浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传!浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响1摘要中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等.这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响.结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。
2重要内容翻译2。
1引言在商业界,有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。
它们发现政治关联能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源，比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款，这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。
在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家，政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素1的作用.中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变，政府对市场具有较强的控制作用，而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。
中小型企业发展的很迅速，他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。
从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要,尤其是中小型企业的价值。
和其他的部门相比较，中小型企业只有较小的现金流，不稳定的现金流且高负债率.一方面，中小型企业改变更加灵活；另一方面,中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产，在筹资方面较为困难。
企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动，并且政治关联如何影响企业价值？这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系,并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。
2.2定义这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业，是和管理规模有关。
对这些小企业来说，雇员很少，营业额较低,资金一般由较少的人提供,因此，通常由这些业主直接管理企业。
毕业论文 翻译材料(中英)
原文Sometimes it becomes apparent that previous approaches to a problem haven’t quite worked the way you anticipated.Perhaps you just need to clear away the smoky residue of the past,take a deep breath,and try again with a new attitude and fresh ideas. In golf,it’s known as a“mulligan”;in schoolyard sports,it’s called a “do-over”;and in the computer industry,we say it’s a“reboot.”A reboot is what Microsoft has initiated with its new approach to the mobile phone market.With its clean look,striking fonts,and new organizational paradigms, Microsoft Windows Phone7not only represents a break with the Windows Mobile past but also differentiates itself from other smartphones currently in the market. Windows Phone7devices will be made by several manufacturers and available with a variety of cell providers.For programmers,Windows Phone7is also exciting,for it supports two popular and modern programming platforms:Silverlight and XNA.Silverlight—a spinoff of the client-based Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)—has already given Web programmers unprecedented power to develop sophisticated user interfaces with a mix of traditional controls,high-quality text, vector graphics,media,animation,and data binding that run on multiple platforms and browsers.Windows Phone7extends Silverlight to mobile devices.XNA—the three letters stand for something like“XNA is Not an Acronym”—is Microsoft’s game platform supporting both2D sprite-based and3D graphics with a traditional game-loop architecture.Although XNA is mostly associated with writing games for the Xbox360console,developers can also use XNA to target the PC itself, as well as Microsoft’s classy audio player,the Zune HD.Either Silverlight or XNA would make good sense as the sole application platform for the Windows Phone7,but programmers have a choice.And this we call“an embarrassment of riches.”Targeting Windows Phone7All programs for Windows Phone7are written managed code.Although the sample programs in this book are written in the C#programming language,it is also possible to write Windows Phone7applications in Visual .The free downloadable Microsoft Visual Studio2010Express for Windows Phone includes XNA Game Studio4.0 and an on-screen phone emulator,and also integrates with Visual Studio2010.You can develop visuals and animations for Silverlight applications using Microsoft Expression Blend.2The Silverlight and XNA platforms for Windows Phone7share some libraries,and you can use some XNA libraries in a Silverlight program and vice versa.But you can’t create a program that mixes visuals from both platforms.Maybe that will be possible in the future,but not now.Before you create a Visual Studio project,you must decide whether your million-dollar idea is a Silverlight program or an XNA program. Generally you’ll choose Silverlight for writing programs you might classify as applications or utilities.These programs are built from a combination of markup and code.The markup is the Extensible Application Markup Language,or XAML andpronounced“zammel.”The XAML mostly defines a layout of user-interface controls and panels.Code-behind files can also perform some initialization and logic,but are generally relegated to handling events from the controls.Silverlight is great for bringing to the Windows Phone the style of Rich Internet Applications(RIA), including media and the Web.Silverlight for Windows Phone is a version of Silverlight3excluding some features not appropriate for the phone,but compensating with some enhancements.XNA is primarily for writing high-performance games.For2D games,you define sprites and backgrounds based around bitmaps;for3D games you define models in3D space. The action of the game,which includes moving graphical objects around the screen and polling for user input,is synchronized by the built-in XNA game loop.The differentiation between Silverlight-based applications and XNA-based games is convenient but not restrictive.You can certainly use Silverlight for writing games and you can even write traditional applications using XNA,although doing so might sometimes be challenging.In particular,Silverlight might be ideal for games that are less graphically oriented,or use vector graphics rather than bitmap graphics,or are paced by user-time rather than clock-time.A Tetris-type program might work quite well in Silverlight.You’ll probably find XNA to be a bit harder to stretch into Silverlight territory,however.Implementing a list box in XNA might be considered“fun”by some programmers but a torture by many others.The first several chapters in this book describe Silverlight and XNA together,and then the book splits into different parts for the two platforms.I suspect that some developers will stick with either Silverlight or XNA exclusively and won’t even bother learning the other environment.I hope that’s not a common attitude.The good news is that Silverlight and XNA are so dissimilar that you can probably bounce back and forth between them without confusion!Microsoft has been positioning Silverlight as the front end or“face”of the cloud, so cloud services and Windows Azure form an important part of Windows Phone7 development.The Windows Phone is“cloud-ready.”Programs are location-aware and have access to maps and other data through Bing and Windows Live.One of the available cloud services is Xbox Live,3which allows XNA-based programs to participate in online multiplayer games,and can also be accessed by Silverlight applications.Programs you write for the Windows Phone7will be sold and deployed through the Windows Phone Marketplace,which provides registration services and certifies that programs meet minimum standards of reliability,efficiency,and good behavior. I’ve characterized Windows Phone7as representing a severe break with the past. If you compare it with past versions of Windows Mobile,that is certainly true.But the support of Silverlight,XNA,and C#are not breaks with the past,but a balance of continuity and innovation.As young as they are,Silverlight and XNA have already proven themselves as powerful and popular platforms.Many skilled programmers are already working with either one framework or the other—probably not so many withboth just yet—and they have expressed their enthusiasm with a wealth of online information and communities.C#has become the favorite language of many programmers (myself included),and developers can use C#to share libraries between their Silverlight and XNA programs as well as programs for environments. The Hardware ChassisDevelopers with experience targeting Windows Mobile devices of the past will find significant changes in Microsoft’s strategy for the Windows Phone7.Microsoft has been extremely proactive in defining the hardware specification,often referred to as a“chassis.”Initial releases of Windows Phone7devices will have one consistent screen size.(A second screen size is expected in the future.)Many other hardware features are guaranteed to exist on each device.The front of the phone consists of a multi-touch display and three hardware buttons generally positioned in a row below the display.From left to right,these buttons are called Back,Start,and Search:•Back Programs can use this button for their own navigation needs,much like the Back button on a Web browser.From the home page of a program,the button causes the program to terminate.•Start This button takes the user to the start screen of the phone;it is otherwise inaccessible to programs running on the phone.4•Search The operating system uses this button to initiate a search feature.The initial releases of Windows Phone7devices have a display size of480×800 pixels.In the future,screens of320×480pixels are also expected.There are no other screen options for Windows Phone7,so obviously these two screen sizes play a very important role in phone development.In theory,it’s usually considered best to write programs that adapt themselves to any screen size,but that’s not always possible,particularly with game development.You will probably find yourself specifically targeting these two screen sizes,even to the extent of having conditional code paths and different XAML files for layout that is size-dependent.I will generally refer to these two sizes as the“large”screen and the “small“screen.The greatest common denominator of the horizontal and vertical dimensions of both screens is160,so you can visualize the two screens as multiples of160-pixel squares:480320480800I’m showing these screens in portrait mode because that’s usually the way smartphones are designed.The screen of the original Zune is240×320pixels;the Zune HD is272×480.Of course,phones can be rotated to put the screen into landscape mode.Some programs might require the phone to be held in a certain orientation;others might be moreadaptable.You have complete control over the extent to which you support orientation.By default,Silverlight applications appear in portrait mode,but you’ll probably want to write your Silverlight applications so they adjust themselves to orientation changes.New events are available specifically for the purpose of detecting orientation change,and some orientation shifts are handled automatically.In contrast,game programmers can usually impose a particular orientation on the user. XNA programs use landscape mode by default,but it’s easy to override that.5In portrait mode,the small screen is half of an old VGA screen(that is,640×480).In landscape mode,the large screen has a dimension sometimes called WVGA (“wide VGA”).In landscape mode,the small screen has an aspect ratio of3:2or 1.5;the large screen has an aspect ratio of5:3or1.66….Neither of these matches the aspect ratio of television,which for standard definition is4:3or1.33…and for high-definition is16:9or1.77….The Zune HD screen has an aspect ratio of 16:9.Like many recent phones and the Zune HD,the Windows Phone7displays will likely use OLED(“organic light emitting diode”)technology,although this isn’t a hardware requirement.OLEDs are different from flat displays of the past in that power consumption is proportional to the light emitted from the display.For example, an OLED display consumes less than half the power of an LCD display of the same size, but only when the screen is mostly black.For an all-white screen,an OLED consumes more than three times the power of an LCD.Because battery life is extremely important on mobile devices,this characteristic of OLED displays implies an aesthetic of mostly black backgrounds with sparse graphics and light-stroked fonts.Regardless,Windows Phone7users can choose between two major color themes:light text on a dark background,or dark text on a light background.Most user input to a Windows Phone7program will come through multi-touch.The screens incorporate capacitance-touch technology,which means that they respond to a human fingertip but not to a stylus or other forms of pressure.Windows Phone7 screens are required to respond to at least four simultaneous touch-points.A hardware keyboard is optional.Keep in mind that phones can be designed in different ways,so when the keyboard is in use,the screen might be in either portrait mode or landscape mode.A Silverlight program that uses keyboard input must respond to orientation changes so that the user can both view the screen and use the keyboard without wondering what idiot designed the program sideways.An on-screen keyboard is also provided,known in Windows circles as the Soft Input Panel or SIP.XNA programs also have access to the hardware keyboard and SIP.译文有时候以前的方法显然无法达到预期效果，这时也许需要告别迷雾茫茫的过去。
毕业设计(论文)外文参考文献译文本
武汉工业学院毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文本2011届原文出处IBM SYSTEMS JOURNAL, VOL 35, NOS 3&4, 1996毕业设计(论文)题目音乐图像浏览器的设计与实现院（系）计算机与信息工程专业名称计算机科学与技术学生姓名郭谦学生学号070501103指导教师丰洪才译文要求：1、译文内容须与课题（或专业）有联系；2、外文翻译不少于4000汉字。
隐藏数据技术研究数据隐藏，是一种隐秘的数据加密形式，它将数据嵌入到数字媒体之中来达到鉴定，注释和版权保护的目的。
然而，这一应用却受到了一些限制：首先是需要隐藏的数据量，其次是在“主”讯号受到失真的条件影响之下，对于这些需隐藏数据的可靠性的需要。
举例来说，就是有损压缩以及对有损压缩来说数据遇到被拦截，被修改或被第三方移除等操作的免疫程度。
我们同时用传统的和新式技术来探究解决数据隐藏问题的方法并且对这些技术在以下三个方面的应用：版权保护，防止篡改，和增强型数据嵌入做出评估。
我们能非常方便地得到数字媒体并且潜在地改善了其可移植性，信息展现的效率，和信息呈现的准确度。
便捷的数据访问所带来的负面效果包括以下两点：侵犯版权的几率增加或者是有篡改或修改其中内容的可能性增大。
这项工作的目的在于研究知识产权保护条款、内容修改的相关指示和增加注解的方法。
数据隐藏代表了一类用于插入数据的操作，例如版权信息，它利用“主”信号能够感知的最小变化量来进入到各种不同形式的媒体之内，比如图像、声音或本文。
也就是说，嵌入的数据对人类观察者来说应该是既看不见也听不见的。
值得注意的是，数据隐藏虽然与压缩很类似，但与加密解密技术却是截然不同的。
它的目标不是限制或者管理对“主”信号的存取，而是保证被嵌入的数据依然未被破坏而且是可以恢复的。
数据隐藏在数字媒体中的两个重要应用就是提供版权信息的证明，和保证内容完整性。
因此，即使主讯号遭受诸如过滤、重取样，截取或是有损压缩等破坏行为，数据也应该一直在“主”信号中保持被隐藏的特点。
毕业设计文献翻译
毕业设计文献翻译Graduation Project Literature Translation (700 words)Title: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Job MarketWith the rapid development of technology, artificial intelligence (AI) has become a hot topic in recent years. AI has the potential to greatly affect the job market, leading to concerns about unemployment and job displacement. This paper aims to explore the impact of AI on the job market and provide insights into potential solutions.AI technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, making significant progress in various fields, such as voice recognition, image analysis, and data processing. As AI continues to improve, it has the potential to automate many tasks that are currently performed by humans. This automation could result in job displacement, particularly for routine and repetitive tasks.Studies have shown that AI could impact various industries, including transportation, healthcare, finance, and manufacturing. For example, AI-powered self-driving vehicles could potentially eliminate the need for human drivers, leading to job losses in the transportation industry. In the healthcare sector, AI algorithms can analyze medical images and help with diagnosis, potentially reducing the need for radiologists. Similar automation scenarios can be seen in other industries as well.While concerns about job displacement are valid, it is important to note that AI technology also has the potential to create new jobopportunities. As automation takes over routine and repetitive tasks, humans can focus on more complex and creative roles. AI can augment human intelligence, assisting professionals in decision-making processes and enhancing overall productivity.To mitigate the negative impact of AI on the job market, policymakers and businesses must take proactive measures. One approach is to invest in retraining and reskilling programs to equip workers with the necessary skills for the digital age. By providing training in AI-related fields, individuals can adapt to the changing job market and find new employment opportunities.Additionally, collaboration between AI technology developers and industries can help create AI applications that work alongside humans, rather than replacing them. Human-AI collaboration can enhance efficiency and productivity, allowing humans to leverage AI technology to perform tasks more effectively.Moreover, governments should establish policies that encourage innovation and entrepreneurship. By fostering a supportive environment for startups and small businesses, new job opportunities can be generated. Encouraging the development of AI-related industries can also lead to job creation.In conclusion, the impact of AI on the job market is a topic of significant concern. While automation may lead to job displacement, it can also create new job opportunities. To mitigate the negative impact, investment in retraining programs and fostering collaboration between AI technology and humans are crucial. Additionally, government policies that support innovationand entrepreneurship can help create a sustainable job market in the era of artificial intelligence.。
外文翻译(王刚)
2007届信息与计算科学毕业设计Advanced Database ApplicationsThe 1990s have seen significant changes in the computer industry. In database systems, we have seen the widespread acceptance of RDBMSs for traditional business applications, such as order processing, inventory control, banking, and airline reservations. However, existing RDBMSs have proven inadequate for applications whose needs are quite different from those of traditional business database applications. These applications include:■computer-aided design (CAD);■computer-aided manufacturing (CAM);■computer-aided software engineering (CASE);■office information systems (OIS) and multimedia systems;■digital publishing;■eographic information systems (GIS);■interactive and dynamic Web sites.Computer-aided design (CAD)A CAD database stores data relating to mechanical and electrical design covering, for example, buildings, aircraft, and integrated circuit chips. Designs of this type have some common characteristics:■Design data is characterized by a large number of types, each with a small number of instances.Conventional databases are typically the opposite. For example, the DreamHome database consists of only a dozen or so relations, although relations such as PropertyForRent, Client, and Viewing may contain thousands of tuples.■Designs may be very large, perhaps consisting of millions of parts, often with many interdependent subsystem designs.■The design is not static but evolves through time. When a design change occurs, its implications must be propagated through all design representations. The dynamic nature of design may mean that some actions cannot be foreseen at the beginning.■Updates are fat-reaching because of topological or functional relationships, tolerances, and so on. One change is likely to affect a large number of design objects.■Often, many design alternatives are being considered for each component, and the correct version for each part must be maintained. This involves some form of version control and1王刚:研究生部综合信息发布平台configuration management.■There may be hundreds of staff involved with the design, and they may work in parallel on multiple versions of a large design. Even so, the end-product must be consistent and coordinated. This is sometimes referred to as cooperative engineering.Computer-aided manufacturing （CAM）A CAM database stores similar data to a CAD system, in addition to addition to data relating to discrete production (such as cars on an assembly line) and continuous production (such as chemical synthesis). For example, in chemical manufacturing there will be applications that monitor information about the state of the system, such as reactor Bessel temperatures, flow rates, and yields. There will also be applications that control various physical processes, such as opening valves, applying more heat to reactor vessels, and increasing the flow of cooling systems. These applications are often organized in a hierarchy, with a top-level application monitoring the entire factory and lower=level applications monitoring individual manufacturing processes. These applications must respond in real time and be capable of adjusting processes to maintain optimum performance within tight tolerances. The applications use a combination of standard algorithms and custom rules to respond to different conditions. Operators may modify these rules occasionally to optimize performance based on complex historical data that the system has to maintain. In this example, the system has to maintain large volumes of data that is hierarchical in nature and maintain complex relationships between the data. It must also be able to rapidly navigate the data to review and respond to changes.Computer-aided software engineering (CASE)A CASE database stores data relating to stages of the software development lifecycle: planning, requirements collection and analysis, design, implementation, testing, maintenance, and documentation. As with CAD, designs may be extremely large, and cooperative engineering is the norm. For example, software configuration management tools allow concurrent sharing of project design, code, and documentation. They also track the dependencies between these components and assist with change management. Project management tools facilitate the coordination of various project management activities, such as the scheduling of potentially highly complex interdependent tasks, cost estimation, and progress monitoring.Network management systemsNetwork management systems coordinate the delivery of communication services across a22007届信息与计算科学毕业设计computer network. These systems perform such tasks as network path management, problem management, and network planning. As with the chemical manufacturing example we discussed earlier, these systems also handle complex data and require real-time performance and continuous operation. For examples, a telephone call might involve a chain of network switching devices that route a message from sender to receiver, such as:Node⇔Link⇔Node⇔Link⇔Node⇔Link⇔NodeWhere each Node represents a port on a network device and each Link represents a slice of bandwidth reserved for that connection. However, a node may participate in several different connections and any database that is created has to manage a complex graph of relationships. To route connections, diagnose problems, and balance loadings, the network management systems have to be capable of moving through this complex graph in real time.Office information systems (OIS) and multimedia systemsAn OIS database stores data relating to the computer control of information in a business, including electronic mail, documents, invoices, and so on. To provide better support for this area, we need to handle a wider range of data types other than names, addresses, dates, and money. Modern systems now handle free-form text, photographs, diagrams, and audio and video sequences. For example, a multimedia document may handle text, photographs, spreadsheets, and voice commentary. The documents may have a specific structure imposed on them, perhaps described using a mark-up language such as SGML (Standardized Generalized Markup Language), HTML (HyperText Markup Language), or XML (eXtended Markup Language), as we discuss in Chapter 29.Documents may be shared among many users using systems such as electronic mail and bulletin-boards based on Internet technology. Again ,such applications need to store data that has a much richer structure than tuples consisting of numbers and text strings. There is also an increasing need to capture handwritten notes using electronic devices. Although many notes can be transcribed into AS CⅡtext using handwriting analysis techniques, most such data cannot. In addition to words, handwritten data can include sketches, diagrams and so on.In the DreamHome case study, we may find the following requirements for handling multimedia.■Image data A client may query an image data base of properties for rent. Some queries may simply use a textual description to identify images of desirable properties. In other cases it may3王刚:研究生部综合信息发布平台be useful for the client to query using graphical images of features that may be found in desirable properties (such as bay windows, internal cornicing, or roof gardens).■Video data A client may query a video database of properties for rent. Some queries may simply use a textual description to identify the video images of desirable properties. In other cases it may be useful for the client to query using video features of the desired properties (such as views of the sea or surrounding hills).■Audio data A client may query an audio database that describes the features of properties for rent. Some queries may simply use a textual description to identify the desired property. In other cases it may be useful for the client to use audio features of the desired properties (such as the noise level from nearby traffic).■Handwritten data A member of staff may create notes while carrying out inspections of properties for rent. At a later data, he or she may wish to query such data to find all notes made about a flat in Novar Drive with dry rot.Digital publishingThe publishing industry is likely to undergo profound changes in business practices over the next decade. It is becoming possible to store books, journals, papers, and articles electronically and deliver them over high-speed networks to consumers. As with office information systems, digital publishing is being extended to handle multimedia documents consisting of text, audio, image, and video data and animation. In some cases, the amount of information available to be put online is enormous, in the order of petabytes (1015 bytes), which would make them the largest databases that a DBMA has ever had to manage.Geographic information systems (GIS)A GIS database stores various types of spatial and temporal information, such as that used in land management and underwater exploration. Much of the data in these systems is derived from survey and satellite photographs, and tends to be very large. Searches may involve identifying features based, for example, on shape, color, or texture, using advanced pattern-recognition techniques.For example, EOS (Earth Observing System) is a collection of satellites launched by NASA in the 1990s to gather information that will support sci8entists concerned with long-term trends regarding the earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and land. It is anticipated that these satellites will return over one-third of a petabyte of information per year. This data will be integrated with other data42007届信息与计算科学毕业设计sources and will be stored in EOSDIS (EOS Data and Information System). EOSDIS will supply the information needs of both scientists and non-scientists. For example, schoolchildren will be able to access EOSDIS to see a simulation of world weather patterns. The immense size of this database and the need to support thousands of users with very heavy volumes of information requests will provide many challenges for DBMSs.Interactive and dynamic Web sites■Consider a Web site that has an online catalog for selling clothes. The Web site maintains a set of preferences for previous visitors to the site and allows a visitor to:■browse through thumbnail images of the items in the catalog and select one to obtain a full-size image with supporting details;■search for items that match a user-defined set of criteria;■obtain a 3D rendering of any item of clothing based on a customized specification (for example, color, size, fabric);■modify the rendering to account for movement, illumination, backdrop, occasion, and so on;■select accessories to go with the outfit, from items presented in a sidebar;■select a voiceover commentary giving additional details of the item;■view a running total of the bill, with appropriate discounts;■conclude the purchase through a secure online transaction.The requirements for this type of application are not that different from some of the above advanced applications: there is a need to handle multimedia content (text, audio, image, video data, and animation) and to interactively modify the display based on user preferences and user selections. As well as handling complex data, the site also has the added complexity o9f providing 3D rendering. It is argued that in such a situation the database is not just presenting information to the visitor but is actively engaged in selling, dynamically providing customized information and atmosphere to the visitor (King, 1997).As we discuss in Chapters 28 and 29, the Web now provides a relatively new paradigm for data management, and languages such as XML hold significant promise, particularly for the e-Commerce market. The Forrester Research Group is predicting that business-to-business transactions will rise by 99% annually and is expected to reach US$1.3 trillion by 2003. in addition, e-Commerce is expected to account for US$3.2 trillion in worldwide corporate revenue by 2003 and potentially represent 5% of sales in the global economy. As the use of the Internet5王刚:研究生部综合信息发布平台increases and the technology becomes more sophisticated, then we will see Web sites and business-to-business transactions handle much more complex and interrelated data.Other advanced database applications include:■Scientific and medical applications, which may store complex data representing systems such as molecular models for synthetic chemical compounds and genetic material.■Expert systems, which may store knowledge and rule bases for artificial intelligence (AI) applications.■Other applications with complex and interrelated objects and procedural data.原文摘自2004年出版的Database Systems A Practical Approach to Design Implementation and Management第580页62007届信息与计算科学毕业设计高级数据库应用20世纪90年代，计算机工业发生了巨大变化。
外文翻译
批判性观点相关的一个简短的分析。
杰克逊博士已经从阿普尔教授的所阐述的论文中提出一个相当不同的批判性的概念。
第二，我将对阿普尔教授论文和其可能的课程领域的建议作一些的评论。
在过去三十年中，公众和那些专业人士的教育批判已成为一个全国性的娱乐。
大部分批判都联系到国家利益、冷战、提高科学技术智能等概念。
当然，国外的民权运动促进了国内的民权运动。
在过去十年里，教育方面的公民权利问题也在不断的批判中得以发展。
这种批判大部分显得幼稚和新奇，它是基于一种纯自由的发展心理学、社会敏感性训练、抵制不清楚的权力和一种反文化的抵制观点的奇怪的混合体，。
这似乎表现了杰克逊所描述的那种批判观点的特征。
关于课程改革 (比如,支持开放性教室) ，更多谨慎的呼吁植根于在认知发展理论和儿童发展的观点之上的。
实质上，不论从由正统派改革者提出的最好著作思想的范围还是质量上讲，这些观点都有不足之处。
然而，这些正统改革派的有些教育见识颇有价值，但最终却被他们的实证逻辑和无能所限制，或者拒绝发展连续和批判类的分析作为教育各方面和与之相联系的社会结论的补充。
那些写了许多著作的社会学家、社会批判家和修正主义史学家，破坏了公立学校系统的完美神话(比如,学校是争取自由、平等和社会流动的纪念源头)。
在他们尖锐的批判下，学校的失败被认为是社会、政策，经济，和文化不可缺少的功能。
在这之中，教育批判可被看作一种新的影响，这种影响存在现批判性社会学，新马克思主义社会分析，存在现象学分析、哲学、心理学、社会学的发张之中。
现在需要的是全面的教育批判理论的发展，一种使得教育全面发展的理论。
教育理论是标准的，实践性的，社会性的，最多是反身的。
教育理论对某些特定的活动具有指导作用如向导一样,可以影响个人和社会名流。
在它的反身角色里,教育理论和政治与社会理论的密切联系，我们可以从这样一个事实看出来：人类本性概念和人的可能性、社会地位和知识的适当使用对他们那来说是普通的。
本科毕业生外文文献翻译
本科毕业生外文文献翻译本科毕业生外文文献翻译学生姓名：***指导教师：***所在学院：信息技术学院专业：通信工程中国·大庆2011 年 5 月[原文]Industrial Ethernet and Intelligent Building 1 Industrial Ethernet the background1.1 Unified field bus standards dashed, the temptation remainsIn 1984 the United States proceed to develop international standards field bus, a few years, the major companies for commercial interests, Field bus standards can not always uniform. Through multiple voting, consultation, in January 2000 announced that the field bus international standards IEC61158 will be eight bus (Prefabs, Interfuse, P-NET, World, etc.)at the same time as international standards (currently has 10 kinds), formed The outcome of a compromise.At the same time, major foreign companies have also launched its own standards, such as LONWORKS, CAN, Japan's Mitsubishi, France Schneider, the current number of bus standards at the same time the situation still exists, they say the openness and interoperability only At the same can be achieved under a bus standard, different standards between the bus is still limited. The interconnection between different bus and can not be guaranteed, so people in their efforts to seek a unified standard field bus, some people have proposed the use of TCP / IP protocol Ethernet.1.2 The demand for system integration（1）industrial automation control integrated enterprise information is China's national policy to create automation and information technology as an example: In the need to change the business processes of the same time, management informationsystems and e-commerce, decentralized network of manufacturers to be integrated, the existing enterprise resource ERP transformed intoWEB-based applications. The current single from the automation of industrial automation, factory automation, to the development of automation systems, the underlying message should be integrated into the upper information online in order to achieve the integration of control as shown in an integrated system.Modern production system for a multi-storey industrial control systems, generally fall into three tiers:• Equipment-testing equipment and connectivity implementing agencies;• Control of the data obtained from the scene equipment, complete the various control, monitoring operating parameters, alarm and historical trend analysis;• Information layer will control the data processing system after spread to the higher level managementnetwork (TCP / IP Ethernet), in order to achieve integrated management of its network structure 。
本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
本科毕业论文外文文献翻译本科毕业论文外文文献翻译随着全球化的不断发展，人们对外文文献的需求也越来越高。
尤其是在本科毕业论文的撰写过程中，引用和翻译外文文献是不可或缺的一部分。
本文将探讨本科毕业论文外文文献翻译的重要性以及一些技巧和注意事项。
首先，翻译外文文献对于本科毕业论文的写作至关重要。
外文文献是学术研究中的重要参考资料，可以帮助我们了解国外学者在相关领域的研究成果和观点。
通过引用外文文献，我们可以对研究问题进行深入分析和论证，提高论文的学术价值和可信度。
然而，翻译外文文献并非易事。
首先，我们需要具备良好的外语水平，特别是对于所研究领域的专业术语要有一定的了解。
其次，在翻译过程中，我们需要保持准确性和一致性。
准确性是指翻译内容要忠实于原文，不失原意。
一致性是指在整个论文中使用相同的术语和翻译方法，避免混淆读者。
在翻译外文文献时，我们还要注意一些技巧和细节。
首先，我们可以使用在线翻译工具来辅助翻译，但不能完全依赖它们。
在线翻译工具通常会存在一些语法和词汇错误，需要我们进行修正和改进。
其次，我们可以参考一些翻译指南和词典，特别是针对所研究领域的专业词汇。
这些资源可以帮助我们更准确地理解和翻译外文文献。
此外，我们还需要注意一些常见的翻译错误。
首先是直译错误，即直接将外文句子逐字逐句地翻译成中文，忽略了语言和文化的差异。
这样的翻译通常会造成中文表达不通顺和不自然的问题。
其次是漏译和误译，即在翻译过程中遗漏了一些重要信息或者错误地理解了原文的意思。
这些错误会导致我们对外文文献的理解和引用出现偏差。
在翻译外文文献的过程中，我们还应该注重文化因素的考虑。
不同的语言和文化背景下，同一概念可能有不同的表达方式。
因此，我们需要在翻译过程中充分考虑到文化差异，避免产生歧义和误解。
最后，我们还需要在引用外文文献时遵守学术道德和规范。
我们应该正确标注引用文献的来源和作者，避免抄袭和侵权行为。
同时，我们还应该遵循学术规范，不对外文文献进行删减、修改或者歪曲，保持原文的完整性和准确性。
毕业论文英文文献翻译
毕业论文英文文献翻译Graduation Thesis: Translation of English LiteratureIntroductionThe process of writing a graduation thesis can be a daunting task, especially when it involves the translation of English literature. Translating literary works requires not only language proficiency but also a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and literary techniques employed by the author. In this article, we will explore the challenges and strategies involved in translating English literature for a graduation thesis.Understanding the Source TextBefore embarking on the translation process, it is crucial to thoroughly understand the source text. This involves a careful reading and analysis of the original work, paying attention to the author's style, tone, and literary devices. By immersing oneself in the source text, the translator gains a deeper understanding of the author's intentions and can effectively convey the essence of the work in the target language.Translating Cultural NuancesOne of the most significant challenges in translating English literature is capturing the cultural nuances embedded in the text. Literature often reflects the social, historical, and cultural context in which it was written. Translating these nuances requires the translator to have a comprehensive knowledge of both the source and target cultures. It is essential to find equivalent expressions, idioms,or metaphors that resonate with the target audience while staying true to the original intent of the author.Maintaining Literary TechniquesEnglish literature is renowned for its rich use of literary techniques such as symbolism, imagery, and wordplay. Translating these techniques poses a considerable challenge as they may not have direct equivalents in the target language. The translator must strive to retain the artistic essence of the original work while adapting it to the linguistic and cultural constraints of the target language. This requires creativity and a keen eye for detail to ensure that the translated work captures the same aesthetic impact as the source text. Adapting to Linguistic DifferencesLanguages differ not only in vocabulary but also in grammatical structures and syntax. Translating English literature into another language often involves adapting the sentence structure and grammar to ensure fluency and coherence in the target language. The translator must strike a delicate balance between staying faithful to the original text and making necessary adjustments to ensure readability and comprehension for the target audience.The Role of the TranslatorA translator of English literature for a graduation thesis is not merely a conduit for transferring words from one language to another. They are responsible for bridging the gap between cultures, enabling readers to experience the essence of the original work in their native language. A successful translator mustpossess a deep appreciation for both the source and target cultures, as well as the literary techniques employed by the author. They must strive to create a translation that captures the spirit of the original work while being accessible and engaging to the target audience.ConclusionTranslating English literature for a graduation thesis is a challenging yet rewarding endeavor. It requires a combination of linguistic proficiency, cultural understanding, and literary sensibility. By carefully analyzing the source text, capturing cultural nuances, maintaining literary techniques, adapting to linguistic differences, and embodying the role of a translator, one can successfully translate English literature for a graduation thesis. Through this process, the translator not only contributes to academic research but also fosters cross-cultural understanding and appreciation for the beauty of literature.。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(学生用)
毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：信息科学与工程学院专业：软件工程姓名： XXXXX学号： XXXXXXXXX外文出处： Think In Java (用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文网络编程历史上的网络编程都倾向于困难、复杂，而且极易出错。
程序员必须掌握与网络有关的大量细节，有时甚至要对硬件有深刻的认识。
一般地，我们需要理解连网协议中不同的“层”（Layer）。
而且对于每个连网库，一般都包含了数量众多的函数，分别涉及信息块的连接、打包和拆包；这些块的来回运输；以及握手等等。
这是一项令人痛苦的工作。
但是，连网本身的概念并不是很难。
我们想获得位于其他地方某台机器上的信息，并把它们移到这儿；或者相反。
这与读写文件非常相似，只是文件存在于远程机器上，而且远程机器有权决定如何处理我们请求或者发送的数据。
Java最出色的一个地方就是它的“无痛苦连网”概念。
有关连网的基层细节已被尽可能地提取出去，并隐藏在JVM以及Java的本机安装系统里进行控制。
我们使用的编程模型是一个文件的模型；事实上，网络连接（一个“套接字”）已被封装到系统对象里，所以可象对其他数据流那样采用同样的方法调用。
除此以外，在我们处理另一个连网问题——同时控制多个网络连接——的时候，Java内建的多线程机制也是十分方便的。
本章将用一系列易懂的例子解释Java的连网支持。
15.1 机器的标识当然，为了分辨来自别处的一台机器，以及为了保证自己连接的是希望的那台机器，必须有一种机制能独一无二地标识出网络内的每台机器。
早期网络只解决了如何在本地网络环境中为机器提供唯一的名字。
但Java面向的是整个因特网，这要求用一种机制对来自世界各地的机器进行标识。
为达到这个目的，我们采用了IP（互联网地址）的概念。
IP以两种形式存在着：(1) 大家最熟悉的DNS（域名服务）形式。
我自己的域名是。
所以假定我在自己的域内有一台名为Opus的计算机，它的域名就可以是。
毕业设计外文文献翻译【范本模板】
毕业设计（论文)外文资料翻译系别：专业：班级:姓名：学号:外文出处:附件： 1. 原文; 2。
译文2013年03月附件一：A Rapidly Deployable Manipulator SystemChristiaan J。
J。
Paredis, H. Benjamin Brown，Pradeep K. KhoslaAbstract:A rapidly deployable manipulator system combines the flexibility of reconfigurable modular hardware with modular programming tools，allowing the user to rapidly create a manipulator which is custom-tailored for a given task. This article describes two main aspects of such a system，namely，the Reconfigurable Modular Manipulator System （RMMS)hardware and the corresponding control software。
1 IntroductionRobot manipulators can be easily reprogrammed to perform different tasks, yet the range of tasks that can be performed by a manipulator is limited by mechanicalstructure。
Forexample，a manipulator well-suited for precise movement across the top of a table would probably no be capable of lifting heavy objects in the vertical direction. Therefore，to perform a given task,one needs to choose a manipulator with an appropriate mechanical structure.We propose the concept of a rapidly deployable manipulator system to address the above mentioned shortcomings of fixed configuration manipulators。
_毕业设计外文文献及翻译_
_毕业设计外文文献及翻译_Graduation Thesis Foreign Literature Review and Chinese Translation1. Title: "The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Society"Abstract:人工智能对社会的影响摘要：人工智能技术的快速发展引发了关于其对社会影响的讨论。
本文探讨了人工智能正在重塑不同行业（包括医疗保健、交通运输和教育）的各种方式。
还讨论了AI实施的潜在益处和挑战，以及伦理考量。
总体而言，本文旨在提供对人工智能对社会影响的全面概述。
2. Title: "The Future of Work: Automation and Job Displacement"Abstract:With the rise of automation technologies, there is growing concern about the potential displacement of workers in various industries. This paper examines the trends in automation and its impact on jobs, as well as the implications for workforce development and retraining programs. The ethical and social implications of automation are also discussed, along with potential strategies for mitigating job displacement effects.工作的未来：自动化和失业摘要：随着自动化技术的兴起，人们越来越担心各行业工人可能被替代的问题。
毕业论文文献翻译
毕业论文文献翻译The Pros and Cons of Artificial Intelligence: An Analysis IntroductionArtificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly emerging field that has the potential to revolutionize many aspects of our everyday lives. It refers to the development of computer systems and software that can perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. While there are many potential benefits to this technology, there are also concerns about its potential drawbacks. This paper aims to analyze the pros and cons of AI technology.Pros of Artificial IntelligenceOne of the main advantages of AI is its ability to improve efficiency and productivity. AI systems can automate repetitive tasks and streamline processes, allowing humans to focus on more complex and creative work. For example, in the healthcare industry, AI can be used to analyze large amounts of patient data, helping doctors to make more accurate diagnoses and recommend appropriate treatments. This can lead to better healthcare outcomes and improved patient care.Another benefit of AI is its potential to enhance safety. AI can be used in various industries, such as manufacturing and transportation, to increase safety standards and reduce the risk of accidents. For instance, AI-powered robots can perform dangerous tasks in factories, reducing the exposure of humans to harmful conditions. In the transportation sector, AI can help to developself-driving cars that are expected to reduce human error and improve road safety.Furthermore, AI has the potential to boost economic growth. By automating tasks and processes, AI can increase productivity and drive innovation, leading to economic gains. The use of AI technology in industries such as e-commerce and customer service can also improve customer experiences and satisfaction, leading to increased sales and business growth.Cons of Artificial IntelligenceDespite the numerous benefits of AI, there are also concerns about its negative implications. One of the main drawbacks is the displacement of jobs. As AI systems automate tasks that were previously performed by humans, there is a risk of job loss and unemployment. This can contribute to economic inequality and social unrest, as certain groups of people may be disproportionately impacted by the replacement of human workers with AI technology.Another concern is the ethical implications of AI. For instance, there are concerns about the privacy and security of data collected by AI systems. As AI becomes more advanced and capable of processing and analyzing vast amounts of data, there is a need for strict regulations to safeguard sensitive information. Additionally, there are ethical dilemmas associated with the use of AI in decision-making processes, such as the potential for biased algorithms or the lack of accountability when AI systems make mistakes.ConclusionIn conclusion, while AI technology has the potential to bring about numerous benefits, such as increased efficiency, enhanced safety, and economic growth, there are also concerns about job displacement, ethical implications, and the potential for social inequality. As AI continues to advance, it is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and society as a whole to carefully consider and address these issues to ensure the responsible and beneficial development and use of artificial intelligence.。
毕业论文外文文献以及中文译文
Stores like the one in Shenzhen show how much has changed in Chinese retailing. Just two decades ago, shops had surly staff offering a few drab items, often locked safely away in glass cases. Yet there is still a long way to go. Even today, much of the population buys from daily markets or directly from producers. ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱrganised retailing remains relatively new. Most Chinese stores are tiny, family-run outfits. China's top 100 chains account for just a tenth of total retail sales.
(完整版)_毕业设计(论文)外文翻译_(原文)
毕业设计（论文）——外文翻译（原文）NEW APPLICATION OF DATABASERelational databases in use for over two decades. A large portion of the applications of relational databases in the commercial world, supporting such tasks as transaction processing for banks and stock exchanges, sales and reservations for a variety of businesses, and inventory and payroll for almost of all companies. We study several new applications, which recent years.First. Decision-support systemAs the online availability of data , businesses to exploit the available data to make better decisions about increase sales. We can extract much information for decision support by using simple SQL queries. Recently support based on data analysis and data mining, or knowledge discovery, using data from a variety of sources.Database applications can be broadly classified into transaction processing and decision support. Transaction-processing systems are widely used today, and companies generated by these systems.The term data mining refers loosely to finding relevant information, or “discovering knowledge,” from a large volume of data. Like knowledge discovery in artificial intelligence, data mining attempts to discover statistical rules and patterns automatically from data. However, data mining differs from machine learning in that it deals with large volumes of data, stored primarily on disk.Knowledge discovered from a database can be represented by a set of rules. We can discover rules from database using one of two models:In the first model, the user is involved directly in the process of knowledge discovery.In the second model, the system is responsible for automatically discovering knowledgefrom the database, by detecting patterns and correlations in the data.Work on automatic discovery of rules influenced strongly by work in the artificial-intelligence community on machine learning. The main differences lie in the volume of data databases, and in the need to access disk. Specialized data-mining algorithms developed to which rules are discovered depends on the class of data-mining application. We illustrate rule discovery using two application classes: classification and associations.Second. Spatial and Geographic DatabasesSpatial databases store information related to spatial locations, and provide support for efficient querying and indexing based on spatial locations. Two types of spatial databases are particularly important:Design databases, or computer-aided-design (CAD) databases, are spatial databases used to store design information about databases are integrated-circuit and electronic-device layouts.Geographic databases are spatial databases used to store geographic information, such as maps. Geographic databases are often called geographic information systems.Geographic data are spatial in nature, but differ from design data in certain ways. Maps and satellite images are typical examples of geographic data. Maps may provide not only location information -such as boundaries, rivers and roads---but also much more detailed information associated with locations, such as elevation, soil type, land usage, and annual rainfall.Geographic data can be categorized into two types: raster data (such data consist a bit maps or pixel maps, in two or more dimensions.), vector data (vector data are constructed from basic geographic objects). Map data are often represented in vector format.Third. Multimedia DatabasesRecently, there much interest in databases that store multimedia data, such as images, audio, and video. Today multimedia data typically are stored outside the database, in files systems. When the number of multimedia objects is relatively small, features provided by databases are usually not important. Database functionality becomes important when the number of multimedia objects stored is large. Issues such as transactional updates, querying facilities, and indexing then become important. Multimedia objects often they were created, who created them, and to what category they belong. One approach to building a database for such multimedia objects is to use database for storing the descriptive attributes, and for keeping track of the files in which the multimedia objects are stored.However, storing multimedia outside the database makes it the basis of actual multimedia data content. It can also lead to inconsistencies, such a file that is noted in the database, but whose contents are missing, or vice versa. It is therefore desirable to store the data themselves in the database.Forth. Mobility and Personal DatabasesLarge-scale commercial databases stored in central computing facilities. In the case of distributed database applications, there strong central database and network administration. Two technology trends which this assumption of central control and administration is not entirely correct:1.The increasingly widespread use of personal computers, and, more important, of laptop or “notebook” computers.2.The development of a relatively low-cost wireless digital communication infrastructure, base on wireless local-area networks, cellular digital packet networks, and other technologies.Wireless computing creates a situation where machines no longer at which to materialize the result of a query. In some cases, the location of the user is a parameter of the query. A example is a traveler’s information system that provides data on the current route must be processed based on knowledge of the user’s location, direction of motion, and speed.Energy (battery power) is a scarce resource for mobile computers. This limitation influences many aspects of system design. Among the more interesting consequences of the need for energy efficiency is the use of scheduled data broadcasts to reduce the need for mobile system to transmit queries. Increasingly amounts of data may reside on machines administered by users, rather than by database administrators. Furthermore, these machines may, at times, be disconnected from the network.SummaryDecision-support systems are gaining importance, as companies realize the value of the on-line data collected by their on-line transaction-processing systems. Proposed extensions to SQL, such as the cube operation, of summary data. Data mining seeks to discover knowledge automatically, in the form of statistical rules and patterns from large databases. Data visualization systems data as well as geographic data. Design data are stored primarily as vector data; geographic data consist of a combination of vector and raster data.Multimedia databases are growing in importance. Issues such as similarity-based retrieval and delivery of data at guaranteed rates are topics of current research.Mobile computing systems , leading to interest in database systems that can run on such systems. Query processing in such systems may involve lookups on server database.毕业设计（论文）——外文翻译（译文）数据库的新应用我们使用关系数据库已经有20多年了，关系数据库应用中有很大一部分都用于商业领域支持诸如银行和证券交易所的事务处理、各种业务的销售和预约，以及几乎所有公司都需要的财产目录和工资单管理。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(搭配使用)
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译学院：经济管理学院专业：工商管理姓名：毛长雪学号： 070202130外文出处：Industrial Marketing Management附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
(用外文写)附件1：外文资料翻译译文非关键项目的采购定制降低了汽车成本供应链：一个行动研究项目Giancarlo Medeiros Pereira a, Miguel Afonso Sellitto a,Borchardt a, Albert Geiger ba Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, UNISI NOS Av. UNISINOS, 950, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazilb Instituto Gaúcho de Estudos Automotivos, IGEA, Av. Assis Brasil, 8787, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil2。
理论框架：供应链发展趋势发现一些行业很难实现可持续竞争优势，甚至难以确保他们的生存，因为该行业的复杂性和活力，他们面临的不确定性之高（巴斯克斯-特洛和埃夫拉，2006）。
在汽车行业，公司有'组织'的将供应商结构化网络化，野中和竹内报告（1986）以及今井野中和Takeuchi（1985）。
他们展示了如何带领厂商达到'主'（或第一层）和中学组（或分供应商第二层）的分包商。
基于成本效益分析，许多生产功能已经被外包到独立运营商和分包商（小田部及美利，2004）。
这种外包允许汽车装配分包商降低他们的总成本，提高质量，节省空间和缩短开发时间（亨克， 2000年）。
拓宽供应商来提高质量，降低基地费用（民，2009）。
这种趋势也可以到在一线和二线的汽车行业的供应商那观察，这也包括被迫外包的份额，其活动规模为较小的组织（Mudambi和助手，1998年）。
毕业设计(论文)外文文献原文及译文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献原文及译文Chapter 11. Cipher Techniques11.1 ProblemsThe use of a cipher without consideration of the environment in which it is to be used may not provide the security that the user expects. Three examples will make this point clear.11.1.1 Precomputing the Possible MessagesSimmons discusses the use of a "forward search" to decipher messages enciphered for confidentiality using a public key cryptosystem [923]. His approach is to focus on the entropy (uncertainty) in the message. To use an example from Section 10.1(page 246), Cathy knows that Alice will send one of two messages—BUY or SELL—to Bob. The uncertainty is which one Alice will send. So Cathy enciphers both messages with Bob's public key. When Alice sends the message, Bob intercepts it and compares the ciphertext with the two he computed. From this, he knows which message Alice sent.Simmons' point is that if the plaintext corresponding to intercepted ciphertext is drawn from a (relatively) small set of possible plaintexts, the cryptanalyst can encipher the set of possible plaintexts and simply search that set for the intercepted ciphertext. Simmons demonstrates that the size of the set of possible plaintexts may not be obvious. As an example, he uses digitized sound. The initial calculations suggest that the number of possible plaintexts for each block is 232. Using forward search on such a set is clearly impractical, but after some analysis of the redundancy in human speech, Simmons reduces the number of potential plaintexts to about 100,000. This number is small enough so that forward searches become a threat.This attack is similar to attacks to derive the cryptographic key of symmetric ciphers based on chosen plaintext (see, for example, Hellman's time-memory tradeoff attack [465]). However, Simmons' attack is for public key cryptosystems and does not reveal the private key. It only reveals the plaintext message.11.1.2 Misordered BlocksDenning [269] points out that in certain cases, parts of a ciphertext message can be deleted, replayed, or reordered.11.1.3 Statistical RegularitiesThe independence of parts of ciphertext can give information relating to the structure of the enciphered message, even if the message itself is unintelligible. The regularity arises because each part is enciphered separately, so the same plaintext always produces the same ciphertext. This type of encipherment is called code book mode, because each part is effectively looked up in a list of plaintext-ciphertext pairs.11.1.4 SummaryDespite the use of sophisticated cryptosystems and random keys, cipher systems may provide inadequate security if not used carefully. The protocols directing how these cipher systems are used, and the ancillary information that the protocols add to messages and sessions, overcome these problems. This emphasizes that ciphers and codes are not enough. The methods, or protocols, for their use also affect the security of systems.11.2 Stream and Block CiphersSome ciphers divide a message into a sequence of parts, or blocks, and encipher each block with the same key.Definition 11–1. Let E be an encipherment algorithm, and let Ek(b) bethe encipherment of message b with key k. Let a message m = b1b2…, whereeach biis of a fixed length. Then a block cipher is a cipher for whichE k (m) = Ek(b1)Ek(b2) ….Other ciphers use a nonrepeating stream of key elements to encipher characters of a message.Definition 11–2. Let E be an encipherment algorithm, and let Ek(b) bethe encipherment of message b with key k. Let a message m = b1b2…, whereeach bi is of a fixed length, and let k = k1k2…. Then a stream cipheris a cipher for which Ek (m) = Ek1(b1)Ek2(b2) ….If the key stream k of a stream cipher repeats itself, it is a periodic cipher.11.2.1 Stream CiphersThe one-time pad is a cipher that can be proven secure (see Section 9.2.2.2, "One-Time Pad"). Bit-oriented ciphers implement the one-time pad by exclusive-oring each bit of the key with one bit of the message. For example, if the message is 00101 and the key is 10010, the ciphertext is01||00||10||01||10 or 10111. But how can one generate a random, infinitely long key?11.2.1.1 Synchronous Stream CiphersTo simulate a random, infinitely long key, synchronous stream ciphers generate bits from a source other than the message itself. The simplest such cipher extracts bits from a register to use as the key. The contents of the register change on the basis of the current contents of the register.Definition 11–3. An n-stage linear feedback shift register (LFSR)consists of an n-bit register r = r0…rn–1and an n-bit tap sequence t =t 0…tn–1. To obtain a key bit, ris used, the register is shifted one bitto the right, and the new bit r0t0⊕…⊕r n–1t n–1 is inserted.The LFSR method is an attempt to simulate a one-time pad by generating a long key sequence from a little information. As with any such attempt, if the key is shorter than the message, breaking part of the ciphertext gives the cryptanalyst information about other parts of the ciphertext. For an LFSR, a known plaintext attack can reveal parts of the key sequence. If the known plaintext is of length 2n, the tap sequence for an n-stage LFSR can be determined completely.Nonlinear feedback shift registers do not use tap sequences; instead, the new bit is any function of the current register bits.Definition 11–4. An n-stage nonlinear feedback shift register (NLFSR)consists of an n-bit register r = r0…rn–1. Whenever a key bit is required,ris used, the register is shifted one bit to the right, and the new bitis set to f(r0…rn–1), where f is any function of n inputs.NLFSRs are not common because there is no body of theory about how to build NLFSRs with long periods. By contrast, it is known how to design n-stage LFSRs with a period of 2n– 1, and that period is maximal.A second technique for eliminating linearity is called output feedback mode. Let E be an encipherment function. Define k as a cryptographic key,(r) and define r as a register. To obtain a bit for the key, compute Ekand put that value into the register. The rightmost bit of the result is exclusive-or'ed with one bit of the message. The process is repeated until the message is enciphered. The key k and the initial value in r are the keys for this method. This method differs from the NLFSR in that the register is never shifted. It is repeatedly enciphered.A variant of output feedback mode is called the counter method. Instead of using a register r, simply use a counter that is incremented for every encipherment. The initial value of the counter replaces r as part of the key. This method enables one to generate the ith bit of the key without generating the bits 0…i – 1. If the initial counter value is i, set. In output feedback mode, one must generate all the register to i + ithe preceding key bits.11.2.1.2 Self-Synchronous Stream CiphersSelf-synchronous ciphers obtain the key from the message itself. The simplest self-synchronous cipher is called an autokey cipher and uses the message itself for the key.The problem with this cipher is the selection of the key. Unlike a one-time pad, any statistical regularities in the plaintext show up in the key. For example, the last two letters of the ciphertext associated with the plaintext word THE are always AL, because H is enciphered with the key letter T and E is enciphered with the key letter H. Furthermore, if theanalyst can guess any letter of the plaintext, she can determine all successive plaintext letters.An alternative is to use the ciphertext as the key stream. A good cipher will produce pseudorandom ciphertext, which approximates a randomone-time pad better than a message with nonrandom characteristics (such as a meaningful English sentence).This type of autokey cipher is weak, because plaintext can be deduced from the ciphertext. For example, consider the first two characters of the ciphertext, QX. The X is the ciphertext resulting from enciphering some letter with the key Q. Deciphering, the unknown letter is H. Continuing in this fashion, the analyst can reconstruct all of the plaintext except for the first letter.A variant of the autokey method, cipher feedback mode, uses a shift register. Let E be an encipherment function. Define k as a cryptographic(r). The key and r as a register. To obtain a bit for the key, compute Ek rightmost bit of the result is exclusive-or'ed with one bit of the message, and the other bits of the result are discarded. The resulting ciphertext is fed back into the leftmost bit of the register, which is right shifted one bit. (See Figure 11-1.)Figure 11-1. Diagram of cipher feedback mode. The register r is enciphered with key k and algorithm E. The rightmost bit of the result is exclusive-or'ed with one bit of the plaintext m i to produce the ciphertext bit c i. The register r is right shifted one bit, and c i is fed back into the leftmost bit of r.Cipher feedback mode has a self-healing property. If a bit is corrupted in transmission of the ciphertext, the next n bits will be deciphered incorrectly. But after n uncorrupted bits have been received, the shift register will be reinitialized to the value used for encipherment and the ciphertext will decipher properly from that point on.As in the counter method, one can decipher parts of messages enciphered in cipher feedback mode without deciphering the entire message. Let the shift register contain n bits. The analyst obtains the previous n bits of ciphertext. This is the value in the shift register before the bit under consideration was enciphered. The decipherment can then continue from that bit on.11.2.2 Block CiphersBlock ciphers encipher and decipher multiple bits at once, rather than one bit at a time. For this reason, software implementations of block ciphers run faster than software implementations of stream ciphers. Errors in transmitting one block generally do not affect other blocks, but as each block is enciphered independently, using the same key, identical plaintext blocks produce identical ciphertext blocks. This allows the analyst to search for data by determining what the encipherment of a specific plaintext block is. For example, if the word INCOME is enciphered as one block, all occurrences of the word produce the same ciphertext.To prevent this type of attack, some information related to the block's position is inserted into the plaintext block before it is enciphered. The information can be bits from the preceding ciphertext block [343] or a sequence number [561]. The disadvantage is that the effective block size is reduced, because fewer message bits are present in a block.Cipher block chaining does not require the extra information to occupy bit spaces, so every bit in the block is part of the message. Before a plaintext block is enciphered, that block is exclusive-or'ed with the preceding ciphertext block. In addition to the key, this technique requires an initialization vector with which to exclusive-or the initial plaintext block. Taking Ekto be the encipherment algorithm with key k, and I to be the initialization vector, the cipher block chaining technique isc 0 = Ek(m⊕I)c i = Ek(mi⊕ci–1) for i > 011.2.2.1 Multiple EncryptionOther approaches involve multiple encryption. Using two keys k and k' toencipher a message as c = Ek' (Ek(m)) looks attractive because it has aneffective key length of 2n, whereas the keys to E are of length n. However, Merkle and Hellman [700] have shown that this encryption technique can be broken using 2n+1encryptions, rather than the expected 22n(see Exercise 3).Using three encipherments improves the strength of the cipher. There are several ways to do this. Tuchman [1006] suggested using two keys k and k':c = Ek (Dk'(Ek(m)))This mode, called Encrypt-Decrypt-Encrypt (EDE) mode, collapses to a single encipherment when k = k'. The DES in EDE mode is widely used in the financial community and is a standard (ANSI X9.17 and ISO 8732). It is not vulnerable to the attack outlined earlier. However, it is vulnerable to a chosen plaintext and a known plaintext attack. If b is the block size in bits, and n is the key length, the chosen plaintext attacktakes O(2n) time, O(2n) space, and requires 2n chosen plaintexts. The known plaintext attack requires p known plaintexts, and takes O(2n+b/p) time and O(p) memory.A second version of triple encipherment is the triple encryption mode [700]. In this mode, three keys are used in a chain of encipherments.c = Ek (Ek'(Ek''(m)))The best attack against this scheme is similar to the attack on double encipherment, but requires O(22n) time and O(2n) memory. If the key length is 56 bits, this attack is computationally infeasible.11.3 Networks and CryptographyBefore we discuss Internet protocols, a review of the relevant properties of networks is in order. The ISO/OSI model [990] provides an abstract representation of networks suitable for our purposes. Recall that the ISO/OSI model is composed of a series of layers (see Figure 11-2). Each host, conceptually, has a principal at each layer that communicates with a peer on other hosts. These principals communicate with principals at the same layer on other hosts. Layer 1, 2, and 3 principals interact only with similar principals at neighboring (directly connected) hosts. Principals at layers 4, 5, 6, and 7 interact only with similar principals at the other end of the communication. (For convenience, "host" refers to the appropriate principal in the following discussion.)Figure 11-2. The ISO/OSI model. The dashed arrows indicate peer-to-peer communication. For example, the transport layers are communicating with each other. The solid arrows indicate the actual flow of bits. For example, the transport layer invokes network layer routines on the local host, which invoke data link layer routines, which put the bits onto the network. The physical layer passes the bits to the next "hop," or host, on the path. When the message reaches the destination, it is passed up to the appropriatelevel.Each host in the network is connected to some set of other hosts. They exchange messages with those hosts. If host nob wants to send a message to host windsor, nob determines which of its immediate neighbors is closest to windsor (using an appropriate routing protocol) and forwards the message to it. That host, baton, determines which of its neighbors is closest to windsor and forwards the message to it. This process continues until a host, sunapee, receives the message and determines that windsor is an immediate neighbor. The message is forwarded to windsor, its endpoint.Definition 11–5. Let hosts C0, …, Cnbe such that Ciand Ci+1are directlyconnected, for 0 i < n. A communications protocol that has C0 and Cnasits endpoints is called an end-to-end protocol. A communications protocolthat has Cj and Cj+1as its endpoints is called a link protocol.The difference between an end-to-end protocol and a link protocol is that the intermediate hosts play no part in an end-to-end protocol other than forwarding messages. On the other hand, a link protocol describes how each pair of intermediate hosts processes each message.The protocols involved can be cryptographic protocols. If the cryptographic processing is done only at the source and at the destination, the protocol is an end-to-end protocol. If cryptographic processing occurs at each host along the path from source to destination, the protocolis a link protocol. When encryption is used with either protocol, we use the terms end-to-end encryption and link encryption, respectively.In link encryption, each host shares a cryptographic key with its neighbor. (If public key cryptography is used, each host has its neighbor's public key. Link encryption based on public keys is rare.) The keys may be set on a per-host basis or a per-host-pair basis. Consider a network with four hosts called windsor, stripe, facer, and seaview. Each host is directly connected to the other three. With keys distributed on a per-host basis, each host has its own key, making four keys in all. Each host has the keys for the other three neighbors, as well as its own. All hosts use the same key to communicate with windsor. With keys distributed on a per-host-pair basis, each host has one key per possible connection, making six keys in all. Unlike the per-host situation, in the per-host-pair case, each host uses a different key to communicate with windsor. The message is deciphered at each intermediate host, reenciphered for the next hop, and forwarded. Attackers monitoring the network medium will not be able to read the messages, but attackers at the intermediate hosts will be able to do so.In end-to-end encryption, each host shares a cryptographic key with each destination. (Again, if the encryption is based on public key cryptography, each host has—or can obtain—the public key of each destination.) As with link encryption, the keys may be selected on a per-host or per-host-pair basis. The sending host enciphers the message and forwards it to the first intermediate host. The intermediate host forwards it to the next host, and the process continues until the message reaches its destination. The destination host then deciphers it. The message is enciphered throughout its journey. Neither attackers monitoring the network nor attackers on the intermediate hosts can read the message. However, attackers can read the routing information used to forward the message.These differences affect a form of cryptanalysis known as traffic analysis.A cryptanalyst can sometimes deduce information not from the content ofthe message but from the sender and recipient. For example, during the Allied invasion of Normandy in World War II, the Germans deduced which vessels were the command ships by observing which ships were sending and receiving the most signals. The content of the signals was not relevant; their source and destination were. Similar deductions can reveal information in the electronic world.第十一章密码技术11．1问题在没有考虑加密所要运行的环境时，加密的使用可能不能提供用户所期待的安全。
英文论文(外文文献)翻译成中文的格式与方法
英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文关键词：外文，英文，中文，翻译成，文献英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文简介：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文内容：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找，该数据库中包含14,000多家国外出版社的文献，囊括所有专业的英文文献资料。
2、一些免费的外文数据库或网站，为了方便大家查找，编者整理成文档供大家下载：国外免费文献数据库大全下载3、谷歌学术检索工具，检索时设置成只检索英文文献，键入与专业相关的关键词即可检索。
二、英文论文翻译格式与要求翻译的外文文献的字符要求不少于1.5万（或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上）。
字数达到的文献一篇即可。
翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关着作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）的参考文献。
并在每篇中文译文首页用＂脚注＂形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文。
需认真研读和查阅术语完成翻译，不得采用翻译软件翻译。
中文译文的编排结构与原文同，撰写格式参照毕业论文的格式要求。
参考文献不必翻译，直接使用原文的（字体，字号，标点符号等与毕业论文中的参考文献要求同），参考文献的序号应标注在译文中相应的地方。
3000字的本科毕业外文文献翻译(格式标准)
本科毕业生外文文献翻译学生姓名：指导教师：所在学院：专业：中国·大庆2013 年5 月Chapter 1IntroductionSpread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal ) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).1.1 History Frequency hoppingThe concept of frequency hopping was first alluded to in the 1903 U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 filed by Nikola Tesla in July 1900. Tesla came up with the idea after demonstrating the world's first radio-controlled submersible boat in 1898, when it became apparent the wireless signals controlling the boat needed to be secure from "being disturbed, intercepted, or interfered with in any way." His patents covered two fundamentally different techniques for achieving immunity to interference, both of which functioned by altering the carrier frequency or other exclusive characteristic. The first had a transmitter that worked simultaneously at two or more separate frequencies and a receiver in which each of the individual transmitted frequencies had to be tuned in, in order for the control circuitry to respond. The second technique used a variable-frequency transmitter controlled by an encoding wheel that altered the transmitted frequency in a predetermined manner. These patents describe the basic principles of frequency hopping and frequency-division multiplexing, and also the electronic AND-gate logic circuit.Frequency hopping is also mentioned in radio pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had already tried it several years earlier. Zenneck's book was a leading text of the time, and it is likely that many later engineers were aware of it. A Polish engineer, Leonard Danilewicz, came up with the idea in 1929.Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent 1,869,695, 1932). During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY for communication between Roosevelt and Churchill, which incorporated spread spectrum, but due to its top secret nature, SIGSALY's existence did not become known until the 1980s.The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for their "Secret Communications System". Lamarr had learned about the problem at defense meetings she had attended with her former husband Friedrich Mandl, who was an Austrian arms manufacturer. The Antheil-Lamarr version of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change among 88 frequencies, and was intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The patent came to light during patent searches in the 1950s when ITT Corporation and other privatefirms began to develop Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a civilian form of spread spectrum, though the Lamarr patent had no direct impact on subsequent technology. It was in fact ongoing military research at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Corporation, ITT and Sylvania Electronic Systems that led to early spread-spectrum technology in the 1950s. Parallel research on radar systems and a technologically similar concept called "phase coding" also had an impact on spread-spectrum development.1.2 Commercial useThe 1976 publication of Spread Spectrum Systems by Robert Dixon, ISBN 0-471-21629-1, was a significant milestone in the commercialization of this technology. Previous publications were either classified military reports or academic papers on narrow subtopics. Dixon's book was the first comprehensive unclassified review of the technology and set the stage for increasing research into commercial applications.Initial commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s in the US with three systems: Equatorial Communications System's very small aperture (VSAT) satellite terminal system for newspaper newswire services, Del Norte Technology's radio navigation system for navigation of aircraft for crop dusting and similar applications, and Qualcomm's OmniTRACS system for communications to trucks. In the Qualcomm and Equatorial systems, spread spectrum enabled small antennas that viewed more than one satellite to be used since the processing gain of spread spectrum eliminated interference. The Del Norte system used the high bandwidth of spread spectrum to improve location accuracy.In 1981, the Federal Communications Commission started exploring ways to permit more general civil uses of spread spectrum in a Notice of Inquiry docket. This docket was proposed to FCC and then directed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff. The proposals in the docket were generally opposed by spectrum users and radio equipment manufacturers, although they were supported by the then Hewlett-Packard Corp. The laboratory group supporting the proposal would later become part of Agilent.The May 1985 decision in this docket permitted unlicensed use of spread spectrum in 3 bands at powers up to 1 Watt. FCC said at the time that it would welcome additional requests for spread spectrum in other bands.The resulting rules, now codified as 47 CFR 15.247 permitted Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many other products including cordless telephones. These rules were then copied in many other countries. Qualcomm was incorporated within 2 months after the decision to commercialize CDMA.1.3 Spread-spectrum telecommunicationsThis is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original information.Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signalstructure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences —created using pseudorandom number generators —to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the alloted bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.Chapter 22.1 Spread-spectrum clock signal generationSpread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency and its harmonics, and would therefore radiate energy with an infinite spectral density. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).To avoid this problem, which is of great commercial importance to manufacturers, spread-spectrum clocking is used. This consists of using one of the methods described in the Spread-spectrum telecommunications section in order to reduce the peak radiated energy. The technique therefore reshapes the system's electromagnetic emissions to comply with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It is a popular technique because it can be used to gain regulatory approval with only a simple modification to the equipment.Spread-spectrum clocking has become more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and the increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays in smaller and smaller devices. Because these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, passive EMI reduction measures such as capacitors or metal shielding are not a viable option. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are necessary in these cases, but can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is the risk that modifying th e system clock runs the risk of the clock/data misalignment.2.2Direct-sequence spread spectrumIn telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.2.2.1Features1.It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string ofpseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.2. It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter isknown a priori by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the informationsignal.2.2.2Transmission methodDirect-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using.For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. This requires the receiver to synchronize its sequence with the transmitter's sequence via some sort of timing search process. However, this apparent drawback can be a significant benefit: if the sequences of multiple transmitters are synchronized with each other, the relative synchronizations the receiver must make between them can be used to determine relative timing, which, in turn, can be used to calculate the receiver's position if the transmitters' positions are known. This is the basis for many satellite navigation systems.The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, which results in a uniform frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudo-random number generator.2.2.3Benefits∙Resistance to intended or unintended jamming∙Sharing of a single channel among multiple users∙Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth)∙Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver2.2.4Uses∙The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems∙DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with different codes.It is the most widely used type of CDMA.∙Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands∙IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and its predecessor 802.11-1999. (Their successor 802.11g uses OFDM instead)∙Automatic meter reading∙IEEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee)2.3 Frequency-hopping spread spectrumFrequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:1.Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. Theprocess of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background.2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appearsas an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.3.Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types ofconventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.2.3.1 Basic algorithmTypically, the initiation of an FHSS communication is as follows1.The initiating party sends a request via a predefined frequency or control channel.2.The receiving party sends a number, known as a seed.3.The initiating party uses the number as a variable in a predefined algorithm, whichcalculates the sequence of frequencies that must be used. Most often the period of the frequency change is predefined, as to allow a single base station to serve multiple connections.4.The initiating party sends a synchronization signal via the first frequency in thecalculated sequence, thus acknowledging to the receiving party it has correctly calculated the sequence.5.The communication begins, and both the receiving and the sending party changetheir frequencies along the calculated order, starting at the same point in time.2.3.2 Military useSpread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key(TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share.By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modern military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.2.3.3Technical considerationsThe overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the degradation caused by narrowband interferers.One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits more power than non-spread spectrum systems. Both frequency hopping and direct sequence systems can transmit at 1 Watt. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt or a thousand times increase. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prescribes a minimum number of channels and a maximum dwell time for each channel.In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel. Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation between remote radios.2.3.4 Variations of FHSSAdaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.The key idea behind AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels -- perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting good/bad channels.However, if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “badchannel removal”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern.Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation.Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order.第一章介绍扩频技术是信号（例如一个电气、电磁，或声信号）生成的特定带宽频率域中特意传播，从而导致更大带宽的信号的方法。
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浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China
政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响
1摘要
中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等。
这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响。
结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。
2重要内容翻译
2.1引言
在商业界，有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。
它们发现政治关联
1
能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源，比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款，这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。
在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家，政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素的作用。
中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变，政府对市场具有较强的控制作用，而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。
中小型企业发展的很迅速，他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。
从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要，尤其是中小型企业的价值。
和其他的部门相比较，中小型企业只有较小的现金流，不稳定的现金流且高负债率。
一方面，中小型企业改变更加灵活；另一方面，中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产，在筹资方面较为困难。
企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动，并且政治关联如何影响企业价值？
这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系，并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。
2.2定义
这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业，是和管理规模有关。
对这些小企业来说，雇员很少，营业额较低，资金一般由较少的人提供，因此，通常由这些业主直接管理企业。
根据2002年6月29日的第十九届关于国际人民代表待会常务委员会，“中华人民共和国中小型企业振兴法”的精神，在2003年2月19日，已经发行“中小型企业标准的印刷和分配的暂行规定通知”对主要部门的中小型规模的企业标准做出了明确规定。
这种标准是根据企业的目标、员工数量、规
模空间、总资产、工会成员特色等来制定的。
根据该通知的规定，不同专业的中小型企业应该根据以下的标准来区别：
1、工业型中小型企业需要满足以下条件：员工及工人人数要小于2000人，或者销售额小于300万人民币，或者总资产小于400万人民币。
2、建筑业的中小型企业需要满足以下条件：员工及工人的总人数小于3000人，或者销售额小于300万人民币，或则总资产小于400万人民币。
3、零售业的中小型企业需要满足以下条件：员工或者工人总人数小于500人，销售额小于150万人民币批发型的中小企业需要满足以下条件：雇员及员工小于200人，销售额小于300万人民。
4、交通运输、邮政服务的中小型企业需要满足以下条件：雇员及工人的人数少于3000人，销售额小于300万人民币。
5、住宿及餐饮的中小型企业需要满足以下条件：雇员及工人数目小于800人，且销售额小于150万人民币。
2.3制度背景
在过去25年的时间里，中小型企业已经发展起来。
这种制度上的细节能够帮助我们理解政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
尽管1978年以后，中小型企业发展的速度上升，但是他们也遭受了政治和社会的歧视。
甚至在1990年后期，中小型企业在意识形态上仍然被认为是一种低级的所有权组成方式，尽管有正式的法律规定中小型企业的合法性，总体政治环境却对中小型企业是敌对的。
中小型企业不得不解决在公众和政府官员的敌视及社会的偏见。
在中国的中小型企业不仅经历政治和社会歧视，也要处理不利的经济环境。
3
政府仍然控制大部分的资源，同时国有企业仍然在取得银行贷款和其他方面享受优先待遇。
中小型企业常遭受政府官员的任意支配，并且商业和财产法也并不能执行。
甚至在今天，除了有2004年的关于保护中小型企业财产的宪法，政党仍然尝试创造公平的市场条件，从而使得中小型企业可以与其他所有权形式的企业相竞争。
有理由相信在中小型企业相与其他形式企业一样获得平等的地位需要很长的时间。
和党派及政府的联系提供了“下海”企业家相比其他没有这些联系的中小企业有更有利的优势。
这种优势包括能够更好地获得党派和政府控制的关键资源，比如商业经营许可证，银行贷款，土地以及受政府控制的政策，比如税收福利，各种费用等。
成为一名党员以及了解更多的其他党派成员和政府官员，也能够创造更高的政治地位，比如成为一名人民代表大会代表，通过党派和政府的联系可以不断进一步加强。
有党派成员的中小型企业更可能成为人大代表。
2.4文献回顾
尽管关于在企业的政治联系的确立已经研究了很多年，但是，只有最近的研究能够吸引注意力。
并且这些研究政治关联对企业价值重要性的文献意义却相对较小。
Fisman 和Parsle证明了这种政治关联对企业价值的影响在法律系统薄弱的国家。
Fisman 观察了在印尼与苏哈托家族关联的企业并且表明这些企业随着苏哈托领导人的身体健康恶化的通知而失去价值。
Faccio研究国家间的政治关联以及表明那些高贪污和法律薄弱的国家中企业的政治关联最多。
她进一步研究表明这些企业当他们的主管参与政治时价值提高。
最后，她表明一种关于政治关
联创造价值的直接方式是证明政治关联的企业更有可能被政府部门保护。
政治关联也影响具有较好发展的金融环境及法律系统较强的国家的企业价值。
Jayachandran考虑了参议员Jim Jeffords 从共和党到民主党的离开。
她知道这种事件导致了企业对共和党捐赠的减少。
罗伯茨提供了确凿的微观证据指出政府关联的价值。
在参议院哈利杰克逊去世后，他调查了与此相关的企业的股票价格，并且发现有明显的下降。
同时，与参议员继承者相关的企业股价上升。
这种表面政治关联事实上有可能在发展良好的金融市场中影响企业的价值。
但是，这要这些政治联系的边际收益超过边际成本，这种企业价值就能被强化。
Knight只在一家工厂里调查了捐赠情况，表明向社会捐赠更多的制造企业能够有更积极的股价回报。
刘提供的证据表明在八十年代的中国，政治关联在金钱和非金钱上都存在实质性的影响。
而且Morduch和Sicular 发现90年代在中国，政党成员或者是地方政府都会考虑政府租金。
李发现在中国的私人企业从事政治能够解决某些制度上的困难。
2.5研究假设
H1: 政治关联对中国的中小型企业价值具有正面的影响。
H2: 政治关联的强度影响中国中小企业的价值。
2.6数据和样本
在2005年，中国遭受了股份不可贸易的改革。
从2002年开始，中国证券管理委员会要求列举的企业提供董事的背景信息。
所以我们所采用的样本是从2006年到2008年深圳证券交易所的数据。
我们去除了如下一些条件的企业。
B
5
股和H股的企业。
这些面临双倍管理环境的企业，以及这些缺少年终股票数据的不同企业。
还有价值过高的样本。
最终，我们搜集到了2006年的50个样本，2007年的50个样本，以及2008年的50个阳样本。
这些列举的私有企业的总监和董事会成员的背景信息，股票市场及财政数据又商业数据库提供。
这些中小型企业的政治关联是在研究数据上手工搜集而成。
2.7结论
我们检查政治关联与中小型企业价值之间的联系，并且发现中小型企业趋向于建立政治关联。
政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值具有负面的影响。
在中国，政治关联的强度影响中小型企业的价值。
越强的联系并没有带来更好的企业价值。