土木工程专业英语课文译文

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土木工程专业英语(苏小卒版)翻译

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土木工程英语
Smeaton, the builder of famous Eddystone lighthouse near Plymouth, England, is said to have begun calling himself a “civil engineer” to distinguish himself from the military engineers of his time. However, the profession is as old as civilization.
希腊建筑师通常是建筑工程杰作的设计师同时也是建造师。他既是一个建筑师也是工程师。工匠、石匠和雕塑家在他的监督下工作。在希腊古典时期所
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土木工程英语
有重要建筑物是由石灰石或大理石建造的；以帕台农神庙为例，由大理石建成的。
UNIT 3 The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry-brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers（砖层） were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tarlike substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athen（s 雅典的帕台农神庙）, for example, have holes drilled（钻孔） in them for iron bars that have now rusted away（锈蚀殆尽）. The Romans also used a natural cement called pozzolana, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.

土木工程专业英语(带翻译)

State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and thelife of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April 28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof thesetechniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDE techniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection andevaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural system changewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forced vibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, forcehammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3 Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary of the state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibrationmonitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4 Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determinedin an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and condition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers,etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identify and locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked byusing a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters, defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。

土木工程专业外语课文翻译

土木工程专业外语课文翻译专业英语课文翻译Lesson 4Phrases and Expressions1.moisture content 含水量，含湿度; water content 2.cement paste 水泥浆 mortar 3.capillary tension 毛细管张力，微张力 4.gradation of aggregate 骨料级配 coarse fine (crushed stone , gravel ) 5.The British Code PC 100 英国混凝土规范PC 100; nowaday BS 8110 6. coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete 混凝土热膨胀系数 7. The B .S Code 英国标准规范8. sustained load 永久荷载，长期荷载9. permanent plastic strain 永久的塑性应变stress 10. crystal lattice 晶格, 晶格11. cement gel 水泥凝胶体12. water -cement ratio 水灰比13. expansion joint 伸缩缝 14. stability of the structure 结构的稳定性structural stability 15. fatigue strength of concrete 混凝土的疲劳强度 Volume Changes of ConcreteConcrete undergoes volume changes during hardening . 混凝土在硬结过程中会经历体积变化。

If it loses moisture by evaporation , it shrinks , but if the concrete hardens in water , it expands . 如果蒸发失去水分，混凝土会收缩；但如果在水中硬结，它便膨胀。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元Unit 13 第十三单元Survey测量教学目标了解测量的内容、方法、范围和原理了解常用的测量类型熟悉各种测量方法和类型的词汇熟悉科技类文献的常用句型熟悉map、chart、plot、construction、draw的含义；so far、heretofore、by far的含义；have to do with、be referred to、be related to的含义；compatible with、pertain to 、application to 的含义；；layout、staking out 的含义；construction 的不同含义。

Surveying has to do with（与..有关）the determination of the relative spatial location（相对空间位置）of points on or near the surface of the earth. It is the art（技术）of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angularand linear measurements（角测量法和线性测量法）.测量是关于确定地球表面上或接近地球表面的点的相对空间位置。

它是测量物体之间水平与垂直距离、测量线条之间夹角、确定线条方向以及通过预先确定角测量法和线性测量法来建立点的技术。

Accompanying the actual measurement（度量）of survey are mathematical calculations. Distance, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from data of survey. Also, much of the information of the survey is portrayed graphically（图示描述）by the construction of maps, profiles（纵剖面图）, cross sections（横剖面图）, and diagrams(图表）.数学计算伴随着测量中的实际量度。

（完整版）土木工程专业英语翻译

（完整版）土木工程专业英语翻译(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction.(1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。

在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。

(2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction.(2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。

(3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.(3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。

土木工程专业英语原文及翻译

成绩徐州工程学院08 级土木(1) 班课程考试试卷考试科目专业英语考试时间学生姓名所在院系土木学院任课教师徐州工程学院印制Stability of Slopes9.1 IntroductionTranslational slips tend to occur where the adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope:the failure surface tends to be plane and roughly parallel to the pound slips usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth，the failure surface consisting of curved and plane sections．In practice, limiting equilibrium methods are used in the analysis of slope stability. It is considered that failure is on the point of occurring along an assumed or a known failure surface．The shear strength required to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium is compared with the available shear strength of the soil，giving the average factor of safety along the failure surface．The problem is considered in two dimensions，conditions of plane strain being assumed．It has been shown that a two-dimensional analysis gives a conservative result for a failure on a three-dimensional(dish-shaped) surface．9.2 Analysis for the Case of φu =0This analysis, in terms of total stress，covers the case of a fully saturated clay under undrained conditions, i.e. For the condition immediately after construction．Only moment equilibrium is considered in the analysis．In section, the potential failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc. A trial failure surface(centre O，radius r and length L awhere F is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength．Equating moments about O：Therefore(9.1)The moments of any additional forces must be taken into account．In the event of a tension crackdeveloping ，as shown in Fig.9.2，the arc length L a is shortened and a hydrostatic force will act normal to the crack if the crack fills with water．It is necessary to analyze the slope for a number of trial failure surfaces in order that the minimum factor of safety can be determined．Based on the principle of geometric similarity，Taylor[9.9]published stability coefficients for the analysis of homogeneous slopes in terms of total stress．For a slope of height H the stability coefficient (N s) for the failure surface along which the factor of safety is a minimum is(9.2)For the case ofφu =0，values of N ss depends on the slope angleβand the depth factor D，where DH is the depth to a firm stratum．Gibson and Morgenstern [9.3] published stability coefficients for slopes in normally consolidated clays in which the undrained strength c u(φu =0) varies linearly with depth．Example 9.1A 45°slope is excavated to a depth of 8 m in a deep layer of saturated clay of unit weight 19 kN／m3:the relevant shear strength parameters are c u =65 kN／m2 andφuIn Fig.9.4, the cross-sectional area ABCD is 70 m2.Weight of soil mass=70×19=1330kN／mThe centroid of ABCD is 4.5 m from O．The angle AOC is 89.5°and radius OC is 12.1 m．The arc length ABC is calculated as 18.9m．The factor of safety is given by：This is the factor of safety for the trial failure surface selected and is not necessarily the minimum factor of safety．The minimum factor of safety can be estimated by using Equation 9.2.From Fig.9.3，β=45°and assuming that D is large，the value of N s9.3 The Method of Slicesαand the height, measured on the centre-1ine,is h. The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the available shear strength(τf)to the shear strength(τm) which must be mobilized to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium, i.e.The factor of safety is taken to be the same for each slice，implying that there must be mutual support between slices，i.e. forces must act between the slices．The forces (per unit dimension normal to the section) acting on a slice are：1.The total weight of the slice，W=γb h (γsat where appropriate)．2.The total normal force on the base，N (equal to σl)．In general thisforce has two components，the effective normal force N'(equal toσ'l ) and the boundary water force U(equal to ul )，where u is the pore water pressure at the centre of the base and l is the length of the base．3.The shear force on the base，T=τm l.4.The total normal forces on the sides, E1 and E2.5.The shear forces on the sides，X1 and X2.Any external forces must also be included in the analysis．The problem is statically indeterminate and in order to obtain a solution assumptions must be made regarding the interslice forces E and X：the resulting solution for factor of safety is not exact．Considering moments about O，the sum of the moments of the shear forces T on the failure arc AC must equal the moment of the weight of the soil mass ABCD．For any slice the lever arm of W is rsinα,therefore∑Tr=∑Wr sinαNow,For an analysis in terms of effective stress，Or(9.3)where L a is the arc length AC．Equation 9.3 is exact but approximations are introduced in determining the forces N'．For a given failure arc the value of F will depend on the way in which the forces N' areestimated．The Fellenius SolutionIn this solution it is assumed that for each slice the resultant of the interslice forces is zero．The solution involves resolving the forces on each slice normal to the base，i.e.N'=WCOSα-ulHence the factor of safety in terms of effective stress (Equation 9.3) is given by(9.4)The components WCOSαand Wsinαcan be determined graphically for each slice．Alternatively，the value of αcan be measured or calculated．Again，a series of trial failure surfaces must be chosen in order to obtain the minimum factor of safety．This solution underestimates the factor of safety：the error，compared with more accurate methods of analysis，is usually within the range 5-2%.For an analysis in terms of total stress the parameters C u andφu are used and the value of u in Equation 9.4 is zero．If φu=0 ,the factor of safety is given by(9.5)As N’ does not appear in Equation 9.5 an exact value of F is obtained．The Bishop Simplified SolutionIn this solution it is assumed that the resultant forces on the sides of theslices are horizontal，i.e.X l-X2=0For equilibrium the shear force on the base of any slice isResolving forces in the vertical direction:(9.6)It is convenient to substitutel=b secαFrom Equation 9.3，after some rearrangement，(9.7)The pore water pressure can be related to the total ‘fill pressure’ at anypoint by means of the dimensionless pore pressure ratio，defined as(9.8)(γsat where appropriate)．For any slice,Hence Equation 9.7 can be written:(9.9)As the factor of safety occurs on both sides of Equation 9.9,a process of successive approximation must be used to obtain a solution but convergence is rapid．Due to the repetitive nature of the calculations and the need to select an adequate number of trial failure surfaces，the method of slices is particularly suitable for solution by computer．More complex slope geometry and different soil strata can be introduced．In most problems the value of the pore pressure ratio r u is not constant over the whole failure surface but，unless there are isolated regions of high pore pressure，an average value(weighted on an area basis) is normally used in design．Again，the factor of safety determined by this method is an underestimate but the error is unlikely to exceed 7％and in most cases is less than 2％．Spencer [9.8] proposed a method of analysis in which the resultant Interslice forces are parallel and in which both force and moment equilibrium are satisfied．Spencer showed that the accuracy of the Bishop simplified method，in which only moment equilibrium is satisfied, is due to the insensitivity of the moment equation to the slope of the interslice forces．Dimensionless stability coefficients for homogeneous slopes，based on Equation 9.9，have been published by Bishop and Morgenstern [9.2].It can be shown that for a given slope angle and given soil properties th e factor of safety varies linearly with γu and can thus be expressed asF=m-nγu(9.10)where，m and n are the stability coefficients．The coefficients，m and n arefunctions ofβ,φ’，the dimensionless number c'/γand the depth factor D.Example 9.2Using the Fellenius method of slices，determine the factor of safety，in terms of effective stress，of the slope shown in Fig.9.6 for the given failure surface．The unit weight of the soil，both above and below the water table，is 20 kN／m 3 and the relevant shear strength parameters are c’=10 kN/m2andφ’=29°. W) of each slice is given byW=γbh=20×1.5×h=30h kN／mThe height h for each slice is set off below the centre of the base and thenormal and tangential components hcosαand hsinαWcosα=30h cosαW sinα=30h sinαThe pore water pressure at the centre of the base of each slice is taken to beγw z w，where z w is the vertical distance of the centre point below the water table (as shown in figure)．This procedure slightly overestimates t he pore water pressure which strictly should be) γw z e，where z e is the vertical distance below the point of intersection of the water table and the equipotential through the centre of the slice base．The error involved is on the safe side．The arc length (L a) is calculated as 14.35 mm．The results are given inTable 9.1∑Wcosα=30×17.50=525kN／m∑W sinα=30×8.45=254kN／m∑(wcos α-ul)=525—132=393kN／m9.4 Analysis of a Plane Translational SlipIt is assumed that the potential failure surface is parallel to the surface of the slope and is at a depth that is small compared with the length of the slope. The slope can then be considered as being of infinite length，with end effects being ignored．The slope is inclined at angle βmz (0<m<1)above the failure plane．Steady seepage is assumed to be taking place in a direction parallel to the slope．The forces on the sides of any vertical slice are equal and opposite and the stress conditions are the same at every point on the failure plane．In terms of effective stress，the shear strength of the soil along the failure plane isand the factor of safety isThe expressions forσ,τandμare:The following special cases are of interest．If c’=0 and m=0 (i.e. the soilbetween the surface and the failure plane is not fully saturated),then(9.11)If c’=0 and m=1(i.e. the water table coincides with the surface of the slope)，then：(9.12)It should be noted that when c’=0 the factor of safety is independent ofthe depth z．If c’ is greater than zero，the factor of safety is a function of z, and βmay exceedφ’ provided z is less than a critical value．For a total stress analysis the shear strength parameters c u andφu are used with a zero value of u. Example 9.3A long natural slope in a fissured overconsolidated clay is inclined at 12°to the horizontal．The water table is at the surface and seepage is roughly parallel to the slope．A slip has developed on a plane parallel to the surface at a depth of 5 m．The saturated unit weight of the clay is 20 kN／m3．The peak strength parameters are c’=10 kN/m2andφ’=26°；the residual strength parameters are c r’=0 andφr’=18°.Determine the factor of safety alo ng the slip plane(a)in terms of the peak strength parameters (b)in terms of the residual strength parameters．With the water table at the surface(m=1)，at any point on the slip plane，Using the peak strength parameters，Then the factor of safety is given byUsing the residual strength parameters，the factor of safety can beobtained from Equation 9.12:9.5 General Methods of AnalysisMorgenstern and Price[9.4]developed a general analysis in which all boundary and equilibrium conditions are satisfied and in which the failure surface may be any shape，circular，non-circular or compound．The soil mass above the failure plane is divided into sections by a number of vertical planes and the problem is rendered statically determinate by assuming a relationship between the forces E and X on the vertical boundaries between each section．This assumption is of the formX=λf(x)E (9.13)where f(x)is an arbitrary function describing the pattern in which the ratio X/E varies across the soil mas s andλis a scale factor．The value ofλis obtained as part of the solution along with the factor of safety F．The values of the forces E and X and the point of application of E can be determined at each vertical boundary．For any assumed function f(x) it is necessary to examine the solution in detail to ensure that it is physically reasonable (i.e. no shear failure or tension must be implied within the soil mass above the failure surface). The choice of the function f(x) does not appear to influence the computed value of F by more than about 5% and f(x)=l is a common assumption．The analysis involves a complex process of iteration for the values ofλ and F，described byMorgenstern and Price[9.5]，and the use of a computer is essential.Bell [9.1] proposed a method of analysis in which all the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied and the assumed failure surface may be of any shape．The soil mass is divided into a number of vertical slices and statical determinacy is obtained by means of an assumed distribution of normal stress along the failure surface．Sarma [9.6] developed a method，based on the method of slices，in which the critical earthquake acceleration required to produce a condition of limiting equilibrium is determined．An assumed distribution of vertical interslice forces is used in the analysis．Again，all the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied and the assumed failure surface may be of any shape．The static factor of safety is the factor by which the shear strength of the soil must be reduced such that the critical acceleration is zero．The use of a computer is also essential for the Bell and Sarma methods and all solutions must be checked to ensure that they are physically acceptable．References[9.1]Bell,J,M.(1968):’General Slope Stability Analysis’, Journal ASCE,V01.94,No.SM6.：‘Stability Coefficients for Earth Slopes Geotechnique，．’，Vo1.1 5,No.1.‘A Numerical Method for Solving the Equations of Stability of General Slip Surfaces’Computer Journal，Voi.9,P.388．[9.6]Sarma,S.K. (1973):’Stability Analysis of Embankments and Slopes’,Geotechnique，Vo1.23，No.2.[9.7]Skempton,A.W.(1970):’First-Time Slides in Overconsolidated Clays’(Technical Note)，[9.8]Spencer，E．(1 967)：‘A Method of Analysis of the Stability of Embankments Assuming Parallel Inter-SliceForces’，Geotechnique，．[9.9]Taylor,D.W.(1937):’Stability of Earth Slopes’,Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers，Vo1.24,No.3边坡稳定9.1 引言重力和渗透力易引起天然边坡、开挖形成的边坡、堤防边坡和土坝的不稳定性。

土木工程专业英语课文翻译

土木工程专业英语课文翻译土木工程专业英语课文翻译土木工程专业，是大学的一种自然学科。

专门培养掌握各类土木工程学科的基本理论和基本知识，能在房屋建筑、地下建筑、道路、隧道、桥梁建筑、水电站、港口及近海结构与设施。

以下是小编整理土木工程专业英语课文翻译的资料，欢迎阅读参考。

weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplies by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor, schedule all work, order materials and equipment for the job, hire contractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.领域。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元

Unit 13 第十三单元Survey测量教学目标了解测量的内容、方法、范围和原理了解常用的测量类型熟悉各种测量方法和类型的词汇熟悉科技类文献的常用句型熟悉map、chart、plot、construction、draw的含义；so far、heretofore、by far的含义；have to do with、be referred to、be related to的含义；compatible with、pertain to 、application to 的含义；；layout、staking out 的含义；construction的不同含义。

Surveying has to do with（与..有关）the determination of the relative spatial location（相对空间位置）of points on or near the surface of the earth. It is the art（技术）of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements（角测量法和线性测量法）.测量是关于确定地球表面上或接近地球表面的点的相对空间位置。

它是测量物体之间水平与垂直距离、测量线条之间夹角、确定线条方向以及通过预先确定角测量法和线性测量法来建立点的技术。

土木工程专业英语带译文

12
Chapter 6
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
6. —We shall finish the civil work by the end of the year. 在年底前我们将完成土建工作。 —Cement steel and timber are the most important construction materials used in civil engineering. 水泥、钢材和木材是土建工程中最重要的建筑材料。 7. These are the anchor bolts (rivets, unfinished bolts, high-strength structural bolts) for the structure. 这是用于结构的锚定螺栓（铆钉、粗制螺栓、高强度结构用螺栓）。
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Reinforced Concrete

土木工程专业英语带翻译

.State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are activeareas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineeringand mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own inpractice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibrationlevels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to beconfused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment ofcomplex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers.This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoringsystemand its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the followingsections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including(a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updatingand system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples ofimplementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification aresummarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem.Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zeropercent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, andreuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and the life专业资料word.of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deteriorationresulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. Toquantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitorand evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the AlohaBoeing 737 accident that occurred on April 28, 1988, such interest has fosteredresearch in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is definedas“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structuralcharacteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes thatmay indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies theweakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. Whatis needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structurein-service andprocess the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability,reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should bemodified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the useofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage hasoccurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1).In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential toprovideboth damage detection and condition assessment of a structure. Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structuralcomponents is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructiveinspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles,magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof these techniques专业资料word.have been used successfullyto detect location of certainelements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program ofresearch and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the programis to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other isto develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition ofbridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDE techniquesmay be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond thescope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Globalattempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereaslocal methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, twoapproachesarecomplementarytoeachother.Allsuchavailableinformationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage orsafety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the followingfour levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location ofdamage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remainingfatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structuralmodels and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, andhigh-performancecomputing.improvedinstrumentationandunderstanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical专业资料word.in systematic inspection and evaluation of these structures during the past twodecades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because theyare global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.Thesedynamics-basedmethodscanbedividedfourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domainand④frequency-domainmethods,methods,③time-domainmethods.Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matricesto detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of naturalfrequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In thefrequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemofspectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimatedfromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model wereapplied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampledtime. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural systemchangewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can usemodel-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect theexistence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are notaccurate in locating damage. On the otherhand,model-referencedmethods aregenerally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors thanmodel-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural modelsand significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods useoriginal time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurementequipment,theyrequirecertainstructuralinformationandmassivecomputation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and专业资料word.modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noisedue totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to beaccurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data ofstatic and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove theweakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexityofdamage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospaceengineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. Forexample,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are largein size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantiallyaffected by the non-structural components, and changes in these componentscan easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greaterthan the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment ofcomplex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers.Recent examples of research and implementation of structural healthmonitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing anddynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing andforced vibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is notunder the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves,vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring thevibration专业资料word.response while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasingavailability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input isunknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testinginvolves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, forcehammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing. we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③thefield-testingand damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the modelsin the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damagetype,location, and extentwill still be improved.3 Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition andthe structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamentalcriteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as responsemodels,modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly toassess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. Thedamage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, inthe proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring(once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of EuropeanConference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference onStructural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures,in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the专业资料word.proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There areseveral review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary of the state of the art in control andhealth monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu(1997)discussed andreviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structuralassessment procedures using vibration monitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examiningchangesindynamicproperties.Zou,TongandSteven(2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modelingtechniques and delamination detection.4 Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little isknown about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of theactual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for specialsensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structuralhealth monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changesin external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire,process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individualsensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide suchmultiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It wasexperimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar systemand a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promisingforfieldapplication.Anothernewideaisthatneuralnetworktechniques are used to place sensors. Forexample,WordenandBurrows(2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to专业资料word.locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich areinstalled on the measured structures.And these datawill be processedandusable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. Themore information are obtained, the damage identification will be conductedmore easily, but the price should be considered. That's why the sensors aredetermined in an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory andvalidation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is ofparamount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verifiedwith appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have beenimplemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remotemonitoring,intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conductednow.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. TheyalsopresentedtheambientvibrationbasedapproachesforLaserDopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspensionbridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard toseparate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normalusage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural healthmonitoring systems for bridge inspection and condition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for专业资料word.applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections andsystems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and topredict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components andsystems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design,as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers, etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on thefollowing assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect thestiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic responseof the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modalparameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are notsensitive enough to identify and locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of thedamage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, suchas highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low naturalfrequencies.Anydamageindexshouldconsiderthesefactors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of areal bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modalparameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This willresult in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But inpractice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modalresponses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)),which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to专业资料word.this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in thisdirection.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damageson bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the variousdamage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliablydetected or tracked by using a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized propertiesofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deteriorationsuch as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel inconcrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems. There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia,industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring forcivil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systemscurrently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of thetechnology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring forbridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task.Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variationsof structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indicationparameters, defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of thestructure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately,to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to doin future.专业资料word.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法,(c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构专业资料word.1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒版)翻译.

第一单元Fundamentally, engineering is an end-product-oriented discipline that is innovative, cost-conscious and mindful of human factors. It is concerned with the creation of new entities, devices or methods of solution: a new process, a new material, an improved power source, a more efficient arrangement of tasks to accomplish a desired goal or a new structure. Engineering is also more often than not concerned with obtaining economical solutions. And, finally, human safety is always a key consideration.从根本上，工程是一个以最终产品为导向的行业，它具有创新、成本意识，同时也注意到人为因素。

它与创建新的实体、设备或解决方案有关：新工艺、新材料、一个改进的动力来源、任务的一项更有效地安排，用以完成所需的目标或创建一个新的结构。

工程是也不仅仅关心获得经济的解决方案。

最终，人类安全才是一个最重要的考虑因素。

Engineering is concerned with the use of abstract scientific ways of thinking and of defining real world problems. The use of idealizations and development of procedures for establishing bounds within which behavior can be ascertained are part of the process.工程关心的是，使用抽象的科学方法思考和定义现实世界的问题。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译3~5单元

Unit 3 (从第三段开始)现代水泥发明于1824年，称为波特兰水泥。

它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，加热后磨成粉末。

在或靠近施工现场，将水泥与砂、骨料（小石头、压碎的岩石或砾石）、水混合而制成混凝土。

不同比例的配料会制造出不同强度和重量的混凝土。

混凝土的用途很多，可以浇筑、泵送甚至喷射成各种形状。

混凝土具有很大的抗压强度，而钢材具有很大的抗拉强度。

这样，两种材料可以互补。

They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where（在…情况下）both compression and tension are factors（主要因素）. Steel rods（钢筋）are embedded in（埋入）concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop （出现）. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond - the force that unites（粘合）them - that the steel cannot slip（滑移）with the concrete. Still（还有）another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid（酸）corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.它们也以另外一种方式互补：它们几乎有相同的收缩率和膨胀率。

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译土木工程师建造道路、桥梁、隧道、水坝、港口、发电厂、水和污水系统、医院、学校、大众交通和其他对现代社会和大量人口集中地区至关重要的公共设施。

他们还建造私人拥有的设施，如机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼和其他为工业、商业或住宅使用而设计的大型结构。

此外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城市和城镇，最近还在规划和设计太空平台，以容纳自给自足的社区。

___ passes the planning。

design。

n。

and management of the built ___ scientific principles。

from ___ are essential to modern society。

such as roads。

bridges。

___。

dams。

and hospitals.___ public facilities。

civil engineers also design and build privately-owned structures。

including airports。

railroads。

pipelines。

skyscrapers。

and other ___。

and ___.Overall。

___ civil engineers。

our modern infrastructure and public facilities would not exist.___。

n。

and maintenance of public and private infrastructure。

This includes roads。

bridges。

pipelines。

dams。

ports。

power plants。

water supply and sewage systems。

hospitals。

schools。

___。

and other structures that are essential to modern ___ as airports。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译11、13、15、17单元

Unit 11 第十一单元Steel Members 钢构件Tension members are found in bridge and roof trusses （屋架）, towers, bracing systems, and in situation where they are used as tie rods（连杆）. The selection of a section to be used as a tension member is one of the simplest problems encountered in design. As there is no danger of buckling, the designer needs only to compute the factored force （分解力）to be carried by the member and divide that force by a design stress to determine the effective cross-sectional area required. Then it is necessary to select a steel section（截面）that provides the required area. Though these introductory（介绍性的）calculations for tension members are quite simple, they do serve（完成）the important tasks（目标）of getting students started with design ideas（概念）and getting their “feet wet”regarding（涉足于）the massive（大量的）LRFD Manual.1. Tension Members 受拉构件受拉构件在桥梁和屋架、塔、支撑系统以及用作连杆时被见到。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译7~11单元

Unit 7 第七单元Reinforced Concrete Structures钢筋混凝土结构熟悉institute、association、society的用法；regulation、specification、code的用法；result in、give rise to、lead to的用法；reinforcing bar、reinforcing steel、steel bar、reinforcement的含义；involve、include、cover的用法；due to、stem from、because of的用法；construction、function、compressive、allow、form的不同含义。

Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant（主要的）structural material in engineered construction（建造的建筑物）. The universal（通用的）nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from（归因于）the wide availability of reinforcing bars（钢筋）and the constituents（组成部分）of concrete, gravel,sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction（施工）, and the economy（经济性）of reinforced concrete compared to other form of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts（各种各样）, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures（近海石油开采和生产结构）, dams, and even in ships. 混凝土与钢筋混凝土作为建筑材料在每个国家被使用着。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译3~5单元

Unit 3 (从第三段开始)现代水泥发明于1824年，称为波特兰水泥。

它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，加热后磨成粉末。

在或靠近施工现场，将水泥与砂、骨料（小石头、压碎的岩石或砾石）、水混合而制成混凝土。

不同比例的配料会制造出不同强度和重量的混凝土。

混凝土的用途很多，可以浇筑、泵送甚至喷射成各种形状。

混凝土具有很大的抗压强度，而钢材具有很大的抗拉强度。

这样，两种材料可以互补。

土木工程专业英语(苏小卒版)翻译.

工程是也不仅仅关心获得经济的解决方案。

最终，人类安全才是一个最重要的考虑因素。

(完整版)土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译

Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。

此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。

Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。

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参考译文第一单元第一部分钢筋混凝土混凝土混凝土由水，砂，石子和水泥构成。

这些不同的，分散的材料混合在一起就构成了一种坚硬的大块状物体（形状各异），有着良好的性能。

混凝土被用作建筑材料已有150年的历史。

它的普遍应用主要由于以下几点：（1）恶劣环境下的耐久性（包括耐水）（2）极易被浇铸成不同的形状和尺寸（3）相对经济实惠，极易获得（4）有极强的抗压能力但众所周知，与其较强的抗压强度相比，混凝土抗拉和抗弯强度较低。

因此，每当荷载，限制收缩或是温度发生变化，产生的拉应力超过混凝土的拉伸强度时，就会有裂缝出现。

在结构应用方面，通常的做法是利用钢筋来抵抗拉力或者是给混凝土施加压力来抵消这些拉力。

预应力混凝土对混凝土构件加载之前，对其进行压缩的方法称为预应力。

把钢筋和混凝土使用很强的力结合在一起就被称为预应力混凝土。

预应力混凝土的优点如下：1.在预应力操作过程中，混凝土和钢筋经过严格测试，较低的安全系数也是正当的。

2.混凝土中可容许的工作压力通常是抗压强度的三分之一，从而使保证金来弥补劣质混凝土在临界区发生的风险。

3.预应力减少风险，是由于混凝土在预应力操作期间产生的应力可能是其抗压强度的50%到75%。

今天，预应力混凝土被应用于建筑物，地下结构，电视塔，浮动储藏器和海上结构，电站，核反应堆容器和包括拱形桥和斜拉桥在内的各种桥梁系统当中。

这说明了预应力概念的多方面适应性以及对它的广泛应用。

所有这些结构的发展和建造的成功都是由于材料技术的进步，尤其是预应力钢和在估计预应力长期和短期损失方面积累的知识。

钢筋钢筋是一种极好的建筑材料。

与其他材料相比，钢筋有着较高的抗拉强度。

尽管在体积上是木材的十倍以上。

钢筋有着较高的弹性模量，因此在荷载下容易发生小的变形。

到目前为止所描述的钢筋的特性只适用于温度保持在70F上下的情况，大约从30F到110F。

这个温度区间覆盖了大多数结构的运行状况，但搞清楚当温度远远超出正常水平时所发生的情况仍然非常重要。

在低温和高温条件下，钢筋的性质变化很大。

与混凝土相比，钢筋的最大优点在于它的抗拉强度。

也就是说，它在一定的拉力作用下，钢筋的强度不损失。

正如我们所看到的，这个力使得许多材料被拉开。

在普通的钢筋中，它的抗拉强度和抗压强度一样有用，如屈服强度，大约是普通结构混凝土抗压强度的15倍，是它的抗拉强度的100倍。

因为混凝土在抗压强度方面的缺陷，钢筋是结构中的重要部分。

所以在结构中可以没有混凝土，但不可以没有钢筋。

另一方面，与混凝土相比，钢筋是一种高成本的材料，虽然钢筋只占钢筋混凝土体积的一小部分（大约占2%）但却占据成本的主要部分。

钢筋混凝土钢筋混凝土结构，在一些国家也被称为钢筋混凝土，即在混凝土中掺入钢筋和纤维，来增大脆弱材料的强度。

钢筋混凝土发明于19世纪后半期。

在世界上的许多国家，钢筋混凝土被用作建筑材料。

在包括美国，加拿大的许多国家，钢筋混凝土在工程结构中是一种主导结构材料。

钢筋混凝土结构的特性源于钢筋，混凝土，砂，石子和水泥很容易获得，以及混凝土工程施工过程中相对简单的技术和与其它结构形式相比的经济性。

混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用在桥梁和各类建筑中，地下结构，水箱，电视塔，海上石油勘探和生产结构，大坝，甚至还用在船舶上。

要不是钢筋混凝土的发明，即混凝土中嵌入钢材，混凝土就不会成为主要的建筑材料。

利用钢筋加固混凝土的设想导致了一种可以抵抗较大张拉应力的新型复合材料的产生，而这在之前是完全不可能的。

钢筋嵌入混凝土中形成钢筋混凝土，可用于有拉力产生的混凝土梁和结构中。

钢筋和混凝土之间形成强大的黏结力使得钢筋不能从混凝土中滑出。

而且，钢筋的直径必须足够小以为钢筋和混凝土提供充足的接触空间。

这表明了对于配筋率的结构，钢筋的直径越小，它们的接触面积越大。

当钢筋的数量过多以至于阻碍了混凝土的合理浇铸时，此时达到了钢筋直径的合适限值。

钢筋和混凝土这两种材料结合在一起，称为钢筋混凝土，有着许多优点：1.成本相对较低较高的抗拉强度2.适用各种天气状况，防火3.较高的抗压强度4.混凝土极易成形5.较高的抗拉强度6.极好的延展性和钢的韧性正是这种结合使得钢筋混凝土在建筑结构中有着无限的应用范围和可能性。

例如桥梁，大坝，坦克，水库和其它更多的结构中。

钢筋和混凝土还有另一个互补优势：它们的收缩率和扩张率几乎相同，因此在压力和拉力作用情况下，它们可以共同工作。

混凝土和钢筋之间形成一种强大的黏合力，这个力能够将它们粘合在一起使得周围混凝土和钢筋不产生相对滑移。

这种黏合力是由产生在钢筋混凝土表面的相对较大的化学附着力，热轧钢筋工厂的原始粗糙度以及带肋钢筋表面的间隔较小的变形所提供的，这种带勒钢筋主要是为了使两种材料有很高的联结。

钢筋混凝土分为预制混凝土和石膏现浇混凝土。

钢筋混宁土的重点放在地板系统上。

设计和实施最有效的地板系统是创造最佳建筑结构的关键。

地板系统设计中的一个小小改动就会对材料成本，施工进度，极限强度，经营成本，占用水平以及建筑物的最终使用产生极大的影响。

结构钢和钢筋混凝土的应用导致了传统结构做法的重大变革。

在早期的钢筋混凝土的框架结构，幕墙通常是由石头做成的，它们有承重墙坚实的外观。

然而在今天，幕墙通常是由轻质材料做成的，如玻璃，铝，塑料等不同材料的组合。

多层建筑物的建造也不再需要用石头或砖来砌筑厚墙了，同时建造耐火的楼面板也变得很简单。

这些改变都有助于减少工程造价，而且使建造高度更高，跨度更大的建筑物也变成了可能。

钢筋混凝土施工不是结构设计的结果。

这是一个涉及客户端，建筑师，结构工程师，施工工程师和承包商协作的合作项目。

也可能咨询其它方面的专家，如：土壤调查，供水，卫生，消防，运输，供暖，通风，空调，声学，电器服务等。

通常，建设项目包括三个阶段：规划，设计，施工。

第二部分阅读材料Text A 6种最佳新型建筑产品-2009尿液发电，再生塑料建造桥梁，找回滑入排水管道的订婚戒指……这些新型建筑产品带来了新一轮的头脑风暴。

旧建筑产品经受着新产品，新技术持续不断的挑战。

有见地的去创造发明相似材料使得某些就问题得以解决。

新的机遇挑战驱动着各种想象力的迸发。

可持续发展是创新灵感的一个来源，而不是事后营销的来源。

可持续发展是当今创新的一个重要因素，也是当今工业发展的一大挑战。

创新的产品必须有很高的知名度，才能适销对路。

在这种情况下，要不断激励创新。

可持续发展时代，最重要的一个观念就是要意识到一度被视为破烂的材料，可能是其它产品的原材料。

回收有2个等级。

再循环最初级阶段的含义是用旧纸造新纸，用旧的铝易拉罐制成新的铝易拉罐。

第二个水平的含义是一种工业产品的废弃物成为另一种新产品的原材料。

尿液发电：俄亥俄州立大学的团队找到了一种使用我们生活中最丰富的废弃资源生产需求商品的方法。

尿素，尿液中的主要成分，包含四个氢分子键合2个氮分子。

这个团队找到了一种有效的方法，使用有镍构成的电极，把氢分离出来（你必须使用电流才能得到这种反映，把氢气和氧气从水中分离出来只需要3%的电压）。

分离出来的氢气可以用来发电，非常清洁。

其唯一的燃烧产物是水和氮。

氮被收集用于工业用途。

这实在太酷了，让我们难以抵制住不为这个概念起一个广告标语：动力来源于尿。

虽然它不是一种建筑产品。

但是对可持续发展的建筑设计产生了深远影响。

它将会为尿液创造一个新的市场前景，在建筑设计行业，鼓励建造垃圾收集系统而不是垃圾处理系统。

这也就使得专业设计师要重新审视一下建筑操作过程中排除或处理掉的废弃物，看看它们有没有再利用的价值。

CalStar 粉煤灰砖和拌和机：另一种比尿液处理起来更难的废弃品是粉煤灰，这种粉煤灰是煤燃烧的产物，是从发电厂清洁大烟囱上面得到的副产品。

尽管这些粉煤灰有多种用途，像做成混凝土，但是每年仍有数百万吨被倒进池塘或者填埋掉。

目前，真正能够发挥实际应用的煤灰少于45%。

加州硅谷的Calstar产品使这个煤灰处理问题与另一个重要的环境问题结合起来，创造出了一个很棒的解决方案。

通过高温烧制粘土工艺造砖耗费很多能源，制造每一块砖要需要消耗1.5磅二氧化碳。

CalStar 已经开始用粉煤灰来制砖。

经过一个低温蒸汽过程，利用粉灰的粘性在使煤灰中的各种物质粘合起来就造出了一块砖。

（美国的CalStar产品不应该与亚洲的一种混凝土切块“粉煤灰砖”混为一谈，因为它只是把粉煤灰作为混凝土切块砖的一种填充料）。

制造CalStar粉煤灰砖与制造黏土砖相比，使用的能源仅是后者的15%，二氧化碳的排放量也仅仅是后者的15%。

刘博士首先探索建筑科技开发，已经研制出了符合砖性能标准，并能提供粘土砖谱颜色的砖。

他的第一家工厂建在喀里多尼亚，距离芝加哥仅有75英里，他们还计划着开创更多的工厂。

我们相信他们的创新模式会出现在许多建设当中。

砖虽然在最近几年中被用作建筑材料，但它仍然是一个重要的传统建筑词汇。

粉煤灰砖使我们可以继续享受砖石建筑之美，而不对地球产生威胁，一个可持续发展的解决方案挽救了传统。

导电混凝土：通过烧煤来获得能源的行业主要是发电厂。

他们在10年前就意识到“没有纯粹的废弃物”。

他们把发电站锅炉中的煤灰跟其它的残留物当成煤燃烧后的产品，而不是单纯的副产品，寻求把它们变成一种进财之道。

这种创新性导致了它们的许多新用途。

某发电厂的经理，布鲁斯Ramme取得了令人瞩目的设想。

他意识到煤灰和其它燃煤后的产物可以与混凝土结合在一起。

一方面是由于它们的化学性质，另一方面是由于二氧化碳的含量，还由于它们的导电性能。

在混凝土中掺入足够量的二氧化碳，混凝土就会导电。

这有什么好处呢？对于初学者来说，发电站的基础是自我接地。

想没想象过一下情景：一条路上的交通传感器直接插入在水泥板中，一条路能在你行驶的过程中可以充电，或者一个建筑的混凝土地基，结构，墙和地板有着和电脑记忆一样的功能这一概念还没有被制成产品，但是过不了多久就会被制成产品。

制造成设计师梦寐以求的材料。

Axion 再生塑料构件：离开再回收利用头脑风暴领域之前，让我们在关注一下Axion国际有限公司。

该公司使用再回收塑料建造铁路桥梁以及其它的建筑物。

这似乎有悖常理：因为塑料的性能与结构材料，承载材料的性能截然不同。

然而，Axion利用罗格斯大学开发出来的一种新技术，把不同的塑料结合在一起，制成了建筑材料梁和桩。

他们是“混溶聚合物”，具有不同的物理性质，并且还保留了塑料各自的特性，所以把它们不同的性能结合在一起是可能的。

目前，Axion提供了一种工程解决方案，那就是他们能提供一种比木头和钢材更经济实惠的建筑材料（虽然从生产过程来看，这种标准化的木材还未经济实惠，但是如果木材价格上涨的话，不经济实惠的状况就会发生改变。

能够携带坦克的两座桥梁在布拉格堡已经设计建成。

另外2座桥，今年冬天在维吉尼亚州，尤斯蒂斯堡修建，这两座桥专门为铁路修建，估计有130吨。