心理学英文文献翻译：The Role of Autobiographical Memory Networks in the Experience
The Secrets of Autism 孤独症的秘密
TheSecretsofAutism孤独症的秘密(译自Time杂志)美国近年来被诊断为孤独症或亚斯伯格症的小孩急速增加,为什么?TommyBarrett是小学五年级的学生,有一双梦般的双眼,与父母亲、一对峦生哥哥、两只猫和一只乌龟一起住在加州圣荷西,硅谷的心脏地区。
他喜欢数学、科学与视讯游戏,也是荣誉榜上的优秀学生。
在变形玩具与动画方面,他有世界级专家的实力。
他语调丰富大声的说,『它们像汽车、火车或动物,但是可以变成机器人或人类,我好喜欢喔』。
有时候,这些行为却是问题的关键。
例如Tommy着迷似的与这些玩具行影不离。
当身边没有玩具时,不论在大型购物中心、学校操场或在课室里,他就把自己当成玩具,假装自己是大卡车变成机器人,把身体的局部像计算机动画般的转变成猫咪。
他妈妈与老师都发现这种一再重复的哑剧,看起来好像很聪敏,但事实上是一种问题。
基于这个理由,想起另外一个令人担忧的现象。
妈妈PamBarrett想起Tommy在三岁的时候,说话流畅,口若悬河般的健谈。
但他好像不了解谈话有交替发言的规则,他只顾着自己说话。
还有,他为什么老是没有注视着对方的眼睛呢?虽然Tommy看起来是很聪敏,他在四岁时就可以阅读书籍了,他一直有焦躁不安与短暂注意力的样子,这二者让他无法参加幼儿园里的读书群。
Tommy八岁时,他的父母终于知道不对劲了。
他的精神科医生告诉他们,这个聪敏的小孩,患有一种轻微的孤独症,叫做亚斯伯格症(Asperger’ssyndrome)。
尽管亚斯伯格症的儿童,对于早期治疗都有很好的效果的事实,但是,Barrett一家人,还是无法忍受这个消息。
因为早在两年多前,Pam和她的丈夫Chris,一家软件设计公司的项目经理,经历了Tommy的两位双生哥哥Jason和Danny都患有重度孤独症的痛苦。
它们出生时表面上看起来都正常。
在他们开始躲进自己的世界之前,他们已经学会说几句简单的语言了,但是很就失去这种能力。
最新心理学专业英语翻译
EVALUATION
评价
Methodological faluts错误的方法
Bandura’s social learning theory laboratory experiments have been accused of being overly artifical (hitting a Bobo doll is not the same as inflicting aggression on a real person )and of inducing demand characteristics(the children may have believed that they were meant to behave aggressively )
这个理论忽略了攻击性行为的先天因素作用。然而,社会学习理论并提供一个比传统的行为主义者学习更可靠的暴力行为传播的观点。研究表明这个类型的榜样和行为,是最有可能被模仿的。
（5)资金问题
IMPLICATIONS FOR REDUCING /CONTROLLING AGGRESSION
减少控制攻击的内涵
The implication of social learning theory is that if aggressive behaviour is not observed or reinforced in a society ,than it will not naturally occur .
（六）DIY手工艺品的“创作交流性”This could be achieved by ensuring that aggression is not reinforced,or that negative consequences are seen to follow it .
英文心理学文献
136Journal of Personality Disorders, 25(2), 136–169, 2011© 2011 The Guilford PressFrom University of Arizona College of Medicine and Sunbelt Collaborative, Tucson, AZ (A. E. S., D. S. B.); Texas A&M University, College Station, TX (L. C. M.); University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN (L. A. C.); Menninger Clinic and Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX (J. M. O.); Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN (R. D. A.); University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (R. F. K.); University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, NL (R. V.); University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL (C. C. B.); and Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY (L. J. S.)Address correspondence to Andrew E. Skodol, MD, Sunbelt Collaborative, 6340 N. Campbell Ave., Suite 130, Tucson, AZ 85718; E-mail: askodol@.Personality DisorDer tyPes ProPoseD for DsM-5Andrew E. Skodol, MD, Donna S. Bender, PhD,Leslie C. Morey, PhD, Lee Anna Clark, PhD, John M. Oldham, MD, Renato D. Alarcon, MD, Robert F. Krueger, PhD,Roel Verheul, PhD, Carl C. Bell, MD, and Larry J. Siever, MDThe Personality and Personality Disorders Work Group has proposedfive specific personality disorder (PD) types for DSM-5, to be rated on adimension of fit: antisocial/psychopathic, avoidant, borderline, obses-sive-compulsive, and schizotypal. Each type is identified by core im-pairments in personality functioning, pathological personality traits,and common symptomatic behaviors. The other DSM-IV-TR PDs andthe large residual category of personality disorder not otherwise speci-fied (PDNOS) will be represented solely by the core impairments com-bined with specification by individuals’ unique sets of personality traits.This proposal has three main features: (1) a reduction in the number ofspecified types from 10 to 5; (2) description of the types in a narrativeformat that combines typical deficits in self and interpersonal function-ing and particular configurations of traits and behaviors; and (3) a di-mensional rating of the degree to which a patient matches each type.An explanation of these modifications in approach to diagnosing PDtypes and their justifications—including excessive co-morbidity amongDSM-IV-TR PDs, limited validity for some existing types, lack of speci-ficity in the definition of PD, instability of current PD criteria sets, andarbitrary diagnostic thresholds—are the subjects of this review.The Personality and Personality Disorder Work Group has proposed five specific personality disorder (PD) types for DSM-5, to be rated on a dimen-sion of fit: antisocial/psychopathic, avoidant, borderline, obsessive-compul-sive, and schizotypal. Each type is identified by core impairments in personality functioning, pathological personality traits, and common symptomatic behaviors. Each is derived from—though not identical to—TYPES PROPOSED 137 the corresponding DSM-IV-TR PD. The other DSM-IV-TR PDs and the large residual category of PDNOS will be represented solely by the core impairments combined with specification by individuals’ unique sets of personality traits, and a diagnosis of personality disorder trait-specified (PDTS) will be given. See Table 1, DSM-5 Borderline Personality Disorder Type with Matching Scale, for an example of a type description and the rating scale. See Krueger et al. in this issue for a description and discus-sion of the personality trait structure proposed for DSM-5.1The proposal for the specified PD types in DSM-5 has three main fea-tures: (1) a reduction in the number of specified types from 10 to 5; (2) description of the types in a narrative format that combines typical defi-cits in self and interpersonal functioning and particular configurations of traits and behaviors; and (3) a dimensional rating of the degree to which a patient matches each type. The justifications for these modifications in approach to diagnosing PD types include excessive co-morbidity among DSM-IV-TR PDs, limited validity for some existing types, lack of specificity in the definition of PD, instability of current PD criteria sets, and arbitrary diagnostic thresholds.2Considerable research has shown excessive co-occurrence among PDs diagnosed using the categorical system of the DSM (Clark, 2007; Oldham, Skodol, Kellman, Hyler, & Rosnick, 1992; Zimmerman, Rothchild, & Chel-minski, 2005). In fact, most patients diagnosed with PDs meet criteria for more than one. Some DSM-IV-TR PDs that rarely occur in the absence of other Axis I and II disorders also have little evidence of validity. The cur-rent DSM-IV-TR general criteria for PD3 were not empirically based and are not sufficiently specific, so they may apply equally well to other types of mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). PD diagnoses have been shown in longitudinal follow-along studies to be significantly less stable over time than their definition in DSM-IV-TR implies (e.g., Grilo et al., 2004). Final-ly, all of the PD categories have arbitrary diagnostic thresholds (i.e., the number of criteria necessary for a diagnosis). A reduction in the number of types is expected to reduce co-morbid PD diagnoses by eliminating less valid types. The requirement of core impairments in self and interpersonal functioning helps to distinguish personality pathology from other disor-1. Since the posting of proposed changes by the Personality and Personality Disorders Work Group on the APA’s DSM-5 Website () in early 2010, revisions of the proposal have been made. Most relevant to this article, the type descriptions have been edited to bemore concise and the type ratings have been separated from trait ratings, with the intention of determining these relationships empirically in the DSM-5 Field Trials. Core impairments in personality functioning represented by the Levels of Personality Functioning have been simplified and the levels, type, and trait ratings have been incorporated into revised General Criteria for Personality Disorder.2. The authors of this article requested an opportunity to see and respond to the specific comments and critiques made by other contributors to this special issue, to ensure that their concerns were addressed. The editor of the journal and those of this special issue denied our request.3. Briefly, “An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior manifested in two or more of the following: cognition, affectivity, interpersonal functioning, and impulse control.”138 SKODOL ET AL.ders. The addition of specific traits to behavioral PD criteria is anticipated to increase diagnostic stability. And, the use of a dimensional rating of the types recognizes that personality psychopathology occurs on continua.nUMBer anD sPeCifiCation of tyPesFive specific PDs are being recommended for retention in DSM-5: anti-social/psychopathic, borderline, schizotypal, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive. Space limitations preclude a complete justification for the five PDs retained, but each DSM-IV-TR PD was the subject of a literature review performed by Work Group members and advisors. Antisocial/ psychopathic, borderline, and schizotypal PDs have the most extensive empirical evidence of validity and clinical utility (e.g., Chemerinski, Trieb-wassen, Roussos, & Siever, under review; New, Triebwasser, & Charney, 2008; Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009; Skodol, Siever, et al., 2002; Skodol, Gunderson, Pfohl, et al., 2002; Siever & Davis, 2004). In contrast, there are almost no empirical studies focused explicitly on paranoid, schizoid, or histrionic PDs.The DSM-IV-TR PDs not represented by a specific type (paranoid, schiz-taBle 1. Borderline Personality Disorder type with Matching scaleIndividuals who resemble this personality disorder type have an impoverished and/or unstable self-structure and difficulty maintaining enduring and fulfilling intimate relationships. Self-concept is easily disrupted under stress, and often associated with the experience of a lack of identity or chronic feelings of emptiness. Self-appraisal is filled with loathing, excessive criticism, and despondency. There is sensitivity to perceived interpersonal slights, loss or disappointments, linked with reactive, rapidly changing, intense, and unpredictable emotions. Anxiety and depression are common. Anger is a typical reaction to feeling misunderstood, mistreated, or victimized, which may lead to acts of aggression toward self and others. Intense distress and characteristic impulsivity may also prompt other risky behaviors, including substance misuse, reckless driving, binge eating, or dangerous sexual encounters.Relationships are often based on excessive dependency, a fear of rejection and/or abandonment, and urgent need for contact with significant others when upset. Behavior may sometimes be highly submissive or subservient. At the same time, intimate involvement with another person may induce fear of loss of identity as an individual—psychological and emotional engulfment. Thus, interpersonal relationships are commonly unstable and alternate between excessive dependency and flight from involvement. Empathy for others is significantly compromised, or selectively accurate but biased toward negative elements or vulnerabilities. Cognitive functioning may become impaired at times of interpersonal stress, leading to concrete, black-and-white, all-or-nothing thinking, and sometimes to quasi-psychotic reactions, including paranoia and dissociation.Instructions: Rate the patient’s personality using the 5-point rating scale shown below. Circle the number that best describes the patient’s personality.5 Very Good Match: patient exemplifies this type4 Good Match: patient significantly resembles this type3 Moderate Match: patient has prominent features of this type2 Slight Match: patient has minor features of this type1 No Match: description does not applyTYPES PROPOSED 139 oid, histrionic, narcissistic, and dependent), the Appendix PDs (depressive and negativistic), and the residual category of PDNOS will be diagnosed as PD trait-specified (PDTS) and will be represented by mild impairment or greater on the Levels of Personality Functioning (Table 2) continuum (Bender, Maeg, & Skodol, under review), combined with descriptive speci-fication of patients’ personality trait profiles. In general, these PDs are in contrast to the above proposed types, which are structurally more com-plex and represent combinations of multiple traits from across different higher order trait domains. Thus, the proposed types represent a consid-eration of types as particularly salient configurations or interactions of traits—in contrast to the remaining disorders, which can be largely mod-eled using fewer traits, often from a single, specific trait domain.In the following sections, we highlight literature relevant to the retention vs. deletion of DSM-IV-TR PDs as specified types in DSM-5. Most DSM-IV-TR PDs suffer from the problem of excessive co-occurrence with other PDs (i.e., poor discriminative validity), but the relative weight of evidence of clinical utility and external validity favors retention of some of these disor-ders more than others. For most PDs, neurobiological and/or genetic datataBle 2. levels of Personality functioning1Self:1. I dentity: Experience of oneself as unique, with boundaries between self and others;coherent sense of time and personal history; stability and accuracy of self-appraisal and self-esteem; capacity for a range of emotional experience and its regulation2. S elf-direction: Pursuit of coherent and meaningful short-term and life goals; utilizationof constructive and prosocial internal standards of behavior; ability to productively self-reflectInterpersonal:1. E mpathy: Comprehension and appreciation of others’ experiences and motivations;tolerance of differing perspectives; understanding of social causality2. I ntimacy: Depth and duration of connection with others; desire and capacity for closeness;mutuality of regard reflected in interpersonal behaviorIn applying these dimensions, self and interpersonal difficulties should not be better understood as a norm within an individual’s dominant cultural.Self and Interpersonal Functioning ContinuumPlease indicate the level that most closely characterizes the patient’s functioning in the self and interpersonal realms:_____ No Impairment_____ Mild Impairment_____ Moderate Impairment_____ Serious Impairment_____ Extreme Impairment1The original full scale with definitions of terms and detailed definitions of scale points is provided elsewhere (see Skodol, Bender, et al., 2011).140 SKODOL ET AL. are sparse and findings are nonspecific (as is also the case for most Axis I disorders).ANTISOCIAL/PSYCHOPATHICThe median prevalence of ASPD across 12 epidemiological studies is 1.1%, roughly average for PDs in the community (Torgersen, 2009). Individuals with ASPD in the community have been found to have significantly- reduced quality of life, but not to the degree of individuals with avoidant PD (AVPD) or several other PDs (Cramer, Torgersen, & Kringlen, 2006). Individuals with ASPD have been found to have problems with status and wealth and with successful intimate relationships (Ulrich, Farrington, & Coid, 2007), but not with psychosexual dysfunction (Zimmerman & Cory-ell, 1989). ASPD was also associated with poor quality of life in the NESARC (Grant et al., 2004) and with moderate dysfunction on the GAFS (Crawford et al., 2005). In two large clinical populations (combined N = 1975) diag-nosed with semi-structured PD interviews, the prevalence of ASPD was 3.9%, making it one of the less-commonly found PDs in clinical settings (Stuart et al., 1998; Zimmerman, Rothchild, & Chelminski, 2005).ASPD is one of the most frequently studied PDs, however. The construct of ASPD is widely accepted, although there are controversies about spe-cific aspects of the disorder. In general, the core features include egocen-trism, callousness, exploitation, immorality, aggressiveness, hostility, impulsiveness, irresponsibility, criminality, sadism, risk behaviors, and fearlessness. With respect to current models of psychopathy (Patrick et al., 2009), the proposed prototype for antisocial/psychopathic PD includes both traits related to a disinhibition component (i.e., traits corresponding most directly to the adult features of DSM-IV-TR antisocial PD) and traits related to the construct of meanness (i.e., traits related to callousness/ lack of remorse, conning/manipulativeness, and predatory aggression). There is abundant evidence that the impulsive-antisocial (disinhibited-externalizing) and affective-interpersonal (boldness-meanness) compo-nents of psychopathy substantially co-occur, but differ in terms of their neurobiological correlates and etiologic determinants (e.g., see Moffit, 2005; Patrick, 2006), which provides a strong foundation for formulating and testing questions in relation to distinctive antisocial and psychopath-ic PD trait profiles, both within ASPD and across other PDs and other mental disorders (Edens, Marcus, Lilienfeld, & Poythress, 2006; Rutter, 2005).Due to its history, well-established validity, obvious importance in fo-rensic settings, and relationships to other types of psychopathology (e.g., alcohol and substance use disorders, see Compton, Conway, Stinson, Col-liver, & Grant, 2005), and other problems (e.g., poor physical health, ob-sesity, see Goldstein et al., 2008), a revised construct of ASPD that in-cludes psychopathic personality features has been recommended for retention in DSM-5.TYPES PROPOSED 141 BORDERLINEBPD has been found to occur in 1.6% of the general population, about av-erage for PDs in the community (Torgersen, 2009). BPD has been found to be associated with moderate reductions in quality of life in the community (Cramer, Torgersen, & Kringlen, 2006). However, when examined in rela-tionship to a broader concept of dysfunction that included reduced quality of life, problems with other people, number of lifetime Axis I disorders, and treatment-seeking, BPD was the most dysfunctional PD (Torgersen, 2009). In the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS), pa-tients with BPD have been found to have significantly more impairment at work, in social relationships, and at leisure than patients with either less severe types, such as obsessive-compulsive PD, or with major depressive disorder in the absence of PD (Skodol, Gunderson, McGlashan, et al., 2002) and functional impairment in BPD was stable over two years of follow-up (Skodol et al., 2005). Borderline personality disorder was associated with poor functioning in the Ulrich and colleagues study (2007) and with psy-chosexual dysfunction in the study by Zimmerman & Coryell (1989). Per-sons in the community with BPD have also been found to have the poorest functioning as measured by the GAFS (Crawford et al., 2005). In two large clinical populations, the prevalence of BPD was 12.7%, making it one of the three most common PDs in clinical settings (Stuart et al., 1998; Zimmer-man et al., 2005). In several other, smaller clinical epidemiological studies based on semi-structured interview assessments, BPD was always found to be one of the two most common PDs (Zimmerman et al., 2005). Borderline PD is also one of the most studied of the BPDs, second only to ASPD with respect to number of publications in the DSM era. DSM-IV-defined BPD has been shown to identify a cohesive class of subjects, in spite of internal heterogeneity. Fossati et al. (1999) carried out a latent structure analysis of DSM-IV BPD criteria, which supported the hypothe-sis that BPD is a unidimensional construct and that patients with BPD represent a distinct, cohesive disorder, yet one with dimensionally distrib-uted temperamental characteristics. Johansen, Karterud, Pedersen, Gude, and Falkum (2004) examined the prototype validity of the DSM-IV border-line construct and concluded that the current criteria fit the prototype model well, with unstable relationships representing the criterion with highest diagnostic efficiency and chronic feelings of emptiness the lowest. Ryder, Costa, and Bagby (2007) utilized the SCID II to evaluate 203 pa-tients with DSM-IV-defined personality disorders, focusing on convergent validity, divergent validity, relation to general personality traits, and as-sociation with functional impairment, as measured by the GAFS. Of the 10 DSM-IV personality disorders, only BPD criteria were satisfactory on all four evaluation standards, and the majority of BPD criteria were asso-ciated with impairment. Grilo et al. (2001), using data from the CLPS, studied four DSM-IV personality disorder criteria sets to evaluate internal consistency, intercriterion overlap, and diagnostic efficiency. They found142 SKODOL ET AL. that criteria for the specific PDs studied (schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive) correlated better with each other within each set, than with criteria for other PDs. Also from the CLPS data, Sanislow et al. (2002) carried out a confirmatory factor analysis of DSM-IV criteria for BPD. They reported that the diagnostic criteria for BPD reflect a statistically coherent construct, composed of three primary components—disturbed re-latedness, behavioral dysregulation, and affective dysregulation.There are a multitude of family, twin, adoption, genetic, neurobiological, and imaging studies that have shed light on the distinctiveness of BPD (e.g., see Goodman, New, Triebwasser, Collins, & Siever, 2010) and on basic mechanisms underlying its core psychopathology. Originally, two prominent features were singled out—affect dysregulation and impulsive aggression (Coccaro & Siever, 2009). Neurocognitive studies have focused on tasks related to symptoms seen in BPD, such as cognitive and behav-ioral disinhibition, related to impulsivity and emotional processing and have found deficits in behavioral control (e.g., Bazanis et al., 2002) and abnormalities in emotional information processing (e.g., Donegan et al., 2003). Published evidence suggests that there is an abnormality in seroto-nergic function underlying the impulsive aggressive symptoms of BPD re-lated to specific genetic risk factors, but the precise molecular nature of this abnormality is not yet clear. Bender and Skodol (2007) posited that BPD reflects fundamental disturbances in self and other representations, a proposal conceptually akin to theory-based views of borderline intrapsy-chic structure. Gunderson and Lyons-Ruth (2008) proposed a gene-envi-ronment developmental model to support their view that interpersonal hy-persensitivity represents a third core endophenotype, and a number of research groups have identified the interpersonal realm as a key area of disturbance in borderline patients. Leihener et al. (2003), for example, sug-gested that there are two distinct subtypes of patients with BPD, autono-mous and dependent, reflecting two different trait patterns of interpersonal behavior. Stanley and Siever (2010) reviewed neurobiological studies of at-tachment and affiliation and hypothesized that altered neuropeptide func-tion may underlie the interpersonal domain of BPD. Livesley (2008), draw-ing from empirical studies of the phenotypic structure and genetic architecture of personality, described core self and interpersonal pathology in patients with BPD, accompanied by a set of four types of traits: emo-tional, interpersonal, cognitive, and self-harm.The proposed BPD prototype includes characteristic core disturbances in self and interpersonal functioning, coupled with manifestations of emo-tional, behavioral, and cognitive dysregulation (See Tables 1 & 4). Treat-ment and naturalistic studies of other mental disorders demonstrate the negative prognostic impact of BPD co-occurrence and underscore the clin-ical utility of the diagnosis (e.g., Grilo et al., 2005; Grilo et al., 2010). A complete review of the literature on the validity of BPD is beyond the scope of this paper, but a wealth of data have accumulated on this most clinical-ly-salient PD being recommended for retention in DSM-5.TYPES PROPOSED 143 SCHIZOTYPALSchizotypal PD (STPD) was added as a specific PD in DSM-III, to encom-pass the attenuated schizophrenia-like symptoms observed in the relatives of patients with schizophrenia (Spitzer, Endicott, & Gibbon, 1979). Without inclusion of such nonpsychotic individuals in the original Danish Adoption Studies of Schizophrenia, no genetic effects would have been found (Kety, 1983). STPD is one of the less-common PDs (median prevalence 0.9%) found in general population studies (Torgersen, 2009), but one of the most studied PDs. STPD is also one of the DSM-IV PDs most strongly associated with reduced quality of life in the community (Cramer et al., 2006). Indi-viduals in the community with STPD have also been found to have signifi-cant problems in achievement and in interpersonal relationships by Ulrich and collaegues (2007) and the 3rd lowest GAFS scores among the PDs by Crawford et al. (2005). STPD is also rare in clinical populations (1.9%; Stu-art et al., 1998; Zimmerman, Rothchild, & Chelminski, 2005). However, patients with STPD have been found to have significantly more impairment at work, in social relationships, and at leisure than patients with either less-severe PD types, such OCPD, or with major depressive disorder in the absence of PD (Skodol, Gunderson, McGlashan, et al., 2002).The criteria of STPD reflect both positive psychotic-like manifestations and negative deficit-like manifestations, and both have been validated by numerous neurochemical, psychophysiological, neuropsychological, and structural and functional imaging studies. For example, the psychotic-like symptoms of STPD correlate with elevated levels of the dopamine (DA) me-tabolite homovanillic acid (HVA), which are higher than in other PDs but lower than in schizophrenia (Siever & Davis, 2004). Moreover, smaller vol-umes of striatal structures (e.g., caudate and putamen) in STPD com-pared to schizophrenia results in lower striatal DA release mediated by amphetamine (Abi-Dargham, Mawlawi, & Lombardo, 2002; Siever et al., 2002) or by physiological stressors in individuals with STPD (Mitropoulou et al., 2004). Such findings have been hypothesized to result in signifi-cantly lower vulnerability to frank psychosis in patients with STPD com-pared to those with schizophrenia, and to account for the relatively low rate of progression of STPD to schizophrenia. The negative manifestations and cognitive deficits of STPD have also been related to external validators (Holohan & O’Driscoll, 2005).The study of STPD has increased knowledge about pathophysiological factors that give rise to schiozophrenia, but also about differences that result in more readily reversible cognitive and social deficits (Fossati, Raine, Carretta, Leonardi, & Maffei, 2003; Mata, Mataix-Cols, & Peralta, 2005) and in decreased vulnerability to psychosis in STPD (Raine, 2006). The clinical implications of these differences are recognized by research groups who use individuals with STPD in studies assessing compensatory processes that provide buffers against schizophrenia in vulnerable indi-viduals. Despite its phenomenological similarities to schizophrenia, STPD144 SKODOL ET AL.is regarded by those who study it as a distinct disorder whose core fea-tures more resemble the maladaptive patterns of a personality disorder than the overt breaks from reality characteristic of psychotic disorders. It is recommended that STPD be retained as a PD type, not a variant of schizophrenia, in DSM-5.AVOIDANTThe median prevalence of AVPD in 12 epidemiological studies was 1.7%, making it one of the most prevalent PDs in the community (Torgersen, 2009). Avoidant personality disorder has also been found to be the PD most strongly associated with reduced quality of life in the community, as mea-sured by subjective well-being, self-realization, relation to friends, social support, negative life events, relation to family of origin, and neighborhood quality (Cramer, Torgersen, & Kringlen, 2006). AVPD has been found to be associated with problems with status and wealth and with successful inti-mate relationships (Ulrich et al., 2007) and with a high frequency of psycho-sexual dysfunction (Zimmerman & Coryell, 1989). Grant et al. (2004) found that individuals with AVPD had among the highest levels of impairment in functioning in the NESARC. Crawford et al. (2005) found that persons in the community with AVPD had the second lowest (to BPD) level of function-ing as measured by the GAFS. In two large clinical samples, AVPD was the single most frequently occurring PD (20.4%; Stuart et al., 1998; Zimmer-man et al., 2005) and one of the two most common PDs (with BPD, see above) in several other smaller clinical samples. AVPD was found to have moderate levels of functional impairment in the CLPS, between that of the severe PDs, such as STPD and BPD, and OCPD, and greater impairment than for MDD without PD (Skodol, Gunderson, McGlashan, et al., 2002). Much of the literature on AVPD is focused on its discrimination from social phobia (SP), and specifically if it can simply be considered a severe form of generalized social phobia (GSP). Although the conclusions drawn from many studies and reviews suggest that AVPD and GSP differ only quantitatively, but not qualitatively, a closer look at these studies indi-cates a more complex picture. Alden, Laposa, Taylor, and Rider (2002) noted that studies of social phobia/AVPD comorbidity typically examined a sample of patients, all of whom were included because they had one of these diagnoses, for overlap with the other. Such studies reliably find that many—though far from all—patients with AVPD also have social phobia. They reported an average comorbidity rate of 42% for SP in AVPD, with somewhat higher rates for GSP, figures far lower than would be expected if AVPD were simply a more severe form of SP. These studies do typically find that, among patients with social phobia, those with comorbid AVPD are more severe on a variety of indices.Other studies (e.g., Jansen, Arntz, Merckelbach, & Mersch, 1994) exam-ined the specificity of the AVPD/SP relationship by studying co-morbidity of AVPD with other anxiety disorders and found modest rates of co-occur-。
自我效能感专业文献资料
Honourary President’s Address –2007Facilitating Optimal Motivation and Psychological Well-Being Across Life’sDomainsEDWARD L.DECIRICHARD M.RYANUniversity of RochesterAbstractSelf-determination theory (SDT)differentiates motivation,with autono-mous and controlled motivations constituting the key,broad distinction.Research has shown that autonomous motivation predicts persistence and adherence and is advantageous for effective performance,espe-cially on complex or heuristic tasks that involve deep information pro-cessing or creativity.Autonomous motivation is also reliably related to psychological health.Considerable research has found interpersonal contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence,autonomy,and relatedness to enhance autonomous moti-vation,which comprises intrinsic motivation and well-internalized ex-trinsic motivation.SDT has been applied in varied cultures and in many life domains,and research is reviewed that has related autono-mous and controlled motivation to education,parenting,work,health care,sport,and close relationships.Keywords :autonomy,self-determination theory,autonomy support,intrinsic motivationThe topic of motivation concerns what moves people to act,think,and develop.The central focus of motivation research is therefore on the conditions and processes that facilitate persis-tence,performance,healthy development,and vitality in our hu-man endeavors.Although,clearly,motivational processes can be studied in terms of underlying mechanisms in people’s brains and physiology,the vast amount of variance in human motivation is not a function of such mechanisms but is instead a function of the more proximal sociocultural conditions in which actors find them-selves.These social conditions and processes influence not only what people do but also how they feel while acting and as a consequence of acting.Most theories of human motivation have therefore focused on the effects of social environments,including the rewards,incentives,and relationships inherent in them,to better understand what activates and sustains effective functioning,not only because that is where variation is most readily observed but also because it is the most practical focus for interventions.In doing so,most theories have treated motivation as a unitary concept that varies primarily in amount (e.g.,Bandura,1996;Baumeister &Vohs,2007).They have assumed that more motivation,however catalyzed,will yield greater achievement and more success-ful functioning.Self-determination theory (SDT;Deci &Ryan,2000;Ryan &Deci,2000),in contrast,has maintained that there are differ-ent types of motivation—specifically,autonomous and controlled motivation—and that the type of motivation is generally more impor-tant than the amount in predicting life’s important outcomes.Auton-omous motivation involves behaving with a full sense of volition and choice,whereas controlled motivation involves behaving with the experience of pressure and demand toward specific outcomes that comes from forces perceived to be external to the self.SDT began with the premise that the most useful theories of motivation would be broad in scope,encompassing a wide range of phenomena;use concepts that have phenomenological or personal meaning for people;be derived using empirical methods;and have principles that can be applied across life’s domains.As such,the theory has developed with these guiding criteria,and that may be the reason why in the past 2decades it has generated an enormous amount of research elaborating many aspects of the theory and addressing issues in many applied domains,such as parenting,health care,education,work,sport,psychotherapy,and so forth.SDT assumes that people are by nature active and self-motivated,curious and interested,vital and eager to succeed be-cause success itself is personally satisfying and rewarding.The theory recognises,however,that people can also be alienated and mechanized,or passive and disaffected.SDT accounts for these differences in terms of the types of motivation,which result from the interaction between people’s inherent active nature and the social environments that either support or thwart that nature.More specifically,resulting from empirical methods and inductive rea-Edward L.Deci and Richard M.Ryan,Department of Psychology,University of Rochester.This article was based on the 2007Honourary Presidential address to the Canadian Psychological Association by Edward L.Deci.The theory de-velopment and research review presented in this article have been done as a joint effort of the two authors.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward L.Deci,Department of Psychology,Box 270266,University of Rochester,Rochester,NY 14627.E-mail:deci@Canadian PsychologyCopyright 2008by the Canadian Psychological Association 2008,Vol.49,No.1,14–230708-5591/08/$12.00DOI:10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.1414soning,the theory has proposed that all humans need to feel competent,autonomous,and related to others(Deci&Ryan, 2000).Social contexts that facilitate satisfaction of these three basic psychological needs will support people’s inherent activity, promote more optimal motivation,and yield the most positive psychological,developmental,and behavioural outcomes(Ryan& Deci,2000).In contrast,social environments that thwart satisfac-tion of these needs yield less optimal forms of motivation and have deleterious effects on a wide variety of well-being outcomes.SDTIn this article,we present some central components of SDT and review both basic and applied research.We begin with a discus-sion of the differentiation of motivation within the SDT tradition, which started with the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation(Deci&Ryan,1985).Intrinsic and Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic motivation involves doing a behaviour because the activity itself is interesting and spontaneously satisfying.When intrinsically motivated,people perform activities because of the positive feelings resulting from the activities themselves.People are interested in what they are doing,and they display curiosity, explore novel stimuli,and work to master optimal challenges (Deci,1975;White,1959).Extrinsic motivation,in contrast,in-volves engaging in an activity because it leads to some separate consequence.The clearest examples of extrinsically motivated behaviours are those performed to obtain a tangible reward or to avoid a punishment.Various theories besides SDT have used the intrinsic–extrinsic distinction,but they have typically maintained that these two types of motivation are additive,resulting in total motivation(e.g., Atkinson,1964;Porter&Lawler,1968).Considerable research beginning in the early1970s focused on intrinsic motivation in humans and tested this additivity proposition by examining whether providing people with extrinsic rewards for doing an intrinsically interesting activity would affect their intrinsic moti-vation for the activity(e.g.,Deci,1971).The reasoning was that, if the level of intrinsic motivation had either decreased or in-creased by the addition of extrinsic rewards,it would mean that the two types of motivation are not additive.If the effect of the extrinsic reward had decreased intrinsic motivation,it would in-dicate that the two types of motivation tend to work against each other rather than being additive or synergistically positive.By1999,over100published experiments had examined this issue,and the results of a meta-analysis confirmed that,overall, extrinsic rewards decreased intrinsic motivation across a range of ages,activities,rewards,and reward contingencies(Deci,Koest-ner,&Ryan,1999).In other words,when people were given extrinsic rewards such as money or awards for doing an intrinsi-cally interesting activity,their intrinsic motivation for the activity tended to be undermined.That is,the rewards led them to lose interest in the activity.There were,however,limiting conditions to this finding.For example,rewards that are noncontingent or are not specifically dependent on doing an activity or achieving some standard tend not to undermine intrinsic motivation for the target activity because they tend not to be perceived as controlling one’s behaviour.In spite of these important limiting conditions,the meta-analysis still concluded that tangible rewards do tend to interact negatively with intrinsic motivation,so the two types of motivation are not additive,and the total motivation is unlikely to be the best predictor of the quality of people’s behaviour and experience.Many additional studies have examined the effects of other extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation,and several of these motivators,including threats of punishment(Deci&Cascio, 1972),deadlines(Amabile,DeJong,&Lepper,1976),and surveil-lance(Plant&Ryan,1985),were found to decrease intrinsic motivation.In contrast,the provision of choice was found to enhance intrinsic motivation(Zuckerman,Porac,Lathin,Smith,& Deci,1978).In interpreting these findings,we have argued that when people are intrinsically motivated,they feel a sense of autonomy as their basic need for autonomy is satisfied.Then, when people are rewarded,threatened,surveilled,or evaluated, they tend to feel pressured and controlled,and that diminishes satisfaction of their autonomy need,whereas when they are offered choice,they tend to experience greater autonomy satisfaction (Deci&Ryan,2000).In contrast to tangible rewards,positive performance feedback has been found in some instances to enhance intrinsic motivation rather than undermine it(e.g.,Deci et al.,1999).This appears to be because it directly conveys positive competence information,thus satisfying the need for competence,without being experienced as controlling.We refer to events that convey competence without being controlling as being informational.As well,studies have shown that negative feedback tends to undermine intrinsic moti-vation by thwarting people’s need for competence(e.g.,Vallerand &Reid,1984),leaving them amotivated—that is,with little in-trinsic or extrinsic motivation.Interpersonal climates.Additional studies have found that the general ambience of a situation,such as the interpersonal climate of homes,classrooms,or work groups,can also affect people’s intrinsic motivation.Social climates that feel pressuring and con-trolling undermine intrinsic motivation,whereas those that feel supportive and informational enhance intrinsic motivation(Deci, Connell,&Ryan,1989;Deci,Schwartz,Sheinman,&Ryan,1981; Vansteenkiste,Simons,Lens,Sheldon,&Deci,2004). Finally,research has shown that the effects of events such as tangible rewards or positive feedback can be influenced by the nature of the social context within which they are administered. For example,although tangible rewards have been found to un-dermine intrinsic motivation,if the interpersonal context is infor-mational and supportive of people’s autonomy,the rewards could have a positive effect(Ryan,Mims,&Koestner,1983).In parallel fashion,if positive feedback is administered in a controlling con-text,it will tend to decrease(rather than increase)intrinsic moti-vation(Ryan,1982).Autonomy and independence.SDT has always been concerned with understanding actions that are autonomous and volitional—that is,actions for which people feel a full sense of choice and endorsement of an activity—and intrinsic motivation represents a prototype of this experience.It is important to recognise,however, that autonomy is not the same thing as independence(Ryan& Lynch,1989),although some psychologists have interpreted it that way(e.g.,Markus,Kitayama,&Heiman,1996).Autonomy means to act volitionally,with a sense of choice,whereas independence15SDT,MOTIVATION,AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEINGmeans to function alone and not rely on others.People can act independently for various reasons—for example,because they think they should to be viewed as competent or mature or because they don’t like being in relationships in which they depend on others.Acting independently in either of these cases would not at all constitute autonomy or volition;indeed,the independent be-haviours would be controlled.In the first case,the individuals would feel pressured to be independent,and in the second they would be rejecting involvement with others,perhaps because they have been hurt and are not able to confront the pain.Conversely, people can depend or rely on others because they find the engage-ment and reliance comforting and satisfying,as they enjoy a sense of relational mutuality.In short,the point is that people can be either autonomous or controlled in their relative independence,and they can be either autonomous or controlled in their relative dependence(Soenens et al.,2007).Differentiating Extrinsic MotivationAlthough research has shown that extrinsic motivators often undermine intrinsic motivation because they are experienced as controlling,it is also the case that people can feel autonomous while being extrinsically motivated.SDT addresses this issue using the concept of organismic integration.Theories that use organismic rather than mechanistic assump-tions about the nature of people(e.g.,Piaget,1971;Rogers,1963; Werner,1948;White,1960)view development as the process through which humans internalize,elaborate,refine,and integrate inner structures or representations of themselves and their world. Although this integrative process is often viewed as a natural propensity or endowment,SDT emphasises that internalization and integration will function more or less effectively,depending on the degree to which organisms experiences ambient supports for basic psychological need satisfaction.That is,people are inclined to internalize and integrate within themselves the regulation of ac-tivities that were initially prompted and/or regulated by external factors.However,for this process to operate effectively,people must experience satisfaction of the basic psychological needs.To the extent that the needs are thwarted,people will be less effective at internalizing and integrating regulations.More specifically,SDT proposes that there are three types of internalization that differ in the degree to which the regulations become integrated with a person’s sense of self.The least effective type of internalization is referred to as introjection.It involves people taking in an external contingency,demand,or regulation but not accepting it as their own.Instead,it remains somewhat alien to them and tends to control them much as it did when it was still external.With introjection,people tend to feel controlled,and the control is buttressed by contingent self-esteem and ego in-volvement,with implicit offers of pride and self-aggrandizement after success,as well as implicit threats of guilt,shame,and self-derogation after failure.In a sense,introjection represents only a partial internalization,for people take in a control without feeling a sense of ownership of it and then allow it to pressure and control them.The second type of internalization is referred to as identification and involves people accepting the importance of the behaviour for themselves and thus accepting it as their own.In other words,they identify with the value of the activity and willingly accept respon-sibility for regulating the behaviour.When people have identified with a regulation,they engage in the behaviour with a greater sense of autonomy and thus do not feel pressured or controlled to do the behaviour.Finally,integration is the third type of internalization, in which people have succeeded at integrating an identification with other aspects of their true or integrated self.They reciprocally assimilate a new identification with their sense of who they are. Integration represents the fullest type of internalization and is the means through which extrinsically motivated behaviours become truly autonomous or self-determined.The three types of internalized extrinsic motivation—introjection,identification,and integration—along with external regulation,fall along a continuum in the sense that the degree of autonomy reflected in the behaviours regulated by these types of extrinsic motivation varies systematically.Behaviours regulated by introjects,although more autonomous than behaviours regu-lated externally,are still quite controlled and represent the least autonomous form of internalization.Behaviours regulated by iden-tifications are more autonomous than are those regulated by in-trojects.People have accepted the regulations with their underlying values and thus are volitional when enacting the behaviours.Fi-nally,behaviours regulated by integrations are the most autono-mous type of extrinsic motivation.As such,integrated regulation bears similarity to intrinsic motivation,for both are accompanied by a sense of volition and choice.Still,the two types of motivation differ in that intrinsic motivation is based on interest in the behav-iour itself,whereas integrated extrinsic motivation is based on the person having fully integrated the value of the behaviour.The latter is still a type of extrinsic motivation,for it remains instru-mental to some other outcome,whereas with intrinsic motivation the activity itself is interesting and enjoyable.Ryan and Connell (1989)developed an approach to assessing types of regulation, focusing on external,introjected,identified/integrated,and intrin-sic,and they found that types of regulation that were theoretically closer together along the relative autonomy continuum were more highly correlated with each other than were those farther apart. Autonomous and Controlled MotivationThe conception of internalization and types of regulation have shifted the primary differentiation within SDT from a focus on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation to a focus on autonomous versus controlled motivation.External and introjected regulations are forms of controlled motivation,whereas identified/integrated and intrinsic regulation are forms of autonomous motivation.Of course,all types of autonomous and controlled motivation are types of motivation that reflect a person’s intention to act,although they may result in different quality outcomes.In contrast to mo-tivation,amotivation reflects the lack of intention to act.Amoti-vation results from a person not valuing a behaviour or outcome, not believing that a valued outcome is reliably linked to specific behaviours,or believing that there are behaviours instrumental to a valued outcome but not feeling competent to do those instru-mental behaviours.Figure1shows a graphic representation of amotivation,extrin-sic motivation,and intrinsic motivation,along with the various types of regulation,as they fall along the continuum of relative autonomy or self-determination.16DECI AND RYANThe Consequences of Autonomous and Controlled MotivationDozens of experimental and field studies have now examined the correlates and consequences of autonomous and controlled motivation.Consistently,autonomous regulation has been associ-ated with greater persistence;more positive affect;enhanced per-formance,especially on heuristic activities;and greater psycho-logical well-being.For example,autonomous motivation has been found to promote greater conceptual understanding(e.g.,Grolnick &Ryan,1987);better grades(e.g.,Black&Deci,2000);more creativity(e.g.,Koestner,Ryan,Bernieri,&Holt,1984);enhanced persistence at school and sporting activities(e.g.,Pelletier,Fortier, Vallerand,&Brie`re,2001;Vallerand&Bissonette,1992);more control over prejudice(Legault,Green-Demers,Grant,&Chung, 2007);better productivity and less burnout at work(e.g.,Fernet, Guay,&Senecal,2004);healthier lifestyles and behaviours(e.g., Pelletier,Dion,Slovenic-D’Angelo,&Reid,2004);greater in-volvement and better outcomes from psychotherapy(Zuroff et al., 2007);and higher levels of psychological well-being(e.g.,Ryan, Rigby,&King,1993),among other positive outcomes. Facilitating Internalization and IntegrationBecause the evidence is abundant that not only intrinsic moti-vation but also well-internalized forms of extrinsic motivation are associated with more positive human experience,performance, and health consequences,SDT researchers have devoted consid-erable effort to an exploration of the social conditions that facili-tate internalization and the autonomous enactment of behaviours. On the basis of empirical and theoretical considerations,we pro-posed that conditions supportive of the basic psychological needs would facilitate internalization and integration.Specifically,feel-ing involved with and related to a family or group will facilitate internalization of values and behaviours endorsed in that setting. Feeling competent to enact the behaviours will also increase the chances of fully internalizing the regulation of those behaviours, and being encouraged and supported to think about the value of the behaviour to oneself may facilitate identifying with and integrating the behaviour’s value and regulation.Examination of the effects of contextual factors on internaliza-tion and integration has been conducted in numerous studies.For example,a laboratory experiment found that internalization was increased by providing individuals with a rationale for doing an uninteresting activity,acknowledging the participants’perspec-tives and feelings about the activity,and supporting the experience of choice while minimising the use of pressure to do the behaviour (Deci,Eghrari,Patrick,&Leone,1994).Furthermore,the exper-iment revealed that,when a high level of these supports was provided,participants tended to integrate the behavioural regula-tions,whereas a low level of the supports led to introjected regulation.Studies in schools have similarly revealed,that when parents were perceived as more autonomy supportive,their chil-dren displayed greater internalization of school-related behaviours (e.g.,Chirkov&Ryan,2001;Grolnick,Ryan,&Deci,1991). The factors that facilitate internalization of extrinsic motivation are quite similar to those that help to maintain intrinsic motivation, and they revolve around the idea of significant others—for exam-ple,parents,teachers,managers,friends—relating to the target individuals from those individuals’perspectives so as to support and encourage them to explore,initiate,endorse,and engage in behaviours that are interesting and/or important for them.Facili-tating internalization may take somewhat more structure and guid-ance than maintaining intrinsic motivation so the values and reg-ulations to be internalized will be salient,but it is important that such structure and guidance be presented in an autonomy-supportive way.Goals and AspirationsThe work that we have discussed to this point focuses on the regulatory processes for behaviours—that is,on whether the rea-sons they are engaging in the behaviours are autonomous versus controlled.Other research conducted within the SDT framework concerns the content of the goals or outcomes that people are pursuing,whether for autonomous or controlled reasons.For ex-ample,research by Kasser and Ryan(1996)showed that people’s long-term goals tended to fall into one of two factor analytic categories.One category included such goals as amassing wealth, becoming famous,and projecting an attractive image.It was labelled extrinsic goals because they are focused on external indicators of worth.In contrast,the other category included per-sonal growth,building relationships,and being generative for the community and was labelled intrinsic goals because these goals are more directly linked to satisfaction of the basic psychologicalFigure1.The types of motivation and regulation within self-determination theory,along with their placement along the continuum of relative self-determination.17SDT,MOTIVATION,AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEINGneeds for autonomy,competence,and relatedness.Studies reported by Kasser and Ryan indicated that people who placed relatively strong emphasis on the extrinsic aspirations displayed low levels of psychological well-being,whereas those who placed relatively strong emphasis on the intrinsic aspirations displayed high levels of well-being.In short,the content of people’s overarching goals was clearly associated with indicators of their psychological health.Research further showed that people who emphasised extrinsic aspirations tended to be more controlled in their pursuit of the goals,whereas people who emphasised intrinsic aspirations tended to be more autonomous.However,Sheldon,Ryan,Deci,and Kasser(2004)found that the content of people’s goals predicted their mental health even after controlling for the reasons or mo-tives for which they were pursuing the goals.Thus,the two variables—intrinsic goals and autonomous regulation—contribute independent variance to well-being.Other research on goals and aspirations has experimentally manipulated people’s goals.For example,some people performing a learning task were told that it would help them make money(an extrinsic aspiration),and others were told that it would help their personal growth(an intrinsic aspiration).Results indicated that people who did the learning while believing that it would help them make money learned the material less well and subsequently performed more poorly than those who learned while believing that it would help their personal growth(Vansteenkiste,Simons, Lens,et al.,2004).Autonomy Across CulturesOne of the central assertions of SDT is that the basic psycho-logical needs for relatedness,competence,and autonomy are uni-versal—that is,important for people of all cultures.This stands in contrast to the cultural-relativist view held by many cross-cultural psychologists(e.g.,Markus et al.,1996),which maintains that needs are learned within cultures.In particular,cultural relativists argue that autonomy is a Western ideal and is taught in Western cultures that focus on individualism but that it is not important in Eastern cultures,so it plays little role in the lives of East Asians and people from other traditionalist cultures.Instead,the cultural relativists argue,relatedness is the important need in cultures that emphasize collectivism and interdependence.The SDT view,how-ever,suggests that cultures influence people in profound and important ways but that all humans have certain needs.The way the needs tend to get satisfied may differ by culture,but the fact of their needing to be satisfied for people to experience optimal well-being does not depend on culture.Several studies involving Western and Eastern cultures have found that satisfaction of the autonomy need promotes psycholog-ical health in Eastern cultures just as it does in Western cultures. For example,Chirkov,Ryan,Kim,and Kaplan(2003)found that in South Korea,Russia,and Turkey,as well as in the United States,having more fully internalized cultural values and enacting them more autonomously was associated with greater psycholog-ical health.It is interesting that having one’s values for collectiv-ism or individualism match the predominant values in one’s cul-ture was not as important for psychological health as was enacting the values autonomously.Satisfaction of the autonomy need was indeed important in each culture,which is consistent with the idea of the universality of that need.Numerous specific studies in varied cultures are consistent with the universality of basic needs for autonomy,competence,and relatedness.For example,Ryan et al.(1999)found that,in Russia, holding strong extrinsic aspirations,which is associated with lower autonomy,was predictive of poorer psychological well-being. Sheldon,Elliot,et al.(2004)showed how autonomy predicted wellness in four distinct cultures.Ryan,La Guardia,Solky-Butzel, Chirkov,and Kim(2005)found that,across varied cultures,reli-ance on others was facilitated by autonomy support.This growing body of work suggests that,despite surface differences in cultural values,underlying optimal motivation and well-being in all cul-tures are very basic and common psychological needs.Autonomy Support in Various Life Domains Autonomy support involves one individual(often an authority figure)relating to target individuals by taking their perspective, encouraging initiation,supporting a sense of choice,and being responsive to their thoughts,questions,and initiatives.When peo-ple’s autonomy is supported,they often feel free to follow their interests and consider the relevance and importance for themselves of social values,mores,and norms.Many of the studies of auton-omy support have been conducted in various field settings.We now consider a sampling of these studies crossing several life domains.Autonomy Support in SchoolsVarious factors affect whether the interpersonal climate of a classroom tends to be more autonomy supportive or more control-ling,but among the more important of these is the orientation of the teacher.Some teachers believe it is their job to be sure that students do things correctly,to convey to the students that they should do as they are told,and to use controls in an attempt to ensure that the students do.Other teachers,however,believe it is important for students to initiate behaviours,to learn from both their successes and failures,and to try to solve problems for themselves rather than relying on the teacher to tell them what to do.At the beginning of a school year,Deci et al.(1981)assessed the degree to which teachers in fourth through sixth grades were oriented toward controlling students versus supporting their auton-omy.Two months later,they assessed students’intrinsic motiva-tion,perceived competence,and self-esteem.They found that,in classrooms in which teachers were autonomy supportive,students were more intrinsically motivated—being curious,preferring chal-lenges,and making independent mastery attempts.The students of autonomy-supportive teachers also felt more competent at school-work and had higher self-esteem.A study by Chirkov and Ryan (2001)found that teacher autonomy support in both Russia and the United States was important for high school students to internalize motivation for schoolwork,be well adjusted,and feel good about themselves.In studies by Vansteenkiste,Simons,Soenens,and Lens(2004), the framing of both intrinsic and extrinsic goals was conducted with an autonomy-supportive versus controlling communication style.The autonomy-supportive style led to greater learning and performance outcomes than did the controlling style.This main18DECI AND RYAN。
心理学相关英语单词
心理学相关英语单词Psychology: Exploring the Psyche and Human Behavior.Psychology, derived from the Greek words "psyche" (mind) and "logos" (study), is the scientific study of the mindand behavior. Encompassing a broad spectrum of subfields,it seeks to understand the complexities of human thought processes, emotions, motivations, and actions.Key Concepts in Psychology.Cognition: Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using information, including perception, attention, memory, and decision-making.Emotion: Subjective experiences accompanied by physiological arousal and behavioral reactions, such as happiness, sadness, and anger.Motivation: Internal forces that drive behavior towardspecific goals or outcomes.Personality: Unique characteristics and patterns of behavior that define an individual.Social Psychology: The study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations.Developmental Psychology: The study of cognitive, emotional, and social development throughout the lifespan.Abnormal Psychology: The study of mental disorders and abnormal behaviors.Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior.Subfields of Psychology.Clinical Psychology: Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.Counseling Psychology: Provides support and guidance to individuals facing personal or emotional challenges.Educational Psychology: Investigates learning processes and develops strategies to enhance education.Forensic Psychology: Applies psychological principles to legal settings, such as criminal investigations and competency evaluations.Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Studies workplace behavior and investigates factors that influence job performance and satisfaction.Research Psychology: Conducts empirical studies to advance psychological knowledge.Methods in Psychology.Psychologists employ a variety of methods to gather data and test hypotheses:Observational Methods: Observing and recording behaviors in natural or controlled settings.Experimental Methods: Manipulating variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.Correlational Methods: Examining relationships between variables without manipulating them.Case Studies: In-depth investigations of individual cases to understand specific psychological phenomena.Surveys and Questionnaires: Collecting data from samples of individuals to gauge opinions, beliefs, and experiences.Applications of Psychology.Psychology has wide-ranging applications in various fields:Mental Health: Diagnosis and treatment of mentaldisorders, such as anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia.Education: Developing effective teaching methods and understanding student learning processes.Workforce: Improving employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction.Legal System: Providing expert testimony, conducting competency evaluations, and designing rehabilitation programs.Sports: Enhancing athletic performance and promoting mental well-being in athletes.Healthcare: Understanding the psychological factorsthat influence health behaviors and promoting patient recovery.Ethical Considerations in Psychology.As a scientific discipline, psychology adheres toethical guidelines that prioritize the well-being of research participants and clients:Informed Consent: Obtaining informed consent from participants before conducting research or providing treatment.Confidentiality: Maintaining the privacy ofparticipant information.Do No Harm: Avoiding causing physical or psychological harm to participants.Objectivity: Striving for impartiality and avoiding personal biases in research and practice.Professionalism: Adhering to ethical standards and maintaining professional conduct.Conclusion.Psychology, as the study of the mind and behavior,offers a comprehensive understanding of the human experience. Through its various subfields, methods, and applications, it continues to unravel the complexities of the human psyche and contribute to our well-being and progress as a society.。
心理学专业外语：The biological approach to psychology
The biological approach to psychology心理学的生物学研究方法‘All that is psychological is first physiological ’ Anon.“所有心理的东西首先起源于生理的。
”阿农Origins and history1.起源和历史Sometimes known as the physiological,biopsychological, neurophysiological,nativist(considering nature rather than nurture) or innate approach.这种方法有时被认为是生理学的、生理心理学的、神经生理学的、先天论者（考虑先天遗传因素而非后天环境因素）或先天的研究方法。
The biological approach to psychological matters has integrated with and run parallel to the rest of psychological thought since early Greek times-the Greek physician Galen suggested that personality and temperament may be linked to the levels of body fluids such as blood and bile in the body.心理问题的生物学研究方法已经与自希腊早期以来的其余心理学思想融合而且并行存在，希腊医生盖伦认为人的个性和气质可能与体液水平相关联，如人体内的血液和胆汁的不同配合。
As knowledge of human anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, and medicine developed, important insights for human behaviour and experience were gained.Penfield for example mapped the role of various areas of thecerebral cortex through microelectrode stimulation with conscious patients. Sperry investigated the effects of splitting the cerebral hemispheres on consciousness and psychological function.伴随人体解剖学、生理学、生物化学和医学知识的发展，人类对自身的行为和经验有了重要的见解。
高二心理学基础英语阅读理解15题
高二心理学基础英语阅读理解15题1. According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the part of our mind that contains our basic drives and instincts is called _.A. EgoB. SuperegoC. IdD. Conscious答案解析：C。
弗洛伊德的精神分析理论中，本我（Id）包含我们的基本欲望和本能。
自我（Ego）协调本我和超我（Superego）以及外部世界的关系，超我代表道德和社会规范，意识（Conscious）是心理结构的一部分但不是包含基本欲望和本能的部分。
2. In Pavlov's famous dog experiment, what was the unconditioned stimulus?A. The bellB. The foodC. The dog's salivaD. The dog's behavior答案解析：B。
在巴甫洛夫的实验中，食物是无条件刺激，因为狗天生看到食物就会流口水，不需要任何条件。
铃铛是后来与食物配对的中性刺激，狗的唾液是反应，狗的行为不是无条件刺激。
3. Which psychologist proposed the theory of multiple intelligences?A. Sigmund FreudB. Ivan PavlovC. Howard GardnerD. Carl Jung答案解析：C。
霍华德·加德纳提出了多元智能理论。
弗洛伊德提出精神分析理论，巴甫洛夫以条件反射实验著名，荣格有自己的分析心理学理论。
4. In a study about memory, participants were asked to recall a list of words. Which type of memory is mainly involved when they first see the words?A. Long - term memoryB. Short - term memoryC. Sensory memoryD. Episodic memory答案解析：C。
心理学英文文献汇报1
Experiment1
Procedure:
“to describes the facial expression best” without time limits. sadness anger fear disgust happiness surprise
Experiment1
Preface
Goal of this study
To address the perceptual similarity among facial expressions and unveil rules that govern contextual effects on the perceptual processing of facial expressions and on the mapping of facial expressions into emotion categories.
Experiment1
Full Low Medium
Target face: disgust
High
Accuracy was inversely related to the perceptual similarity between the facial expression of disgust and the facial expression typically associated with the emotional context .
Preface
Authors’ views：
In real life, faces are rarely encountered in isolation, and the context in which they appear is often very informative; The results of early researches （e.g.,Trope,1986;Nakamura et al.,1990;Carroll & Russell,1996） proved inconsistent ,furthermore, the relevance of those studies to the perception of facial expressions is indirect at best, because participants were asked not to describe the emotion expressed in the face, but rather to attribute emotion to the target person;
Roland Barthes and the Impossible Autobiography
Roland Barthes and the Impossible Autobiography SONG Xin-yi【期刊名称】《Cultural and Religious Studies》【年(卷),期】2024(12)3【摘要】Roland Barthes par Roland Barthes is an autobiographical work by the French literary theorist Roland Barthes,written in the early seventies of the twentieth century.According to the Latin alphabet,the book arranges and combines some passages with different themes,which gives the book the formal characteristics of the dictionary and violates the writing norms of traditional autobiographies.In addition,the book uses the first person,the second person,and the third person interchangeably to carry out a polyphonic narrative,which destroys the integrity and authenticity of the narrative subject,thus completing an avant-garde literary experiment.【总页数】4页(P164-167)【作者】SONG Xin-yi【作者单位】Chinese Academy of Social Sciences【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H31【相关文献】1.What the Author Really is Roland Barthes vs.Michel Foucault2.On the Literature of Roland Barthes3.Roland Barthes Reads The Map and the Territory by Michel Houellebecq4.符号学理论在广告设计中的应用研究——以罗兰·巴特(Roland Barthes)的符号学理论为中心5.A Survey on Roland Barthes’ Myth Today因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
心理英语文献
心理英语文献心理学是一门研究人类心理和行为的学科，涉及广泛的领域和主题。
在研究心理学的过程中，英语文献是不可或缺的资料来源之一。
以下是一些与心理学相关的英语文献：1. “The Psychology of Persuasion” by Robert Cialdini –这本书介绍了六种影响力的原则，让读者了解如何在商业、政治和社交场合中使用这些原则。
2. “Emotional Intelligence” by Daniel Goleman –这本书讲述了情商的重要性，并提出了一些培养情商的方法。
这也是心理学领域的一本经典书籍。
3. “Social Learning Theory” by Albert Bandura –这篇论文提出了社会学习理论，强调了观察和模仿在学习和行为塑造中的作用。
4. “A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance” by Leon Festinger –这篇论文讲述了认知失调理论，说明人们在面对矛盾信息时会体验到一种不适感，进而采取行动来减少这种不适感。
5. “The Nature of Prejudice” by Gordon Allport –这本书探讨了偏见的本质，提出了对抗偏见的方法。
6. “Stress, Appraisal, and Coping” by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman –这本书介绍了压力的评估和应对方法，是压力管理领域的重要参考资料。
7. “Attachment Theory” by John Bowlby –这篇论文提出了依恋理论，说明人们在童年时期的依恋经历对其成年后的情感健康和关系质量有影响。
8. “Theories of Personality” by Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey –这本书概述了个性理论的各种流派和观点，是个性心理学领域的经典教材。
心理分析批评理论英语作文
心理分析批评理论英语作文Title: A Psychological Analysis of Criticism Theory。
Introduction:Criticism theory is an essential aspect of psychology that helps us understand human behavior and its impact on individuals. In this essay, we will explore the concept of criticism theory and its various dimensions, including the effects of criticism on self-esteem, motivation, and mental well-being. By analyzing this theory, we can gain a deeper understanding of how criticism affects individuals and develop strategies to handle criticism constructively.Body:1. Definition and Overview of Criticism Theory:Criticism theory refers to the study of how criticism influences individuals' thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.It involves analyzing the impact of both positive and negative criticism on an individual's self-esteem, motivation, and overall psychological well-being. Criticism can be both external, coming from others, or internal, originating from self-evaluation.2. Effects of Criticism on Self-esteem:Criticism plays a significant role in shaping an individual's self-esteem. Negative criticism, especially when harsh or constant, can lead to a decline in self-esteem. Repeated negative feedback can make individuals doubt their abilities, leading to a negative self-perception. On the other hand, constructive criticism, when delivered appropriately, can help individuals improve their self-perception and enhance their self-esteem.3. Impact of Criticism on Motivation:Criticism has a direct impact on an individual's motivation levels. Negative criticism can demotivate individuals, leading to reduced effort and performance.This is especially true when criticism is delivered in a way that undermines an individual's confidence. On the contrary, constructive criticism can serve as a catalystfor motivation, as it provides individuals with insights on areas for improvement and encourages growth.4. Psychological Well-being and Coping with Criticism:Criticism can significantly affect an individual's mental well-being. Continuous exposure to negativecriticism can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and even depression. It is crucial for individuals to develop effective coping mechanisms to deal with criticism constructively. This can include seeking support from loved ones, practicing self-care, and reframing negativecriticism into opportunities for growth.5. The Role of Culture in Criticism:Culture plays a vital role in how individuals perceive and respond to criticism. In some cultures, criticism is seen as a means of improving oneself, while in others, itmay be viewed as an attack on one's character. Understanding cultural differences in the perception of criticism is crucial in developing effective communication strategies and promoting a positive environment for growth.Conclusion:Criticism theory provides valuable insights into the impact of criticism on individuals' self-esteem, motivation, and mental well-being. By understanding the psychological aspects of criticism, individuals can develop strategies to handle criticism constructively and foster personal growth. It is essential for society to promote a culture of constructive criticism, where feedback is delivered in a supportive and respectful manner, thus enabling individuals to thrive and reach their full potential.。
官能心理学 英文解释
官能心理学英文解释Sensory psychology, also known as psychophysics, is the field of psychology that studies the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce. In other words, it examines how our senses interact with the environment and how the brain processes this information.Step 1: Understanding the SensesThe five senses - sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch - are the primary focus of sensory psychology. Researchers in this field study how these senses work and how they interact with each other. For example, how does our sense of smell affect our perception of taste, or how does our vision impact our hearing?Step 2: Examination of PerceptionSensory psychologists also study perception, which is the process of interpreting and organizing sensory information. They are interested in how people perceive things differently and why perceptions can vary from person to person.Step 3: The Role of AttentionAttention is also an important aspect of sensory psychology. Researchers examine how our attention impacts our perception and how our perceptions change when we focus on certain stimuli. This has implications for everything from memory and learning to driving and other activities where attention is critical.Step 4: Applications of Sensory PsychologySensory psychology has many practical applications, ranging from marketing and advertising to product design and ergonomics. For example, manufacturers may use sensory psychology to design products that feel more comfortable to use, or marketers may use it to create packaging that appeals to consumers' senses.In conclusion, sensory psychology is a fascinating field that is concerned with understanding the relationship between the physical world and our experiences of it. By studying how our senses work, how we perceive information, and how attention impacts our experiences, sensory psychologists help us to better understand the human mind and its relationship with the environment.。
心理学英文文献报告
方法
家庭关系的测量 家庭环境量表（家庭凝聚/情感表达/家庭冲突） 李克特五点量 表，1代表从不，5代表总是 本研究量表的系数为0.73 自我同一性状态 该量表采用6点量表计分，1代表非常赞同，6代表非常不赞同 包括四个分量表（成就型、排他型、弥散性、延缓型）本研究量表的系数0.66
自我同一性风格测量 采用Berzonsky修订的自我同一性风格问卷，该问卷共34个 项目,每个项目从“一点也不像我”到“非常像我”,均为5点计分。问卷包括4个 分量表,即信息风格、标准风格、扩散-回避风格和承诺分量表。由于本研究只考 察大一学生的同一性风格,因此对承诺分量表不做分析。本研究总量表的Cronbach 系数为0.62
同一性获得（identity 同一性拒斥（identity 同一性扩散（identity 同一性延缓（identity
achievement)YES foreclosure)NO diffusion) NO
YES YES NO NO
moratorium) YES
自我同一性风格
在批判玛西亚理论的基础上，berzonsky(1990)提出了个体认同的过
对象&方法
1.采取整群抽样法,选取351名大学一年级学生进行问卷调查。 男生 119名（34%） 女生 232名（66%）（男女比例接近1:2，与本校大一新生 男女比例相仿） 年龄介于18—21，平均值为19.22
大多数学生来自欧洲中产阶级
2.方法 社会心理情况 问卷法，包括八个量表，与埃里克森八阶段论相对应，但我 们重点关注的是晚期青少年阶段量表，所以集中于前五个阶段（希望、意志、目 标、能力、诚实），最终成绩为五个量表分数之和，五个变量值和可以解释变量 的66% coefficientα为0.89 学校关系（1-5点李克特量表，学生vs全体教职工；学生vs导师；学生vs同 伴）
请将下面这段话翻译成英文
请将下面这段话翻译成英文：对于一名女子来说，传统美是她的唯一标志。
她的皮肤应该天生丽质，没有皱纹，没有疤痕，没有瑕疵。
她的身材应该消瘦苗条，通常高挑个，双腿修长，其中青春年少则是首要条件。
所有在电视广告中出现的“花容月貌”的靓女都符合这个标准。
这种形象是认为的，是可以人工塑造的。
许多妇女尽其所能来摆布和修改自己的容貌体态。
参考答案:To a woman,the traditional beauty is her onlymark.Her skin should be born smooth withoutwrinkles,scars or flaws.Her body should be slim andthin,and usually she is tall,having long legs.Theyouth is the primary condition.All of the beautieswho have showed up in the TV commercials are fit for that criterion.This image is artificial andcan be made by people.Many women do their best to decorate and modify their looks andfigures.考点分析：她的皮肤应该天生丽质，没有皱纹，没有疤痕，没有瑕疵。
分析:本句中的“皱纹”，“疤痕”，“瑕疵”应选择意思最接近的英语词汇，可以译为wrinkle,scar,flaw。
. 实战演练：【汉译英1】波士顿咨询公司最近做的一项研究显示，到2020年中国将会有2.2亿家庭收入在2万到100万美元的富裕消费者。
这些消费者中75%住在“较小城市”。
随着网络的发展，较小城市的消费者的一种必然趋势是他们更加依赖社交网络服务上的信息。
很多网络顾客都是通过微信、微博和QQ空间分组的。
心理学英文文献写作
心理学英文文献写作As a language model AI, I can certainly provide some guidance on writing a psychology research paper in English.When writing a psychology research paper, it is important to follow a specific format. The paper should typically include an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.In the introduction, you should provide background information on the topic you are studying and clearly state your research question or hypothesis. The literature review should summarize and analyze previous research on the topic, highlighting the gaps in the current knowledge that your study aims to fill.The methodology section should detail the research design, participants, materials, and procedure used in your study. This section should be written in enough detail that another researcher could replicate your study based on the information provided.The results section should present the findings of your study in a clear and organized manner, often using tables and figures to present the data. The discussion section is whereyou interpret the results and discuss their implications. It is important to relate your findings back to the existing literature and explain how your study contributes to the field of psychology.Finally, the conclusion should summarize the main findings of the study and suggest directions for future research.When writing a psychology research paper, it is also important to use proper citations and references. Make sure to cite all sources of information that you use in your paper, and format the references according to the guidelines of the citation style required by your instructor or publisher.In addition, it is important to use clear and concise language in your writing, and to carefully proofread and edit your paper before submitting it.心理学研究论文在撰写时需要遵循特定的格式。
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自传体记忆系统在消极情绪体验中：如何从过去的记忆中得出目前的感受The Role of Autobiographical Memory Networks in the Experience of Negative Emotions: How Our Remembered Past Elicits Our Current FeelingsFrederick L. Philippe and Richard Koestner McGill University Serge Lecours, Genevieve Beaulieu-Pelletier,and Katy Bois Universite´ de Montre´al摘要本研究考察了在消极情绪体验中，自传体记忆网络所起到的作用。
两个实验结果发现，自传体记忆及其相关的记忆系统在消极情绪体验中的作用是活跃而明显的。
此外，与自我决定理论一致，对能力、自主及人际关系的心理需要的受挫，是自传体记忆影响消极情绪体验的关键环节。
研究一揭示，在与损失主题相关的自传体记忆系统中，心理需要的受挫与抑郁情绪正相关，而非其他的消极情绪。
研究二以一个预测设计揭示，相对于对待不公的情绪，愤怒相关及内疚相关的自传体记忆网络二者在情景愤怒上的差别更为显著。
所有的结果都是在控制神经质（研究一、二）和自我控制（研究二）及效价（研究一）和情绪（研究二）的基础之上，通过测量自传体记忆网络而得出的。
这些结果呈现了需要受挫在自传体记忆网络中持续的具有情感意义的表达。
关键词自传体记忆，消极情绪，需要受挫，记忆网络，自我决定理论尽管记忆与情绪的关系很久以来为研究者所兴趣的论题,但众多研究者主要关心的是——情绪怎样影响情绪。
例如，上世纪80年代到90年代间的研究考察了个体当前的情绪如何影响了情绪一致性记忆（如，Bower & Cohen, 1982; Clore & Parrott, 1991），或者情绪记忆的效果优于中性记忆的方式（Heuer & Reisberg,1990）。
反过来看，记忆如何影响情绪，这种视角的探讨没有引起众多研究者的关注。
本研究旨在探查这种视角，即是，自传体记忆在情绪体验中的管理作用。
自传体记忆的管理作用是指用过去的经验去知道当前和未来的想法、情绪和行为(Bluck, Alea, Habermas, & Rubin, 2005)。
直到最近才有研究者探查了生活事件记忆如何影响各种适应性结果，包括情绪体验（Pillemer,2003）。
记忆影响情绪体验的途径是，个体通过有意地回忆自己的自传体记忆。
研究显示，唤醒自传体记忆可以影响个体当前的情绪体验（(如，LeDoux, 1992; Schwartz, Weinberger,& Singer, 1981)），同时也影响了情绪体验的强度（如，Philippot,Schaefer, & Herbette, 2003）。
研究还表明，回忆自传体记忆会缓冲情绪体验。
Josephson，Singer及Salovey (1996)的实证证据表明，人们经常有意地回忆积极的记忆内容以修复消极心境。
同时也显示，当相似的情境稍后出现时，回忆自传体记忆扮演着学习者的作用（Wong & Watt, 1991）或社交分享的功能（Alea & Bluck,2003），促进了情绪评估和自我管理。
另一种视角考察情绪体验中对自传体记忆的提取，认为自传体记忆是直接或自动的效应。
Pillemer(1998, 2001, 2003)指出，自传体记忆的指导功能在基于对记忆的回忆之外，也可能基于对环境线索和自传体记忆知识二者相似性的联想而自动发生的。
确实很可能是，个体在需要的时候搜索自传体记忆以指导行动（Pillemer, 2003）。
这种指导功能很可能是自动发生的、在意识之外的。
基于这种方式，自传体记忆在情绪体验中扮演着积极的角色，它的内容告知人们如何评估周围的环境（Robinson, 1986; Scherer, 2005; Smith & Kirby, 2000）。
对自传体记忆的评估加工自动产生了对情绪体验的指导功能，我们的整个研究就基于这样的假设。
自传体记忆的自动指导功能我们的基本前提是，自传体记忆是指导个体适应生活环境的一种重要信息资源（Pillemer, 2003; Robinson, 1992）。
自传体记忆在瞬时评估中扮演着核心角色，因为它对线索的敏感性（Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000）。
外在和内在的线索触发了特定的自传体记忆，这种自传体记忆以当时情境、人物或背景的特征的形式来编码（如，相同的位置，与其他个体的形体相似，可估价的环境；如Andersen & Baum, 1994; Mace,2005; Pillemer, 2003）。
这一触发机制是一种持续不断的过程，个体并不能意识到（Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000; Roediger, 1990）。
被线索激活的自传体记忆随后被更高等级的认知结构所处理，记忆的内容被用于评估提供这一线索的环境（(Smith & Kirby, 2000）。
Andersen and Baum (1994)在一项研究中阐明了这一过程，即，曾经有人给个体一种消极的情感体验，当个体见到与此人相似的陌生人时也会再次体验到消极情绪。
这种被编码的体验与过去的某有特殊意义的个人有关，涌现出来会影响个体当下的评估和情绪反应，因为这两个人之间共有某种相似的特征。
这一过程类似于社会认知领域用联想加工来解释内隐态度如何形成（Gawronski & Bodenhausen,2006）。
这一触发过程的直接结果是促进快速和适应性反应，即特定的主题或环境触发特定的依赖于情境的记忆，而不是主题无关或环境无关的记忆（Conway & Pleydell-Pearce,2000; Philippe,Lecours, & Beaulieu-Pelletier, 2009）。
因此，被特定主题（如，损失）或情境（如，对待不公）仅仅会引发主题相关的记忆，这种主题相关的记忆反过来可以预测主题相关的结果或特定情境下的结果（如，个体的情境性情绪体验或行为）。
因此，记忆是高度依赖情境的。
此外，自传体记忆与个体在生活中频繁遭遇的主题事件相关，在随后会被频繁的激活，也会随着时间持续地影响主题相关的结果。
这一系统的另一个重要特征是，当一个记忆被激活，其他与之关联的记忆也会得到激活，因为激活通过它们之间的联系扩展开来（Anderson,1984; Bower, 1981; Christianson & Engelberg, 1999）。
这样一个记忆网络的形成常常是基于邻近的记忆元素，如相似事件和主题背景（Brown & Schopflocher, 1998; Burt, Kemp, & Conway, 2003; Kemp, Burt,& Malinen, 2009; Robinson, 1992），但同时更是基于情境或事件的共同特征，如相同的地方、人（Andersen & Baum, 1994）、目标、动机（Woike, 2008）或情感（Bower, 1981; Conway, 2003）。
由于与主要记忆的联合，主要记忆被激活的同时网络记忆也会被激活，两者都同样作用于评估过程。
自我决定的理论视角自传体记忆附录了最初事件被体验时的特征，这种方式主要由个体在编码是的目标决定（Conway, 2008;Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000）。
例如，同样是参加一场体育竞技比赛，甲的首要目标是打败对手，当其失败后便会不可避免的遭受严重的意志受挫，这场竞技比赛便以消极的标签被记忆编码。
与之相反，乙参加比赛的目标是重在参与、乐在其中，如此，即使他最后失败了，但他本次比赛也会以积极的标签被编码。
因此，个体编码时的工作目标很大程度上决定了对事物体验的分类，而分类将会附录进自传体记忆中去（Conway &Pleydell-Pearce, 2000）。
尽管个体的目标会随着情境而变，但是自我决定理论（Deci & Ryan, 2000）认为，人们在日常生活中一直在追求三大心理需要的满足：自主、能力和关系。
自主，即行动不受限制且真实。
能力，即有效、灵验的感觉。
关系，即与其他个体联系在一起，被大家爱，也爱大家。
众多研究者强调了这三大心理需要在特定事件、跨地域、跨文化的重要性和基本性（如，Deci et al.,2001; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001），个体的生活满意度与个体的自我管理能力（Grolnick, McMenamy, & Kurowski,2006; Ryan, 1995）及主观幸福感正相关（如，Meyer, Enstrom, Harstveit, Bowles, & Beevers,2007; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon,Ryan, & Reis, 1996）。
由于三大需要的基本性和显著性，三大需要是否得到满足紧密关联了自传体记忆。
最近的研究（Philippe, Koestner,Beaulieu-Pelletier, & Lecours, in press）发现，需要满足在自传体记忆中是一个基本的成分，另据过去的研究发现，需要满足也是自传体记忆中的一个显著成分。
很重要的一点是，根据自我决定理论，客观情境不仅仅是不是需要的满足就是需要受挫的情形，而是应该视情境是否为个体所觉察而定（Deci & Ryan, 2000）。
可以推测，个体是能够反思其自传体记忆中是需要受挫还是需要满足的状态（Philippe et al., in press）。
我们认为，个体对环境的知觉不是需要满足就是需要受挫，这至少部分地是由为自传体记忆所决定的。
因此，如果被情境激活的整个记忆网络包含了需要满足，那么可以推断，对情境的评估就是为了满足心理需要，故而提示心灵成长的可能和自我塑造的机遇。
评估过程继而引发情绪触发个体对环境的积极情绪体验（Fredrickson, 2001）、较低水平的消极情绪反应和情绪调节（Hodgins & Knee, 2002）。
反过来看，如果整个记忆网络包含需要受挫的表征，那么对情境的评估将是受挫的，继而给个体和心理成长提示某种潜在的威胁，同时也会导致特定消极情绪体验（Hodgins & Knee, 2002）。