industry to fill knowledge gaps and to stimulate innovation leading to higher value added products and services.译文商管031 梅文飞 0364027在全球经济中竞争:创新挑战第一章创新挑战综述全球的竞争使贸易自由化的结果增加，技术变革以及运输和通讯费用减少。

工商管理专业外文文献翻译

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工商管理中英互译文献

英文文献翻译专业：工商管理班级：1003班姓名：严永恒学号：100104190318High-tech enterprise marketing strategyA distinctive feature of the high-tech enterprises is closely integrated with modern science and technology, state-of-the-art technology and equipment level, and through the introduction of technology and technological innovation, so many new technologies, new processes and new equipment has been employed. It has to occupy a pivotal position in the national economy. Therefore, the marketing strategy of high-tech enterprises also on the agenda. High-tech rapid development of corporate marketing activities to new challenges1. Further shorten product life cycle, highlighting the uncertainty of market supply and demand. Product life cycle is usually after four stages of introduction, growth, maturity and recession, and the relationship between market supply and demand constitute the basic conditions for the marketing activities of the important content and implementation. In the dawn of the era of knowledge economy, the rapid development of science and technology, so as to continuously promote the upgrading of products, product life cycle showing a growing trend towards shorter, accelerate the conversion of the marketing strategy, increasingly increased the difficulty of marketing efforts.2. Sales channels change, to narrow the gap between marketing and marketing space to expand and extend. The era of knowledge economy approaches to promote the channel change, the initial impact from the new trade an electronic data interchange (EDI) via computer and communication networks to handle the file. This trade is also known as paperless trading. The Internet has opened up an unprecedented cyberspace in this by the tens of thousands of the host computer and fiber optic telephone line to connect the virtual space, it can be invasive T o receive goods, ordering, payment, delivery, advertising, market research, etc. a series of business activities. Highlight the advantages of this new channel in its convenience and transparency. Online sales, after all, is a new thing, inevitably there are various difficulties in its development. Including consumer psychological barriers, network congestion, payment security, service, and so on.3. More advanced research techniques, promotions richer, network marketing emerge.The past, companies conduct market research are often carried by an intermediary, or send researchers to the market access and manual collection of information, statistics, summary. The penetration of information technology has changed the traditional backwardness of research showing science and technology, convenience and accuracy, timeli ness. Throughout the research process are conducted online, the survey paperless, save a lot of access time and the cost of the investigation, the efficiency can be greatly improved to meet the requirements of business decision-making time limit, cost.More enterprises to use its own sales network directly to research and analysis. The world's largest retailer the operating income Wal-rtl997, nearly$ 120 billion, ranking the first one hundred of the world's largest 500 companies list in the application of information technology, it is not only historic, but also experienced. In thousands of stores all over the world through the use of computer detects goods bar code system, the store can keep abreast of goods in and out of the case, clearly each commodity inventory, prices and profits, selling the extent.The biggest difference between network marketing and traditional marketing is that it is using the network to study the customer requirements in order to establish marketing programs to achieve two-way interactive communication with consumers.4. Consumers into the production process, and demand personalization fully demonstrated. Advances in information technology for the production of the manufacturer CAD (Computer Aided Design), CAM (computer aided manufacturing), CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing System) and DSS (decision support system across product development, manufacturing, decision-making tools. Consumer and production the relationship between traditional compared to a subtle change, they are not just competing buyers and sellers in the economic relationship, and to some extent even both partners ingredients.5. Informative, comprehensive high-tech product that emphasizes service, intangible capital plays a vital role in the competition. , Knowledge-based industries in the gross domestic product (GDP) accounts for a significant proportion of the developed countries in Europe and the United States. Experts estimate that the 2010 Information Science and T echnology software, life sciences, technology, new energy and renewable energy, science and technology, new materials science and technology, marine science and technology and environmentally high-tech industry output value will be fully over the automotive, construction, petroleum, transportation and textile and other traditional industries. Product technology content increased, making the consumer demand for its services far more than the usual installation, maintenance is so simple.The essentials of the service is more extensive, means that runs through comprehensive pre-sale, sale and after-sale service. Good investment and the price is expensive, and enhance the services will naturally arise new problems.6. Marketing management organizations needs to be recycled, the needto strengthen the marketing team. The competitiveness of enterprises, competition in the market, so the core of modern management work is marketing. The marketing organization's ability to make quick, accurate response to the dynamic market, directly affecting the rise and fall of the entire enterprise. In the current information society, changes in the international economic environment, the expansion of the market space, marketing improvements in technology and distribution channels change, the corporate marketing organization put forward new requirements.T o ensure the smooth implementation of high-tech enterprise marketingmanagement responsesDevelop a good high-tech industrial development environment, the government should do the following:(1) implementation of the "industrialization" project. "Industrialization" in the end is not tax which department can do, it relates to all aspects of, and ultimately to return to the market, the government should do is fully committed to building a high-tech industry development environment of a quality and nurturing platform, the government's management positioned in the high-tech industry in the early-stage work, "downstream" thing is certain only to let the market do it.Guangzhou City to comprehensively push forward the reform of the science and technology system, to develop around the high-tech industrialization, as many as 13 government regulations, covering investment in science and technology, to attract talent, the whole process of technological innovation and other high-tech achievements into. Guangzhou City in strengthening the scientific and technological support system, break down departmental boundaries, give full play to the market inside and outside the large compound and high-tech advantage, to build a research base to achieve a breakthrough, to invest 10 million yuan Jinan University to build a"bio-pharmaceutical research base "investment of 700 million to support the South China Normal University, Guangzhou Economic Development Zone to build industrial test projects, promoting Huazhong University of Science andT echnology Jinpeng company set up communication technology.(2) to establish the mechanism of attracting foreign talent. Government policy as much as possible with international standards and the corresponding treatment to attract, retain a number of top-notch talent, talent development opportunities and space it clear that, in a knowledge-based shares, do not pay attention to the so-called "evaluation system", but stressed that the market Recognition Act, technology shares exceeded 35%, the two sides identified can be registered.2. Seize the key of "high-tech"(1) stages of technological development strategy. The new technology has just come out, and some still in the trial production stage, the technology is not yet know, many companies need to do a lot of publicity work, technology is new, but not necessarily practical, the costs and technical requirements, purchasing power companies do not , at this stage the strategy of technology owners:① "fast" strategy. As much as possible to shorten the period of research and development, in order to enter the market in the near future, including technology transfer market, technology product market, open up the situation, and to lay the foundation for the matured.②the development of the target market, the first business to ensure its leading position in the field. T echnology products is about to come out of the authorities and the news media, it is necessary to strive for the product launchpublicity, in the shortest possible time so that consumers understand and Familiar with this new technology products. Such as Bai Long mineral pot technology research and development at the same time to do everything possible to open up the market, when the success of product research and mass production, had been the target market, the products enter the market immediately. But start at the same time with the 100 Long spa pot northeast factory has just buried, to be studied after the success looked up and come to the market, and the market has been a hundred dragon first to occupy the the last plant White Dragon mergers.(2) the technology is mature stage strategy. T echnology has become more sophisticated and complete use costs also dropped significantly, more and more technical buyer, and more intense competition, when the technology seller should be taken to seize the opportunity to quickly transfer of technology strategy. Unwilling to bear the market risk technology products supplier, which is more suitable for good technical products may not be able to profit, and the management of the enterprise, it is also the ability to open up the market is closely related to the transfer of technology as soon as possible to benefit directly, is also a wise choice. For example, a new product patent "plastic Xiju of the invention in order to seize the opportunity to rapidly promotions, half a minute on television advertising, resulting in more than a dozen companies have to find him to require the transfer of technology, and it would open opportunities. The many enterprises attach great importance to the direct transfer of technology, such as McDonald's, Coca-Cola. Honda.(3) the aging stage strategy. When the newer technology to replace the technology or the technology has been in the community to promote, market capacity in the narrow, falling prices for the technology market near end of life.This phase of the marketing strategy:(1) focus on strategy. Centralized enterprise human, material and financial resources to concentrate on the most promising market segments, shortening the marketing front, further promotional efforts.(2) extend the life strategy. Through the transfer of technology to less developed countries or regions, many techniques can prolong life. Such as textiles, plastic products, electronic components production design technology in the United States and Europe and other developed countries have already eliminated the developed countries through investment or technology transfer technology transfer to Hong Kong, Korea and other newly industrialized countries and regions, when these technologies in emerging industrialized countries and regions to be eliminated, has been transferred to China, Vietnam and other developing countries.(3) discard strategy. Companies to stop marketing of backward technology, withdrawn from the market in a timely manner, the development of other newer technologies, to find and develop new market opportunities, in time to consolidate their market position in front of the competitors.3. Develop e-commerce, expand the network management and marketingspaceRevolution in network marketing is not just a technical means, but also contains a deeper concept of revolution, it is target marketing, direct marketing, decentralized marketing, customer-oriented marketing, the remote global marketing, virtual marketing a comprehensive variety of marketing methods .Internet marketing can be divided into four strategies:(1) The consumer needs and desires of strategy. Internet marketing is not only to take advantage a sound blind, images and other multimedia capabilities of the computer, display the product's performance, features, but also in understanding the individual needs of different consumers, more effort. (1) open up the online exchange stations, to understand consumer needs and market trends, looking for market opportunities: the establishment of the opinions message board, allowing consumers to order the color of the product online, design request; (3) provides service system, based on product sales varieties, For service information in a timely manner.(2) consumers are willing to pay the cost to meet their needs. For mature and rational modern consumers, the value of the goods and the expected price link has become a complex equation, so marketing efforts not only to consider the production costs and the market price of similar products, but also to understand the cost structure of different consumers , not only as far as surface phenomena to reduce or increase prices. Specific approach: (1) price, while also providing the market price of similar products for consumers to understand the market,Make rational judgments provide the necessary credit for; ② the establishment of the price forum, a number of new products or upcoming products acceptable to the consumer price survey, provide the basis for the agreed pricing.(3) to facilitate consumer strategy. Network marketing is not only to consignment or sales agent for the Q & product inquiries and ordering, but also to understand the different types of consumers prefer buying patterns, the development of different sales channels, the convenience of our customers. There are several approaches: (1) to provide a variety of after-sales service; ②new information network through a computer network as the main path, complemented by credit card and other convenient means; (3) to change the traditional one-time discount cards, applicable to commodities, valid for extended.4, the consumer two-way communication strategy. Network marketing not only by means of online advertising promotion, expand the corporate reputation, but also to equal two-way communication with consumers, according to consumer feedback their own investigations, and repeatedly, to achieve a win-win situation for consumers and the market. The main approach: (1) send direct mail, on holidays-mail to send holiday cards to the customer where Email deeper feelings; (2) to create a virtual office, the network has been announced in various activities organized by the company to establish agood image in the public.译文：高新技术企业的营销策略高新技术企业的显著特点是与现代科学技术紧密结合，企业技术装备水平先进，并通过技术引进和技术改造，使许多新技术、新工艺和新设备得到了采用。

工商管理专业客户关系管理毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：客户关系管理文献、资料英文题目：文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：工商管理班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14英文资料及译文CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENTAs. univ. drd. Mihaela Cornelia PrejmereanLect. univ. dr. Alina Mihaela DimaAcademy of Economic Studies, BucharestAbstract: After 17 years of economical and market development, Romanian companies face a new challenge: the tough competition from the European Union and the battle for the customers. The Romanian enterprises will have to learn not only how to attract customers, but also how to keep them. Marketing programs include now aspects regarding customer orientation, relationship management, loyalty and quality. In this paper, we will follow the main aspects, characteristics, dimensions and processes of Customer Relationship Management, and we will analyze the challenges that the local companies will have to face. Examples from the financial service sector will round the actual situation of the implementation of the CRM rules and principles in Romania.Keywords: marketing information system; customer relationship management; business asset, customer acquisition; customer retention.1. IntroductionIn the last decade, the majority of the companies were preoccupied with production, recession, mergers, new technologies and business regulation. Romania’s accession in the European Union will bring many advantages for further development, together with membership in a Common Market with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of movement for all the four factors of production (goods, services, capital and labor). This means that Romanian companies will compete with other companies from the EU directly in their home market. European companies are more flexible and mobile and will put a high pressure on the local companies in order to produce better products, launch better offers and services and orientate more towards their customers. High revenue equals important customer is a classic rule when the company organises its customer policy. “An imp ortant customer brings a gross amount of money for our enterprise” has become a reflex for many companies abroad and perhaps in Romania, too. But is this always true, or do we need more informationthan a simple figure reported at the end of the year?2. Marketing information systemA winning company is more productive in acquiring and retaining customers, to expand its clientele (Kotler, 2003). This company improves the value of the customers by reducing the rate of defection, increasing the longevity of customer Management & marketing relationship, making low-profit customers more profitable or terminating them etc. Gathering information on the actual or potential marketplace not only allows the organisation to monitor trends and issues concerning its current customers, but also helps it identify and profile potential customers and new markets, to keep track of its competition, their strategies, tactics and future plans (Brassington and Pettitt,2003). In order to collect and organize a high quantity of diverse information, the enterprises started to build marketing information systems. There are, mainly, a set of procedures and methods by which pertinent, timely and accurate information is continually gathered, sorted, analysed, evaluated, stored and distributed for the use of marketing decision makers (Zikmund and D´Amico,1993). The marketing information system includes data from external and internal sources (sales records, customer records, marketing communications, and sales force information). The focus on the customer and the integration of the marketing function helps the company to create customer databases with comprehensive information about individual customers or prospects.3. Customer relationship managementCustomer Relationship Management has been around for the last 30 years, but it became very important when companies changed their attitude towards marketing function. Nowadays, the cross-functional approach to marketing requires an organizational culture and climate that encourages collaboration and cooperation between departments. People within the business must understand their role in serving customers, internal or external one. CRM builds on the principles of relationship marketing and recognizes that customers are a business asset and not simply a commercial audience, implies the structuring of the company from functions to processes, information are used proactively rather than reactively and develops the ne-to-one marketing approaches (Payne, 2006).When defining CRM, we must first explain the difference between customer acquisition and customer retention. The two concepts have different drivers. Attracting customers has become very difficult these days, when people are harder to please. They are smarter, price conscious and sensitive, more demanding, less forgiving, and they are approached by many more competitors with equally good or better offers (Kotler,2003). Companies focus more on sales analysis, customer segmentation, advertising, merchandising and campaign management. The more difficult part is keeping the customers. According to Bruhn, a customer is satisfied when the comparison between offer and consumption fulfils his/her expectations,after he/she accepts the company, trusts it and exhibits a positive attitude towards it, becomes loyal to that company. In this situation, the customer talks favourably about the company and about its products, pays less attention to competing brands and is less sensitive to price, which turns transactions into routine (Bruhn, 1999). With customer retention, the company must pay attention to service satisfaction and trust in Customer relationship management the organization and its staff. Some companies believe that if a customer complaints the problem will be solved, but 96% of unsatisfied customers don’t complain and go to another company. Therefore, Customer Relationship Management is the mechanism for retaining customers (Russell-Jones, 2003). Mainly CRM allows the company to understand who their customer is, isolate the best customer (those with whom you desire to have long-standing relationships), create relationships stretching over time and involving multi-interactions, manage the relationship to mutual advantage, seek to acquire more of those “best” customers. Inputs like marketing strategy, customer base, products, and regulation, competitors and staff skills are synthesized in a CRM programme which creates outputs as customer service, customer retention, higher share of wallet, customer referral, more predictable revenues streams, improved profitability, lower costs and better compliance (Russell-Jones, 2003).4. Developing a strategy in customer relationship managementBecause CRM is a cross-functional activity and large companies have thousands and millions of customers, the need for a strategic framework is very high. The dimensions of a CRM strategy are mainly focused on defining the following topics:- object of the customer relationship management – the company has three options: focusing on the company itself, on a brand or on the distributor;- target segment –the company usually sets priorities between different customer segments, it defines strategic customers based on the portfolio analyses, factors as revenue, length of the relationship, income, collaboration with the customer. These are its analysis criteria;- ways of retaining the customers –customers’ satisfaction is in the centre of all the decisions, but customers retention can also become a central issue through contractual clauses, such as service, leasing and warranty;- choosing the instruments of CRM – the company combines the instruments of the 4P´s with focus on the customer;- intensity and timing of the CRM decisions –show when and how should the company introduce different instruments; programmes can last from one day to one week, or from three month to two years;- cooperation within the CRM programme –sometimes the company must cooperate with other partners from the distribution channel, mainly between producer and wholesaler and retail.5. Instruments of customer relationship managementThe communication policy plays an important role in the instruments mix. It follows two objectives: first, to build a permanent dialogue with the customer in order to stabilize or change its expectations, and second, to counteract influences after consumption. The main CRM instruments within the communication policy are: Direct-Mail is material dis tributed through the postal service to the recipients’ home or business address to promote a product or service. In CRM the mailed issue can vary from a simple letter to a catalogue, and its sending will always occur at a particularmoment in customer’s l ife (birthday, invitation for an event). It must incorporate sticky gadgets to increase their chances of being opened and read; Newsletters are distributed to customers for free and contain information about new products, offers for special events and others; Fidelity cards (store cards) are an important tool in gathering information about customer behaviour. By accumulating points of fidelity, the customer can benefit from different special offers; Clients club designates a concept which has grown in parallel with the fidelity cards. Its main forms are VIP-Club, Fan-Club, Product-Interest-Club, and Lifestyle-Club. The club represents an opportunity for the company to make offers in accordance with the social status, acceptance, prestige and expectations of its customers;Telemarketing allows companies to undertake marketing research and is highly measurable and accountable; the number of positive and negative responses are easily recorded and monitored. It provides for interaction, is flexible and permits immediate feed-back. Online-marketing includes many forms such as on-line advertising, on-line sales promotions, on-line direct marketing, on-line public relations, one-line personal selling. The medium used is the internet and the main instrument is the email. Virtual promotions are cheaper than hard copy versions, but the challenge is to drive traffic to your company’s Web site. Event-marketing takes place in three main areas: the product (here, it focuses on increasing sales), the corporation (for developing a corporate body) and the community (to make a difference in the life of the local community) (Bruhn, 1999& Fill, 2002).The price policy can be thought about in various ways when building a CRM programme: discounts for special customers, underselling or matching competitors, loyalty refunds, bundling items together and offering overall prices. Although price is not a measure of inherent value received, it is often used by customers as a benchmark, ignoring any other features or differences.Key factors in the product policy are the product itself, with quality, design, technical features, packaging and service management which includes lifelong warranty, price warranty or a customer telephone line. An active management in the distribution policy can focus on the customer or on the distribution channel. The producer evaluates the activity of the distribution partner and Customer relationship management intervenes when needed. The focus on the customers is realised througha Key Account Management which develops programmes for special customers.6. Customer relationship management in financial servicesFinancial services differ from many other industries. This can be seen particularly in Romania, where 40 commercial banks fight for a population of 21 million citizens. They cover the whole spectrum of customers from individuals to partnerships, institutions, corporations and governments. As a result, it can be very difficult to focus on single markets. Customers are often in two positions: they may have a deposit and savings accounts, but also loans and overdrafts. They are very service focused, they sell only intangibles. Financial services require processing billions of transactions worldwide and they are one of the heaviest regulated industries in the world (Rusell-Jones, 2003).The customers in the financial services are better informed, are switching channels, and seem to be more demanding of service, and used to change. The market is also highly competitive and new entrants are coming with diverse products and approaches.The industry of financial services in Romania has a very high potential and registers every year high growth rates. Till now, the location in a major city of the country with a population around 300.000 people was an advantage of the business and a success factor. Now the battlefield has moved in the small towns. The competition became tougher; banks began to develop and to introduce new products. Some experts say that a weakness of the banking sector is market segmentation. There is lots of information about customers, but it seems that banks prefer to focus on clients with large savings accounts. The main banks in Romania, as BRD, BCR, ING, and HVB-Tiriac announced for the year 2005 an increase in the number of the private banking clients. These are mainly customers with accounts between 50.000 and 100.000 Euros, they benefit of private consultancy, special interest rates, commissions, and special insurances. Customers have also a word to say about their bank. A market study made by Deadalus Consulting revealed that the customer profile for banking services is: person aged between 45-55 years, with higher or middle education. The most utilized service is the bank card for salaries payment (32,6%). Next, savings accounts (10,2%), credits for personal needs (11,1%), credits for buying electronics (9,2%) and auto leasing. The best grades were received by Raiffeisen Bank (8,83), BCR (8,58) and BRD Societe Generale (8,57). A customer’s criteria when choosing a bank are the trust in the bank, the environment in the branch, the quality of the staff, the advice they receive, the best interest rate they can receive, the information about the credit costs, and the conditions for obtaining a credit. A successful service provided by the majority of the banks is internet banking. It allows clients to save time and money, without going to the bank, 24 of 24 from inside or abroad. The access is free of charge or very cheap, and includes all kinds of activities from money transfer, payment orders, currency exchange, payment of current bills, external payments etc. The rate of penetration is still low, ranking between 10% and 30% of the customers in one middle bank.7. ConclusionsRomanian companies must focus in the future on the Customer Relationship。

工商管理毕业论文英文文献翻译(中英)[管理资料]

本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文学院管理学院专业工商管理年级班别2009级（4）班学号3209004550学生姓名李福珍指导教师吴小节2013 年6 月目录1 绪论 (3)2 为什么中小企业需要表达和使用SD商业计划？当全球化在社会生态增长的极限成为集成因素 (5)3可持续性中小企业的大型和小型之间的差异所导致的优势差异 (6)流线型的组织进程和商业模式 (7)中小企业暴露竞争力 (7)4 中小企业作为一个实验室沙箱提供了可持续发展战略和技术，然后跨国公司通过收购中小企业实现传统的内部融资的增长 (8)5 中小企业利用创造性破坏和信息技术的影响制造网络优势 (8)中小企业可持续和价值创造的战略发展，苏珊玛莎和斯宾塞爱商业学校，艾隆大学，美国摘要可持续战略为中小企业合作创造了许多协同效应，以及系统的公共效益。

通过对中小企业的商业案例提出可持续发展，考虑到中小企业相比于跨国公司的可持续发展优势，本文讨论几种不同为中小企业优化可持续发展的激励机制：（1）成为大公司有价值的可持续投资目标，（2）在大企业不太成功的市场空间建立可持续的中小企业的高度竞争网络，（3）通过可持续的做法在全球供应链上成为高效的供应商。

然而一些成功模式的中小企业可持续发展迅速，可能是中小企业的网络将成为必不可少的解决系统问题的基础，包括工业生态学，企业全球供应链弹性和可持续性。

中小企业代表了大部分的企业，快速发展的通信技术允许不同的航线网络的形成。

关键词：持续性，中小企业，可持续供应链管理，弹性，工业生态学1 绪论1990年代以来，无论对于任何规模大小的企业来说，环境和社会因素已经成为越来越重要的战略考虑。

21世纪新兴市场条件正在通过全球观察创造了新的视野。

由于忽视商业和环境之间的“隐藏连接”，业务缺少许多新的可持续发展(SD)的机会，那些能够阻止一个不可避免的社会崩溃的威胁[2]。

随着越来越多的公司认识到我们的“共同的旅程”[3]，它强调创建可持续发展的必要性，全球的企业都在有意发展战略计划使他们的公司具有可持续竞争力。

工商管理外文翻译及译文

工商管理专业外文翻译--管理风格和公正的薪资制度

外文原文：AbstractThis article discusses the relationship between management style within a firm and the procedures used to determine internal wage and salary differentials. At a time when management styles are apparently becoming less authoritarian and paternalistic in favour of greater worker participation there is obviously a danger of firms using payment techniques which are inappropriate to the current management/worker relationship. Some simple models of workers and organization are used to identify four broad styles of management. These styles are then related to the job evaluation and performance rating techniques in common use in British industry today. Some general conclusions are drawn concerning future trends in payment to suit management style.IntroductionProblems of internal pay structuring have always been of keen interest to both managers and students of British industry. In recent years however the setting of rational and fair pay differentials has taken on a particular significance. Our social and managerial attitudes to criteria for reward are changing fast. The whole question of pay relativities is now seen to be central to the establishment of a just industrial society. Within individual firms managers and employees are questioning the traditional approaches to work structuring and wage payment. There is a distinct move from both sides of industry towards a greater degree of employee consultation and participation in the running of the firm. This trend has brought with it fresh approaches to the analysis of work and the determination of equitable wage and salary differentials.A great many British companies have already applied themselves to solving the dynamic problems of work analysis and reward. The majority are probably only now deciding how best to approach these same problems. It is fair to say that a great deal of confusion and even controversy surrounds the issues involved. In the last decade managers have been deluged with new techniques of pay administration.All of these techniques are valid when applied under appropriate conditions. The dilemma which has faced managers is to know which of the techniques is relevant to the solution of their particular problems. There have been many sad cases of mismatch between technique and situation.Managers need an overall company strategy for work analysis and pay. The integration of techniques into a total package of wage and salary administration must reflect the management style employed in the company, as well as recognize the many constraints put on managerial control.Many companies are now facing up to situations where management styles are altering and technological and other influences are changing fast. The company pay strategy has to mirror these changes if it is to remain effective.Ideally the internal payment structure should reflect the organization structure (and hence the structure of responsibility carried across job hierarchy). However there is no single idealstructure of organization and consequently there can be no single ideal structure of pay. Each firm has a range of needs which are met or partially met by the measures taken by management. We can begin the argument by examining the management styles associated with the needs of the employee/ manager relationships - the so-called 'psychological contract'.Management Styles and the Psychological ContractObviously the management style used in fulfilling the psychological contract reflects the way in which managers in the company expect employees to behave. Some managerial teams expect their employees to simply have what is known as a 'calculative' involvement with the company. They are expected to do what is required by the goal-setters (the management team) and no more. The contract is fulfilled by paying sufficient wages or salaries to motivate the employees to meet the goals set by the managers. Many small family firms operate this management style and there are possibly a great many large companies too. It is convenient to label this type of management view of the organization as 'goal oriented'. In the extreme such managers might perceive only a single goal (profit ratio, market share, etc) without requiring the employees to have any identification or 'moral involvement' with that goal. A totally different conceptual model of the organization allows for the achievement of a whole range of needs24 Personnel Review Vol 4 Number 4 Autumn 1975by the organization. Managers who conceive of their companies in this fashion see the need for balancing the 'system' of needs. Employees (and especially other, junior managers) are perceived as people whose actions should influence the entire organization not just their own department or subsystem of, for example, production control or purchasing or marketing, etc. The view held here is that it is no good to have nine tenths of the company's needs being met and the other tenth ignored. It is a 'systems' approach and is a model which is apparent in the management philosophy of our larger and more progressive industrial companies.Between these two polar models of organization there is obviously scope for many other concepts. A pluralistic model, for example would allow for different constituent parts of the organization to have their own separate goals.The models that managers hold of men as distinct from the goals of the company are described in a massive literature of organizational psychology. It is possible in this area also to establish extreme, polar concepts. One extreme would be the assumption that man is a 'rational-economic' animal. Because of this a manager holding such a view might use McGregor's well-known Theory X approach to his subordinate. McGregor1 points out that 'rational-economic' man assumptions imply that man is lazy by nature and is motivated primarily by financial incentives. The employee is seen to need direction and control so that he will work towards the organization's goals. He is seen to be unambitious and reluctant to take responsibility. The assumptions associated with Theory X are, of course, built into the foundations of the Classical organization theories. The employee, in short, is seen to react to his environment.The model of man seen to be at the opposite from the reactive, Theory X man is McGregor's Theory Y approach. Assumptions on which Theory Y are based include the factthat most men do not dislike work, they seek a challenge from the work environment and in fact welcome the opportunity to achieve a 'moral' involvement with the organization. Under appropriate conditions the employee, says Theory Y, will seek out responsibility and is capable of imagination, ingenuity and creativity.There have been several attempts to classify the various models of man and organization, a notable example being the typology developed by Etzioni2. For the purpose of this present discussion, however, the simple model constructed by Limerick3 to show the type of management style implied by management's assumptions about men and organization seems appropriate. The model takes the form of the matrix shown in Figure 1 below:Figure 1 The Limerick Matrix of Management StylesThe matrix suggests that if management holds Theory X (reactive man) assumptions and sees the organization as being single goal orientated, the style implied is authoritarian. At the other extreme, should the assumptions be of Theory Y nature and the organization be seen as systems orientated, the model implies that the strategy is participative. It must be borne in mind, of course, that this classification represents pure types of organization which probably do not exist as such in practice. It is meant to be a relative model which shows only the extreme assumptions and implied strategies. It is, however, very important to be able to put the problem of differing styles into some perspective.Equitable PaymentThe four styles of management proposed in the model can be considered with special reference to problems of equitable payment. Authoritarian management is typified by the proposals of the Classical management theorists (eg Fayol,Urwick, Gulick). The organization is managed along the universal principles of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling and the structure is pyramidal with great emphasis on line authority. There is rigid specialization and departmentalization. Participation by non-management in meeting the organization's goal is severely restricted.In paternalistic management the systems needs of the organization must be met by those employees who are not seen to be reactive. Thus, for example, some large, sophisticated industrial organizations typically perceive themselves to have 'systems' of needs, the non-managers and even junior management are seen as reactive while the senior management team is often assumed to consist of self-active men. Here the senior managers assume that they have to meet their subordinates' needs for them; say by providing preferential pensionschemes and welfare benefits and cheap canteens, sometimes with little consultation with the employees involved. A paternalistic organization is also typified by a pyramidal structure and an emphasis on line authority. Paternalism is improved over the authoritarian strategy in that employees are often allowed to present alternatives for action in non-task activities. Many British concerns are run on clearly paternalistic lines. There are several well-known, large organizations (typically the major employers in their respective communities) which adopt a 'cradle to grave', protective attitude to their employees. In the past such firms tended to discourage trade union representation believing that a company union or association could better meet the needs of their workpeople.In a paternalistic company one would expect the pay level for shop floor and clerical workers to be relatively low, the employees being compensated by superior welfare benefits and greater job security in general. In an authoritarian firm the pay levels in the lower job grades could be expected to be slightly higher (for the same economic and technological conditions) than in the paternalistic company. In fact, however, some of the larger well established paternalistic concerns often have a reputation for paying basic wages and salaries above the norm.A consultative management strategy implies that man is seen as self-active but requires to be directed so that his needs are integrated with the goal of the organization. The manager's functions are, as in the authoritarian strategy, to plan, organize, motivate and control but in this case the process is carried out in such a way that maximum autonomy for employees is allowed without endangering the goal of the organization. The strategy implies a pyramidal structure with only a limited recognition of the non-managers' right to be heard. Participation is allowed to the extent that employees can present alternatives for action in task activities. The style of management is man-to-man but the strategy is also characterized by the use of joint consultative conferences and the like.Participative management assumes that self-active man will make a responsible contribution to the achievement of the system's needs. The manager's function is to act as a monitor of the system needs and to create conditions in which they can be met. This strategy implies a fluid, 'organic' structure and recognizes both formal, line authority and the authority of non-executives as a result of their personal expertise. Group work is encouraged and, in participating, employees are allowed to present and evaluate alternative courses of action.In the consultative and participative strategies, then, employees are encouraged to view the organization as a unitary system. Because of this, one would expect to find the pay of low level jobs being compared, formally, to that of the higher-level jobs. In short, one could expect an approach to an all-company job evaluated pay structure since employees are concerned more with the company as a whole compared with their counterparts in companies managed by the first two strategies outlined above.Participation and PaymentThere appears to be some movement towards greater involvement of all employees in the management of British firms. The mood of the day suggests that authoritarian management is fast becoming unacceptable to employees and that even paternalism is unwelcome.At least one large British corporation has developed work designs which eliminate the needfor the traditional foreman.The workers operate in teams which decide, for themselves,on the allocation of work duties, shift rota details, holiday arrangement details and the like. More importantly the workers participate, in the true sense, in writing the team's job description and consequent pay grade. Obviously this type of job design and organizational thinking greatly affects a company's philosophy of work and reward. If the apparent trend towards greater participation continues we can therefore expect to see a greater emphasis on the workers' 'knowledge' authority. The managerial style used by a company is clearly important in deciding the most appropriate forms of work analysis and reward. It is obviously wrong for a company which is, say, essentially paternalistic to install pay systems which depend on true participation for their effectiveness. Yet this is not at all unusual.If there really is a strong move towards consultative and participative management styles across British industry what are the implications for payment techniques in the future? Managers usually apply two types of technique - one, job evaluation, to provide a ranking of job value in terms of basic wages or salaries and, two, merit rating (or performance appraisal, or incentive systems) to provide a means of rewarding individual employee effort and achievement.Job evaluation techniques which yield a single, company-wide payment structure would seem to offer promise within participative firms. Two fairly recent ideas fit the specification ideally. Elliott Jaques' widely discussed time span of discretion system developed in his famous Glacier Project suggests that all jobs at all levels within a firm can be evaluated and rewarded in terms of a single criterion. That criterion is the responsibility carried by the employee in his job and is measured in terms of the time he has to wait to find if his tasks or decisions have been effective. The longer the time span the greater the responsibility and the higher the reward. In addition Jaques has found that when time span values are plotted against the corresponding 'felt fair' wages or salaries a specific distribution exists. Thus he can analyse all jobs in the company in terms of the time span mechanism and produce a payment structure which relates, on one graph, the pay of the labourer and copy typist gto that for the sales manager and managing director. The time span approach has not so far been widely implemented for job evaluation purposes (although it is a well recognized and valuable approach in other areas such as management development). Is it likely to become more popular? If the trend in management style is towards more participation the answer must surely be no. Because the evaluation criterion (time span) and the pay distribution are so well defined and specified it is extremely difficult to see how employees can participate in its implementation. Employees are forced to accept that the company 'knows best' (paternalism implied) or that the company has the right to enforce the system of its choice (autocracy implied).A second, and superficially similar proposal, comes from Paterson whose decision band technique of job evaluation and payment structure is currently being widely discussed. Paterson's sole criterion of job value is the hierarchical level of decision-making required by the job. The higher the decision level (policy-making as against routine, procedural decisions) the greater the responsibility implied and the higher the reward. The decision band method is applied to all jobs in the company and provides a specific shape of payroll distribution. (When wages and salaries for the jobs are plotted on a log scale against their decision levels a straightline should be achieved. Paterson argues that this exponential relationship is a necessity for internal payment equity.) Again, as in Jaques' proposals, there appears to be too much predetermination to allow for much employee participation in applying the scheme. However Paterson is much less rigid in his approach and accepts that certain job factors have to be bargained and paid for in addition to the payment levels established by decision band grading. The fact that Paterson's method is now in use in several British firms and is about to be applied to all jobs within the Danish civil service implies its acceptability. The method probably will be used considerably in future since, although the decision level framework is inflexible, the analysis of jobs emphasizes the 'knowledge' authority of the employee to a very considerable extent. In short the system puts high value on information and advice for decisionmaking as well as the decision-making itself. It must be said however that, in itself, the decision band approach is unlikely to be widely applied as a job evaluation technique within craft union job families. The great attraction of the method is the provision of a payment structure and evaluation framework which can be used as a valuable guide in bargaining and consultation situations.The conventional methods of job evaluation can be applied in an autocratic or democratic fashion by management. The hybrid forms of job evaluation, developed by firms of consultants,which tend to make use of the most relevant aspects of a number of separate schemes possibly hold the greatest promise for participative firms. By allowing as many employees as is feasible to participate in the ranking and grading of jobs, management can develop a genuinely acceptable profile of the job values. The snag with conventional and hybrid schemes is that they provide separate payment structures for separate job families. A system such as the decision band method is then required to knit the component pay structures into a company-wide whole.In payment for individual performance the greatest emphasis seems to lie, still, on incentive schemes for manual workers. In the orthodox incentive system management control depends heavily on stop watch time standards. Employees are inclined to be seen as having the 'calculative involvement' noted earlier in the goal oriented philosophy. In moving from an individual incentive system to measured daywork the workers are seen to be less reactive and more self-active.26 Personnel Review Vol 4 Number 4 Autumn 1975They are consulted with a view to improving methods and production planning. In the plant-wide bonus schemes (such as the Scanlon or the Rucker Plans) the employees are seen to have a 'moral involvement' with the company's total objectives. To achieve this degree of involvement often requires that the employees gain access to information which has been considered to be traditionally for management eyes only. It calls, in fact, for true participation. Thus the orthodox piecework systems tend to fit best with an authoritarian management style; measured daywork with a consultative style; plant wide schemes with participation. Where do the paternalistic companies fit? Typically they employ merit rating systems which assess (through the supervisor's rating) how well the employee matches the company norms in terms, typically, of quality and quantity of work, initiative, team spirit and timekeeping.The appraisal of managers' performances has recently been seen to be appropriately tackledby the Management-by- Objectives approach. This calls for a considerable degree of participation or at least consultation in agreeing with a subordinate manager what constitutes realistic future targets for him to achieve. On the face of it this type of approach appears to have continuing promise for the future. There are some mechanical problems often associated with applying MBO but its participative forward-looking basis is surely appropriate.We come to the view then that as firms change their management styles from authoritarian/paternalistic to consultative/ participative they must review the nature of their payment strategies. Hopefully the management style will match the mood of the firm's employees and, in turn, be reflected in the determination of an equitable payment structure. It is obviously wrong to apply techniques, however sophisticated, which will call for a management style which does not exist in the company. Equally it is just as wrong to persevere with techniques which were right for the management style and the mood of the employees ten years ago but inappropriate today.If the trend towards consultation and participation does gather force we can expect to see job evaluation in terms of the hybrid type with maximum employee participation in its implementation. We can also expect a move towards a single company-wide payment structure using a system such as Paterson's decision band framework to integrate the separate job family structures. The trend towards measured daywork and plant-wide incentives should also gather force. Executives can expect to have their performances appraised more and more by an MBO type of system (although the details may vary from the current MBO models). We must not be too sure however that there will be a rush away from authoritarian/paternalistic styles. People in industry, as in all walks of life, are resistant to change. The managers who are most important in making participative payment strategies operational are those in the middle levels. Unfortunately, many such managers do not or cannot accept the validity of worker participation and would, consequently, be unable to apply the newer schemes successfully. However it is difficult to see the trend being resisted in the long run. We should be ready for it and plan payment strategies accordingly. It is too important an issue to ignore.中文译文：摘要本文主要涉及在固定范围内公司的管理风格和确定内部工资差别的程序的关系。

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中英文对照外文翻译绩效考核与员工满意摘要：绩效考核通常也称为业绩考评或“考绩”，是针对企业中每个职工所承担的工作，应用各种科学的定性定量的方法，对职工行为的实际效果及其对企业的贡献或价值进行考评。

绩效考核作为一种有效的企业管理手段，在企业管理中发挥着非常重要的作用，是企业人力资源管理的核心。

本文对当前我国绩效考核中存在的问题做了详细的分析。

针对问题，文章提出从绩效考核的各个角度进行控制，从而确保绩效考核高效到位，最终发挥人力资源管理的作用。

关键词：绩效考核问题分析建议21世纪是知识经济时代，随着经济竞争的加剧，人们越来越认识到人力资源是当今时代经济发展的第一资源。

随着人力资源管理在中国企业的发展的日趋成熟,绩效管理作为人力资源管理的重要组成部分在企业内部的地位也越发重要。

绩效考核是人力资源管理的核心问题之一，是保障并促进企业内部管理机制有序运转，实现企业各项经营管理目标所必须进行的一种管理行为。

美国组织行为学家约翰·伊凡斯维其认为，绩效考核可以达到以下八个方面的目的：为员工的晋升、降职、调职和离职进行评估；组织对员工的绩效考评的反馈；对员工和团队对组织的贡献进行评估；为员工的薪酬决策提供依据；对招聘选择和工作分配的决策进行评估；了解员工和团队的培训和教育的需要；了解员工和团队的培训和教育的需要；对工作计划、预算评估和人力资源规划提供信息。

绩效考核是企业管理员工的有效手段,也是主要途径,在企业管理中具有不可替代的核心地位。

但是,现在有很多企业的绩效考核与企业的发展策略相脱节,企业绩效考核体系也只是一个空壳而已,根本达不到对员工进行考核的目的,甚至还适得其反,导致人才流失。

因此，对企业的绩效考核工作进行分析，找出存在的问题，并解决这些问题成为企业势在必行的工作。

1当前绩效考核中存在问题及原因分析1.1对绩效考核的认识不充分（1）认为绩效考核只是人力资源部的事。

很多企业认为绩效考核是绩效管理的内容，而绩效管理又是人力资源管理职能之一，所以认为绩效考核只是人力资源部的事。

企业高层只做关于实施绩效考核的指示并未具体指导；人力资源部在与其他职能部门进行沟通如何完善绩效考核时不能得到积极配合。

（2）对绩效考核目标认识不够。

现在许多企业强调引进先进考核手段，而领导者认为考核只是奖优罚劣，对绩效考核的最终目的没有一个清楚的认识。

绩效考核的根本目的是要促进工作效果和效率，改进绩效；绩效考核的根本目的是改进，是考核员工是否按照工作规定完成工作任务。

考核结果的好坏不是目的，而是要分析原因。

（3）认为绩效考核独立存在。

绩效考核虽然是企业管理不可缺少的一项核心工作，但并不是可以独立存在的，它需要有其他的相关工作作为基础。

考核只是最终的一个环节，而且这种考核必须建立在这样几个基础之上才会有效：合理的绩效目标、明确的绩效标准、绩效辅导和客观绩效记录、绩效改进和员工技能发展。

只有在以上这些工作的基础上，绩效考核才会是客观公正的，才能让员工接受，也才更有实际意义。

1.2绩效考核目的不明确（1）目标设定模糊，设定过程缺乏有力控制。

工作计划表中有目标设定一栏，考核制度也有要求每项工作必须有清晰的目标。

如果企业要实行绩效考核,那么就要清楚的知道为什么要实行绩效考核。

但从实际执行情况来看，当前我国很多企业绩效考核目的不明确，许多企业没有明确绩效考核目的，有时甚至是为了考核而考核，企业考核方和被考核方都未能充分清楚地了解绩效考核只是一种管理手段，本身却并非是管理的目的。

绝大多数企业在工作计划表的目标设定一栏基本上填写的都是“完成”，但这并不能反映工作“完成”的具体状况，所以使考核无从下手。

（2）对企业绩效考核的目的认识不够的现象是很多企业都存在的问题。

许多管理者将绩效考核看作是管理和控制员工的一种手段,认为绩效考核的目的是让员工依照管理者的安排和意愿来做工作。

因此,管理者会以绩效考核的方式来牵制员工,建立自己的威信和展示自己的权威,把绩效考核的成绩当作挑员工毛病、批评和惩罚员工的依据,这种绩效考核对员工的心理带来很大的压力,造成不好的影响,使员工觉得绩效考核是管理者用来控制他们的手段和工具,所谓的绩效考核也就相当于挑毛病。

因此,员工会产生逆反心理,增加恐惧感,自然的就会对绩效考核产生抵触情绪,最终造成绩效考核实施失败。

（3）绩效考核的目的可分为五类:一、作为晋升、解雇和调整岗位的依据;二、作为确定工资、奖励的依据;三、作为潜能开发和教育培训的依据;四、作为调整人事政策、激励措施的依据;五、考核结果供生产、采购、营销、研发、财务等部门制定工作计划和决策时参考。

只有明确了绩效考核的目的后，绩效考核工作才可能围绕这个目的有条不紊地展开。

1.3绩效考核标准设计不科学（1）绩效考核标准模糊, 表现为标准欠缺、标准与工作的相关性不强，操作性差或主观性太强，过于单一和标准没有量化等现象。

工作标准中只有一些文字性评语，没一个可以客观评分的标尺，使得评价者可以随意给个分数或考核结果。

（2）对企业员工进行绩效考核,其结果难以客观的进行判断，不同的主观理解使考核结果产生偏差。

结果，就会产生对标准衡量尺度的宽严不一。

有些考核者要求过高，经常表现出对员工的工作感到失望，在考核时，就会低估员工应得到的评价。

相反，有些考核者认为最好的员工是根本不存在的，最差的员工也是很难找到的，于是往往习惯于将员工都评定为中间等级。

所以,企业员工也不愿接受这样的考核结果。

（3）缺乏明确的绩效目标。

员工不清楚企业对自己的要求是怎样的,不清楚做到哪个程度才算是做好,因此,员工的表现也难以得到企业的认可。

还有一些企业的绩效考核只是一种是形式,没有真正的内容,绩效考核虽然每年都在实行,但是每年都只是“隔靴搔痒”、“走马观花”。

使绩效考核的结果失去了意义，不再具有客观性、可比性和有效性。

1.4绩效考核指标体系存在缺陷（1）绩效考核体系设计不切合实际。

由于企业的规模与管理水平的参差不齐，企业对绩效评价的投入与管理层次也差别较大。

有些企业虽然制定了自己的企业管理绩效目标，但由于现阶段在理论上绩效管理尚缺少科学实用的方法，又或因为公司绩效管理考核委员会成员经验不足，使得绩效指标的分解不恰当、考核目的不明确、考核原则的混乱和自相矛盾等问题，由此埋下了绩效目标难以完成的隐患。

（2）绩效考核体系设计缺乏科学性、实用性。

管理绩效评价指标体系是评价工作的基础和核心，而许多企业并没用完全理解绩效评价的重要意义，完全流于一种形式，表现为为了考核而考核。

在考核的内容、项目设定以及权重设置等方面常表现出无相关性和随意性，长官意志和个人好恶明显。

同时，很多企业的绩效考核标准过于模糊，难以准确量化，实用性较差，极易引致不全面、非客观公正的判断，使绩效考核的结果很难使被信服。

2 解决绩效考核存在问题的建议2.1.树立科学绩效观（1）领导层需明确绩效考核的巨大作用。

绩效考核不但可以增强企业的竞争力,还能提高员工的工作效率,绩效考核的好坏决定着企业管理的好坏,其功能也越来越被凸显出来。

首先,绩效考核是员工提升和培训工作的重要依据。

通过定期的考核,能使员工清楚地看到自己在哪些方面有所提高,在哪些方面需要继续坚强,正确的给自己一个定位。

同时,绩效考核也是给不同层级的员工提供一个畅所欲言的平台,把那些庸人和懒人的不良行为给揭露出来,优化企业的人力资源;更是员工学习和强化正确行为的明镜和奖励员工的有效依据。

现在很多企业的老观念、旧做法依然没有改变,人力资源环境也不容乐观,要想建立先进、高效的绩效考核制度尤其不易,企业的领导层一定要树立科学的绩效观,建立合理的绩效考核制度,否则,很难达到预期的效果。

（2）加大对各级员工的培训与宣传工作。

绩效考核是晋升和培训工作的依据。

通过定期考核，也可以使员工自己了解在哪些方面已有提高，在哪些方面还有不足。

绩效考核制度虽然只是一套书面制度，但是在具体实施过程中需要各级主管人员具备绩效考核的各项技能，如确定工作目标的技能、面谈的技能、评价的技能等，这些都需要培训。

通过培训,使管理者制订出工作要项和工作目标，了解员工绩效考核方法、流程和责任，提高沟通技巧，制订绩效改进计划，有效实施辅导。

通过宣传，使员工对绩效考核系统的组成及各部分间的有机联系非常了解，而且对实施员工绩效考核方案的内在联系认识清楚。

最终通过宣传和培训，使体现人本管理的绩效考核成为大家的共识，从而想方设法地发掘企业中蕴含的丰富的人力资源，达到考核的预期目的。

2.2建立合理的绩效考核制度（1）确立目标。

企业要有明确的的工作目标,围绕这个目标来展开工作,并且要引导员工朝向目标发展。

在确定绩效目标后，需进行业绩辅导环节，部门经理要在员工实现目标的过程中不断与之沟通，尽其所能的与员工保持密切联系，不断给员工支持，为其清除前进道路上的障碍。

也就是把员工与企业的目标结合在一起,尽量使公司的每一位员工,特别是管理者,所做的工作都是在为实现公司的目标、共同朝一个方向努力,要把个人的绩效提升、组织的绩效提升和员工的切身利益相结合,建立激励制度。

（2）借鉴方法。

绩效考核的方法很多,企业要根据自身的实际情况来借鉴他人的考核方法。

但是,借鉴绝不是照搬。

科学的、先进的考核方法,如平衡计分卡BSC、作业成本法ABC、整合绩效管理IPM等都是很值得借鉴的方法。

（3）考核周期系统化。

平时考核要与月度、季度、年度考核紧密的联系在一起。

以平时考核为主,把平时绩效考核成绩作为对企业员工工作评价的重要依据之一。

要充分发挥目标管理导向的绩效考核制度的效果,在年度总评时,要根据合理的绩效评价给予员工鼓励,更为重要的是针对员工的工作成果与工作能力,建议并给与其应接受的培训,以有效地提高其工作能力与发展潜能。

2.3优化绩效考核指标及标准设计一个科学合理的绩效考核指标及标准体系，对全面反映一个企业管理绩效优劣至关重要。

因此，构建企业绩效考核指标及标准要遵循科学性、系统性、重要性、可比性、可操作性的原则，将独立的单个指标，按其内在联系有机组合起来，构建一个可以真实、科学、全面反映企业管理状况的绩效考核指标及标准体系。

建立正确的绩效考核指标和标准,就需要确定绩效考核的战略方向,加强考核方法在实施过程中的监督及总结完善,对每个工作岗位进行客观、合理的分析。

而且要根据分析的结果,制定出各个岗位的绩效考核指标及标准,实施过程要注意“二个结合”:（1）业绩考核与素质考核相结合。

完善的绩效考核内容除了有业绩考核之外,还应有素质考核。

业绩考核可以有效的刺激员工按照要求完成岗位职责;素质考核则促进员工注重个人的整体素质提升,鼓励培养团队精神。

二者之间有着相互促进的作用,使企业和员工两者都得到和谐发展。

（2）重点考核和一般考核相结合。

企业把考核指标定下来后,还要在总的指标中确立重点指标和一般指标。