英语专业语言学

nguage is unique to humans. But animals also communicate with one another.2.Arbitrariness：There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Eg. differentsounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. (tree, arbre, shu) But language is not entirely arbitrary, eg. Onomatopoeic words, compound words (rumble, crash, bang; glitter, photocopy,…)The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.3.Duality of structure：Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or twolevels. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless; at the higher level these sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as words.4.significance of duality feature：A communication system with duality is considerably flexiblethan one without it, because a far greater number of messages can be sent. This feature enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.5.Productivity / Creativity：Humans have the ability to construct and understand an indefinitelylarge number of sentences in our native language, including sentences we have never heard before. This creativity is rule-bound.6.Displacement：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. It can be used to talk about language itself. This feature provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e., in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.7.Cultural transmission：Language is not genetically transmitted from generation to generation.The details of the language system must be learned anew by each speaker (though human capacity for language has a genetic basis). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted,i.e. animals are born with the ability to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.8.Saussure and Modern Linguistics：Humans have been interested in language and grammarsince ancient times. Modern linguistics started in the 1920s. Ferdinand Saussure is regarded as one of the most influential figures in modern linguistics9.Scope of Linguistics：Phonetics (语音学）-the study of human speech soundsPhonology（音位学）-the study of the system of speech sounds of a languageMorphology（形态学）-the formation of wordsSyntax（句法学）-the arrangements of words in sentencesSemantics（语义学）-the study of the meaning of languagePsycholinguistics（心理语言学）-the relationship between language and the mindSociolinguistics（社会语言学）-the relationship between language and society10.Prescriptive vs descriptive 规定与描写：Descriptive linguistics aims to describe and analysethe language people actually use. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language.11.Synchronic vs diachronic 共时与历时：Synchronic linguistics studies a language at somepoint of time in history. Diachronic linguistics describes a language as it changes through time.12.Speech and writing 口语与书面语Speech: spoken language Writing: written language13.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium ofhuman language.ngue and parole 语言与言语：Langue—the abstract linguistic system shared by allmembers of a speech community. Parole—the realization of langue in actual use.15.Important Distinctions in Linguistics 重要的概念区分Prescriptive vs descriptive 规定与描写Synchronic vs diachronic 共时与历时Speech and writing 口语与书面语Langue and parole 语言与言语16.Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive (语言学是描写性的，不是规定性的）A linguist isinterested in what is said, not what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.17.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written 语言学认为口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的18.Spoken language is primary. Spoken language precedes the writtenlanguage everywhere in the world. Most writing systems are derived from vocal sounds. 19.Why was written language overemphasized: The permanence of written language; Classicaleducation; Difficulty in studying spoken language.20.Linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.（不是所有的语言都可以纳入拉丁语法的框架）Modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework: Every language has a system of its own and should have its own system of grammar. e.g. word order in Chinese is very important while Latin has inflection. Some languages have complex gender rules while other languages don‘t.21.Process of speech production and perception: Articulatory phonetics 发音语言学Acoustic phonectics 声学语音学Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学22.Speech Organs:Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔--Glottis 声门,V ocal cords 声带Oral cavity 口腔--Lips, teeth, palate颚, tongueNasal cavity 鼻腔23.Narrow and broad transcriptions: The phonetic transcription with diacritics（变音符号）iscalled narrow transcription.（严式标音) The phonetic transcription without diacritics is called broad transcription, which is used generally in dictionaries and language textbooks. (宽式标音)24.Difference between vowels and consonants: V owels: in the production of vowels, theairstream meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth; Consonants: in the production of consonants, the airstream is somehow obstructed.25.Classification of English consonants:Place of articulation 发音部位Manner of articulation发音方法V oicing 是否浊音26.Manner of Articulation 发音方法Stops/plosives （塞音/爆破音）Fricatives （擦音）Affricates （塞擦音）Liquids （流音）Nasals （鼻音）Glides （音渡）27.Classification of vowels•The tongue position front; central; back (前，中，后）•The shape of the lips rounded; unrounded（圆唇，非圆唇）•The openness of the mouth （开，闭）open; close; semi-open and semi-close •The length of the vowels long; short （长，短）28.Diphthongs (双元音）Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another.[ei] [әu] [ai] [au] [ɔi] [iә] [εә] [uә]29.A minimal pair is two words that differ in only one sound in the same position.（cot-cat,sap-tap, seat-seed）30.Do we count /p/ and/ph/ as one consonant or two consonants in the language? We count themas the same consonant, because the replacement of one for the other does not make any difference in meaning.31.What is a phoneme (音位)? A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value (有区别意义的功能）. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone(音素) in a certain phonetic context.The phoneme /p/ is represented differently in /pit/, /tip/ and /spit/.32.Allophone (音位变体）The phones that can represent a phoneme are called its allophones. So[p], [ph], [pﾌ] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard. In most cases, it is rule-governed.33.Phone (音素) A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Phones include phonemes and allophones.34.Phone, phoneme and allophone 音素，音位与音位变体A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value (有区别意义的功能）The phones that represent a phoneme are called its allophones.35.Determining phonemes of a language : A basic way to determine the phonemes of a languageis to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes.36.Phonemic contrast and complementary distribution音位对立互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways:–If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast,e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit], [bit]–If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning but occur in different phonetic environment. They are in complementary distribution.– e.g. clear [l] and dark[l]; [p] and [ph]37.Phonetics and Phonology 语音学与音位学Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech sounds.But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is general, descriptive, classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology is interested in the sound system of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.38.Some rules of PhonologySequential rules (序列规则))—in what way the phonemes in a language can be combined.Assimilation rule (同化规则)—one segment assimilates another by ‗copying‘ a fe ature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.Deletion rule (省略规则)—when a sound should be deleted although it is orthographically represented.39.Suprasegmental features (超音段特征)-—features that run over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments (the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment)--Stress, including word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English.-- Tone, Three frequently used tones in English: Fall tone(降调)—affirmative Rise tone(升调)—interrogative, uncertain Fall-rise tone(降升调)—an implied message--Intonation When pitch(音高), stress(重音) and sound length(音长) are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.40.Tone language （声调语言）In some languages the pitches of words make a difference intheir meaning. Such languages are called tone languages. Chinese is a tone language, and English is not a tone language.41.Morphemes((词素,语素) —the minimal units of meaning. Some words are formed bycombining a number of distinct units of meaning. The basic element of meaning is called morpheme.42.Free morphemes and Bound morphemes自由语素与黏着语素Free morphemes(自由语素)—morphemes that are also independent words.Bound morphemes(黏着语素)—morphemes that have to attach to other morpheme(s) to form words.43.Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes 派生语素和屈折语素Derivational morphemes—when they are conjoined to other morphemes a new word is derived.Inflectional morphemes—morphemes which do not add any lexical meaning, but which represent the concept of tense and aspect.(P.36)44.Open Classes and Closed Classes开放性词类与封闭词类Open classes-- Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives Adverbs: new words are regularly added to them.Closed classes—all the rest: hardly any new words are added in recent times.45.Word formationCompounds (复合词) are words formed by combining two or sometimes more than two words.Derivatives(派生词) are words formed by adding affixes to roots.46.Views of language meaning：--The naming theory命名论Plato (427-347, Greek philosopher) thinks that the meaning of a word is the object in the world that it ‗stands for‘ or ‗refers to‘.（Only some of the nouns can be explained this way.(nouns that refer to actual things in the world) Even with nouns that refer to actual objects, this theory comes with problems.--Conceptualist view 概念主义The relationship between word and the referent is not direct, they are linked through ‗concept‘— what people think it is.--Contextualism语境论Context—meaning is based on context--Behaviorism 行为主义‗language shoul d be treated as a mode of action, not an instrumentof reflection‘47.Sense and reference 涵义与指称义Sense and reference refer to two related but verydifferent aspects of meaning:Sense—system of relationships between the linguistic elements themselves; intra-linguistic relationsReference—relationships between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience; ultra-linguistic relations48.Sense relations between wordsSynonymy 同义关系Polysemy and homonymy 多义词同音(或同形)异意Hyponymy 上下义关系Antonymy 反义关系。