语言学Categorization
语言学(6-10)
第六章语义学一、导读6.1 意义研究语义学(semantics)是研究意义的科学。
它的理论探讨对象是语言的意义(linguistic meaning)或语义,语义是一般意义的一部分。
人类对语言意义的关注已有久远的历史。
古希腊哲学家在研究哲学问题时,也涉及了语言的意义问题。
但古今中外的各种学科,都未把语言的意义问题进行系统探讨。
只有语义学才把语言意义作为直接的、基本的研究对象,并对语言意义进行全面、系统的研究。
现代语义学的一个重要特点是这门学科与许多相关科学的相互借鉴和交融贯通。
哲学、逻辑学、符号学、心理学、音韵学、人类学等众多学科都为语义学的发展提供了丰富的营养,而语义学则是兼收并蓄,博采众长,使自身的理论日斟精深,体系趋于完整。
6.2 指称和意义语义学中涉及意义问题的几种主要理论有指称论、意念论、实证论等等。
指称论将词义与词的指称对象直接联系,其观察词义的出发点是外延逻辑。
指称论提供了一种对词义的自然、直观的解释:词语有意义是因为词语标示了语言外世界中的事物。
词的意义就是它指称的对象。
意义的指称论有明显的缺陷,用此理论解释词义会遇到各种矛盾:并非所有的词语都有指称对象,某些词(如语气词、感叹词、连接词、介词等)都无指称对象。
不同词语可指称同一对象。
如“伦敦”和“英国首都”指称同一城市,但意义也不同。
有些词在现实世界中无指称对象,但有意义,如“负一”。
这些情况一方面显示出意义并不局限于指称,另一方面在语言表达与所确定的实体之间并不总是存在一一对应的关系。
意义常常大于所指。
词汇不仅与客观世界相关也与人类思维有联系。
因此除了指称,还有意义。
意义是思维的体现。
6.3 词汇意义的分类词汇意义主要有指称意义和联想意义。
指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系。
如woman(女人)一词其意义可以说包含了+HUMAN(人),-MALE(非男性),+ADULT(成人)这几个特征。
附加在指称意义上的其它意义会随着历史时期的不同而有所改变。
认知语言学1
这些识解以我们实际上站在不同的角度去观察自行车 和汽车为前提。
3.Categorization (范畴化)
Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. 范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验划分成 不同的类型。 •There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the super-ordinate level, and the subordinate level.
The figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to our perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constituent the ground.图形-背景关系似乎可以运用于空间研究,背景充当
约翰逊把意象图式定义为通过感知的相互作用和运动 程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的循环出现的 动态模式。
语言学专业词汇
AAcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85Active deposit 活性沉积P393adaptability制宜原则P39adjustment 调整P135AdjMr:Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342Affixation 缀合法P29All encompassing 无所不包P ixAphasic 失语症患者P386ApoP 同位短语式P188Approximative system 近似体系P58arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181Aspect 体(tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体)P114Autonomy 自主权P53Bbackshift后移P370/372bilingualism 双语学P522Blending 拼缀法P29Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知,top-down perception自上而下的感知P493CCart Fames1980 对比分析P xcirculativeness 周遍性P86categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487category word 范畴词P418/474/513cleft sentence 分裂句P230cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468,词根对应P478cognitive schema认知图示P386Cohesion 粘着性P62Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词,additive 增补连接词,adversative 对比连接词,causal conjunction因果连接词,temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436Combination (虚词功能)组合P452Total combination完全结合,formal combination形式结合P464Common value (语言)共同价值;special value 特征价值P47Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120Compound (汉语)合成词P443Conversion 转化法P29Constant 常数(ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项);variable变数;tertium 中间项P50Context-sensitive rule 受上下文制约的规则P362Convertness and overtness 隐含性与外显性P61Copula 系词;copulative object 判断宾语;quasi-copulas 准判断动词P217Coverb 前置动词(能愿、意向、规劝动词)和后置动词的统称;operator基本助动词/功能词P114DDative case与事格P159defiguration还原法, figuration 形象描写P472Description and Prescription 描写与规定P41descriptive approach描写态度P39determinative premodifier 限制性前置定语,descriptive premodifier 描绘性前置定语,classifying premodifier 分类性前置定语P298Diachronic and synchronic/ diachronism and synchronism 历时与共时P2Diachronic experience and synchronic performance 历时经验和共时运用P314Dichotomic 二分性,可切分为二P167Differentiating ability 分辨力P361Diffuse 扩散型;compact聚集型P235Directness 直接性,indirectness间接性,explic itness鲜明性, specificness重实,non-specificness反虚P417Disintegration 解体P28dismantle拆除P28Disorganization 瓦解P28Disposal form动词处置式(把字句) P213; pre-transitive V erb 前及物动词(赵元任:把字句)P233 Diversiform 多样性P85Divide 长句切分;contract 长句紧缩P208Doer and receptor 行为者与承受者P89Doublet/ word pair谐音叠词P426EEnd-focus 短语后焦点;front-focus 弱化前焦点P175End-weight词尾重心P229Epicene通性名词P82Equivalence 对应P58evolution演进P28Explanation 解释; Interpretation 阐释P41Explication 演绎法P469Expletive 先行词P74Expletive subject 形式主语P92FFamily resemblances 维根斯坦:家族相似;Dissimililarilies 非相似性PvFinite verb 定式动词;non-finite verb 非定式动词P236Formal or inflexional linkage 形式或形态对接P26Formal indication 形式的标定P62-3Frame of word词语联立关系P466Functional compensation 功能互补P154Functional expansion 功能扩大化P191Functional redress, functional compensation 功能代偿法P33Function test 话题性的测试P90Functional word (form word, structural word) 结构词(英语),empty word虚词(汉语), P449 closed classes 封闭性词类,P449determiner 限定词,auxiliary助动词,pronoun代词,P449,preposition介词,qualifier 修饰词,coordinator 并列连接词,subordinator 从属连接词,interrogative 疑问词,negative 否定词P450full word 实词(汉语)P450GGiven-new contract已知-新知信息默契P372HHead word 中心词P296Heterology 异质性/特殊素质P95/202HW:head word中心词P19Hypotaxis and parataxis 形合与意合P75IIcon 图像性,iconization图像化, indexization索引化P455identity等同(是字句功能)P219Ideographicand semipronouncing 单体形意音文字P viIdeational pvotal, idea-centered 意念主轴;formal-pivotal, formal-centered 形式主轴P18idea-centered structure意念主轴结构;formal-centered structure形式主轴结构P18idiom 成语/习语;a single unit一个单位P166image code 象码;Souund code音码P68immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法P232impersonal subject非人称主语P498implication 暗示法P22Inbreak of the modernity 葛兆光:现代性入侵P ivIndicator 指示器P47indispensability不可或缺性P47infiltration 渗透性,intrinsicness固有性,peculiarity特性P476Inflectional devices 无形态程式P viiiInflexional formation 形态构性P453Inflexional system 形态体系P52Inflexionalization 形态化P154Inner speech 内部言语,speech 外部言语P387Intentional word意向词语P163intensifier加强词P378Interlingua 中介语P58Interlingual comparability 语际可比性P51Interpretation 解释法P22Intraflexion 内部屈折P396Introducer 引导性结构P302JJohn Stuart Mill 1806-1873 功利追求P xJuxtaposing 联合短语式P183KKernel (句法结构) 核心P84Kinship 与原亲属关系P468Llanguage game 语言游戏P39Latin Grammar马建忠:泰西格朗玛PvLexicalization 词汇化P312,inflexion 形态化P368Linearization对接;formation成型;aggregation聚集P69Linguistic determinism语言决定论,language relativity语言相对论P525LocWP 方位短语式P187LR (linear reverse???) 顺序线性P62;RL (reversed linear) 逆线性P69MMapping 映射P68/371/492Masculine 阳性P397Matching 配对P52Maximized implicitness 最大化隐含;information focus信息焦点P191mean中数;overlap语义场界重叠;outlap非重叠P183means of generalization实义虚化手段,affixational means词缀虚化手段P446,inflexional means 形态虚化手段P447, specified 实化P449Misplacement and breach 错位和缺位P ixMissing link 缺环P518MnS(Means Subject) 方式主语P102Mode of expression表现法,relativity相关性,instrumentality实用性,generality通用性P391 Moderate adaptation 适度的适应,adaptationby通过adjustment调整来适应P429Mood 语气,indicative mood直陈式, imperative mood祈使式, subjunctive mood虚拟式, Intrinsic and extrinsic 内在和外在语言结构机制,factualsupposition事实假设, counterfactual supposition 反事实假设deficit 欠缺的观点P369morpheme for morpheme义素对义素P468Mr-Md (modifier-modified) 修饰语前置式,偏正词组;Md-Mr (modified-modifier);hyphenated adjectives 连字符连接的多词形容词P167MrS(Modifier Subject)修饰语主语P102Mutual compensatory 互为补充代偿P308NN.Machiavelli 1459-1527 马基尔维利,15世纪‘欧洲最著名政论、史论家之一P iv Nominal 名词性P91Nominal phrase名词性短语P188Nominative 主格,genitive 所有格,dative 与格,accusative 宾格P396Non-SP sentence非主谓句P203nucleus(语音)调核P304OOnomatopoeia 象声,拟声P5Open beginning 句首开放性;contracting ending/closed ending 句尾收缩性P205Operating and orientating mechanism 支配与定势作用P487Operator 功能词P118Ordering 序列P70Orientation 导向P391Outwardness 外象(包括:表象、形象、现象、物象)P26PPattern (形态体系的)结构形式P396pair成对词P184Paradox 悖理P182PC of extend/ degree表程度的述补结构P131PC of movement 表行为态势活动向的述补结构:direction趋向;progress继续;completion 完成P128PC of possibility表可能的述补结构P128PC of result表结果的述补结构P129PC of state表状态的述补结构P130Pejoration 贬义化Perceptive language 感性语言P xPeriodic sentence 掉尾句P310Phonograph 表音文字P418Phonetic morpheme 语义语素,form morpheme 构形语素,reduplication morpheme复叠语素,full morpheme 完全语素P460/461Phrasal verb and particle 短语动词与小品词/介副词P??/154pictograph/ hieroglyph 象形文字P2pivot/axle主轴P236PlS (Place Subject) P86Polar contrast 正反两面合二为一的复合词P473Polarization 两极化P87Pragmatic motivation语用理据P175Pragmatic presupposition 语用预设P164Predicate-complete construction述补结构P128predication谓词性;sub-predication次谓词性P189Predicative phrase 谓词性短语P188PrepOP 介词短语式P187Pre-position coverb 前置助动词P377Principle of cause and result sequence 因果律P299Principle of compactness of meaningful morpheme 语素结合紧密度律P299Principle of exterior-interior sequence 表里律P296Principle of spatial sequence 范围律P294Principle of subject-object sequence 主客律P295Principle of temporal sequence 时序律P291Principles of SV concord 主谓一致原则: Grammatical principle 语法原则, Logical principle逻辑原则, Principle of Proximity 靠近原则, Principle of Idiomaticness 惯用法原则P115 Presupposed statement and concluding statement, PS and CS 前述与结述P57/309QQrQd (qualifier-qualified) 附加式P202QunWP 量词短语式P188Rrecipiency受事性;recipiency 施授关系;affection 受到影响的关系P158Redress/ compensation (语法功能的)代偿法P22Reduplication(构词法)重叠法,adjunction附加法,affixation加缀法,compound 合成法P444-445Refinement 提炼;Gradation 提升P41Relative comparability 相对可比性P51Reflective 反映式的,折射式的P456equivalence对应式(correspondence契合式),inclusion涵盖式P457,intersection 交叉式P458,substitution替代式,conflict 冲突式(exclusion 语义相悖) P459 kinship term P457,borrowing借用P459reflection 反映P496relativity 相关性,instrumentality实用性,generality通用性,familiarization通晓性P392 Repetition 重叠手段,anaphora句首反复,epiphora句尾反复P427Reversed Linear Expansion逆线性延伸;Natural Linear Expansion顺线性延伸P205 reversibility 可反逆性P174/276reversion 对接的反转P464reversing and synchronizing 顺译与反逆翻译P105R.Philippson 2002: 英语帝国主义PvRunning sentence 流水句P235SSA V P62Selective and critica 选择性和批判性P xSemantic combination 语义结合,grammatical combination 语法结合P441Semantic relevance 语义关涉性P181Semantic structuring 语义结构过程,form structuring 形式结构过程P387Sense morpheme义素,meaningful morpheme有义语素,free morpheme自由语素,boundmorpheme黏着语素P441Sentence starter句首起词P110/503Sequence 顺序,inverse/reverse 抵触逆序,mixed order混合序P409Shift 转换P100Shortening 缩略法P29Sign language手语P386Signifying 意指; analogizing类比P47Situationally defined语境化P479Space between words词间距P80Staccato 断续P421Stratification 层次结构P232Stress domain 重音范域P75Stressed position 强调位P279Structural analogy 结构类比P81Structural inversion 结构性倒装functional inversion 功能性倒装stylistic inversion文体性倒装P277Structural order-shift 结构性位移P279Structural word 结构性词语,substantial word 实质性词语,presupposed information 预知性信息,replenished information 补足性信息,base挤出前述,climax递进叙述P305 StrWP 助词短语式P188SV concord/agreement 主谓一致P88/115SV Device主语-谓动机制P88SVOC P61subcategorization(语义特征)次范畴化(转换生成语法)P368Substitution替代法P22Sub-subject次主语P95Supplement 补充P106Syntagmatic device组合手段P404Syntagmatic ordering of element 组合型序列P275Syntagmatic pivot 形态组合主轴P237;paradigmatic pivot 意念聚合主轴P239TTautology 重复, sysmetry对仗P424TDC Expansion (topic-development-coda expansion) 命题-发展-结语语段扩展P257 Temporal sequence时序律P121Temps opératif (G. Guillaume)活动时间, system de representation 反应系统,system d’expression 观念P387Tense 语法的“时”,time自然概念的“时间”P340, tense particle 时态助词P342Tensity 紧张感,importunity 短促感,monotonounsness单调感P424Text 语段;logical expansion 逻辑扩展式;basic level 基础层级;logical level逻辑层级P234 Thematic 主位性P284/ 句首主题P315Thematization主题化,thematic fronting 宾语主题前置,topicality 话题性P316The relative 关系语P86TmS(time subject)P85Topic, theme, 话题(主语句)comment, rheme 述题P37-38Topic subject 话题主语P92transfer 迁移P522Transferability 可转换性P386Transformation 转型P28 转换式P214TR device 话题-述题机制P88typological 类型学体系P60VV alence/valency价(可以带什么宾语)P152/154V ertical 历时比较;horizontal共时比较P49Visual differentiation 视觉分辨率P404Visual recognizibility 视觉可辨性P449V ocalicending元音字尾P425voice in covertness 隐性语态P313, inflictive voice 不幸语态P318 volitional future 强于是将来时(表意志等)P453WWalter Benjamin; historical duress, geschichtlich Zwang: 历史的裹挟P xiZZero 零位P87ZeS-VP 零位主语结构P106。
categorization语言学定义
categorization语言学定义【categorization 语言学定义】“嘿,朋友们!在我们的日常交流和学习中,经常会遇到各种各样的分类问题,比如整理书架时把书按类型摆放,或者区分不同风格的衣服。
今天呀,咱们就来聊聊 categorization 这个在语言学中有点特别的概念。
”其实,categorization 简单来说就是把事物按照一定的标准或特点分成不同的类别。
就像我们把水果分为苹果、香蕉、橙子等,这就是一种 categorization 。
比如在超市里,货物被分类摆放,方便我们快速找到想要的东西。
但是要注意哦,有些人会误以为 categorization 只是简单的分组,其实它更强调依据明确的规则和特征来划分。
比如,不能因为苹果和香蕉都是黄色的,就把它们归为一类,而应该根据它们本质的特征,像形状、味道等来分类。
接下来咱们看看它的关键点。
核心特征或要素:1. 明确的分类标准:这是 categorization 的基础。
比如把动物按照食性分为食草动物、食肉动物和杂食动物,食性就是明确的分类标准。
2. 系统性:分类要有条理和逻辑。
像把书籍按照文学、历史、科学等大类,然后再细分,这就是系统性的体现。
3. 可变性:分类不是一成不变的。
随着新事物的出现或者我们对事物认识的深入,分类可能会改变。
比如说以前对于音乐的分类比较简单,现在随着音乐风格的多样化,分类也更加细致和丰富了。
容易混淆的概念:Categorization 和 classification 这两个词很相似,但也有区别。
Categorization 更侧重于基于事物内在的本质特征进行分类,比较细致和深入。
而 classification 则更侧重于从宏观的角度进行大致的分类,相对来说没有那么细致。
比如说在生物学中,对物种的 categorization 会非常详细,考虑到基因、生态等多个方面;而 classification 可能只是简单地分为动物、植物、微生物等大类别。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ is the mental process of classification, while ______ is the products of the preceding process.【答案】Categorization; category【解析】范畴化是人类对经验进行分类的过程。
范畴是范畴化的产物。
2. ______ is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.【答案】Cognitive linguistics【解析】认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法,集中研究语言组织,处理与传达信息的作用。
3. There are three aspects in basic-level categories: ______, ______ and ______.【答案】perception; communication; knowledge organization【解析】基本层次范畴的三方面:感知,交流和知识系统。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choices.1. In the following sentences, which is not a metonymy?A. The sax has the flu today.B. Watergate changed American politics.C. Wall Street is in a panic.D. She is the apple in her parents’eyes.【答案】D【解析】其他三句为转喻,D为暗语。
语言学复习提纲
语言学复习提纲6.Pragmatics复习提纲1.Pragmatics:(term):the study of language in use(the study of speaker meaning).2.Micropragmatics:(term):to study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts.3.Macropragmatics:(term): these studies look deep into the mechanisms by which speakers/writers encode their message in skillful ways and how hearers/readers arrive at the intended meanings in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning. This approach of study is called….4. Reference(term):in Pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something.5.Deixis(term):in all language there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called…, which means “pointing” via language.6. five types of deixis:●Person deixis(e.g.):me, you, him, and them.●Time deixis(e.g.):now, then, tonight, last week, this year.●Space/spatial/place deixis(e.g.):here, there, yonder.●Discourse deixis(e.g.):in the previous/next paragraph, or have you heard this joke?●Social dei xis(e.g.):professor Li, Li Jie7.Anaphora(term):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.8. Presupposition(term):assumptions by the speaker or writer.9.Presupposition triggers:●Definitive description(e.g.):he saw the man with two heads→there exists a man with twoheads.●Factive verbs(e.g.):he realized that he was in debt.●Change of state verbs(e.g.):he began to beat her husband.●Lteratives(e.g.):the flying saucer came again.●T emporal clauses(e.g.):while he was revolutionizing linguistics.●Cleft sentences(e.g.):it was he that kissed her.●Comparisons and contrasts(e.g.):he is a better linguist than him.10.Speech act(term)actions performed via utterance.11. locutionary act (term) the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterancee.g. there is not enough fresh air in here.12. Illocutionary act (term)the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaninge.g. the hearer to open the window13.per locutionary act(term)the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.e.g. the hearer′s opening the window or his refusal to do so14. classification of illocutionary acts●Representatives:e.g.:the earth is flat/it wa s a warm sunny day/Chomsky did not write aboutmusic.●Directives e.g.:gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black/could you lend me a pen,please?/do nottouch that●Commissives e.g.:I will be back/I am going to get it right next time/we will not do that●Express ives e.g.:I am really sorry/congratulations/oh, yes, great,mmm, ssahh●Declarations e.g.:6.3.2 The Cooperative principle6.3.2.1 The Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则一定要完整地背下来,分析实例时要以各准则为标准分析会话含义*****要会评价合作原则,它的优势与弊端,书中能找到论述,结合礼貌原则进行评论。
语言学
1 categorization范畴化: Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.2 image schema意象图示: Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.3 language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4 duality二重性: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.5 competence语言能力: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.6 vowel元音: A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.”There is no obstruction of airstream.7 concept概念:that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.8 phoneme音位: the word “phoneme”simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”:the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.”9 Inflection(屈折):indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.10 Bound morpheme(粘浊语素):those can not occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme.11 Lexeme(词位):the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.12 Positional relation(位置关系): or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words ina language.13 Endocentric construction(向心结构): is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of word, which serves as a definable center or head.14 Performatives(施为句): sentences do not describe things. They can not be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action.15 Displacement(移位性): means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位,尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.(意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
)2). Connotation: (内涵)Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: (外延)Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上,它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论,叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle (语义三角)Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
语言学名词解释
Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1. Arbitrariness 任意性Language is arbitrary, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary.The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality 二层性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.3. Productivity/ Creativity 创造性Productivity/ Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the novel sentences by use of a finite set of rules. 4. Displacement 移位性Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus-free. Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5. Cultural transmission 文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted.6. Interchangeability 互换性Interchangeability refers to the fact that humans can produce and receive messages, and their roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.Functions of language7. Informative function 信息功能Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the major role of language. Declarative sentences serve this function.8. Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function is considered as the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.9. Performative function 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language involved in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.10. Emotive function 感情功能The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. This function is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.11. Phatic function 寒暄功能The phatic function enables people to establish and maintain good interpersonal relationships with others without involving any factual content.12. Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.13. Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function refers to the fact that our language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive. (自我反身性)14. Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure.Important Distinctions in Linguistics15. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式vs. 规定式Don’t say X. ---Prescriptive commandPeople don’t say X. ---Descriptive statementThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.To say that linguistics is a descriptive science means that linguists tried to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.16. Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时vs. 历时Language can be studied at a particular point in time or over time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of a language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.17. Langue vs. Parole 语言vs. 言语The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in theearly 20th century. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.18. Competence vs. Performance 语言能力vs. 语言应用Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And the performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.19. Speech vs. WritingSpeech and writing are two major media of communication. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. So language is primarily vocal.24. Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic 组合(横向)纵向vs. 选择关系In doing linguistic inquiry the linguist is concerned with two major types of relationship. One is syntagmatic relation, which refers to the relations between units which combine to form sentences. The other is paradigmatic relation, which refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms.25. Etic vs. Emic 唯素的vs. 唯位的Etic refers to the linguistic units containing “-etic”, for example, phonetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are first used to describe sounds. Emic refers to the linguistic units containing “-emic”, for example, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.26. Traditional grammar vs. Modern grammar 传统语法vs. 现代语法Traditional grammar can be considered as prescriptive; it is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But modern grammar is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data.27. Linguistic potential vs. Actual linguistic behavior 语言潜势vs. 实际语言行为Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things that a speaker can do in the culture he is in. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed linguistic potential. What a speaker actually says in a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have is termed actual linguistic behavior.Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics 语音学Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is divided into three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual (auditory) phonetics.2. Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.3. Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.4. Perceptual (auditory) phonetics 感知语音学/ 听觉语音学Perceptual (auditory) phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.5. Phonology 音系学Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”6. Speech organs/ vocal organs 发音器官Speech organs/ vocal organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, including lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.For most phonetic purposes, it is sufficient to say that the vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, or (c) totally closed.声带只需要三种状态:分离,贴近,紧闭。
(完整word版)语言学第六章之后
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1。
语言与认知6。
1.What is Cognition认知?a。
Mental processes,information processing b。
Mental process or faculty of knowing,including awareness,perception,reasoning, and judgment.2。
The formal approach:形式法structural patterns,including the study of morphological,syntactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception,memory,attention,and reasoning.The conceptual approach:认知法:how language structures (processes &patterns)conceptual content。
6。
2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段 Stage of three—word utterances三词句阶段④ Fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 Language comprehension理解Mental lexicon(心智词库):information about the properties of words,retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word。
语言学重点2 选择翻译
Duality(二层性)具有两层结构这种特性Creative(创造性)Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursivenessMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics(发音学)Phonology(音韵学)Morphology(形态学)Syntax(语法)Semantics(语义学)Pragmatics(语用学)Descriptive(描写式)vs. Prescriptive(规定式)Don't say X. Prescriptive commandPeople don't say X. Descriptive statementPrescriptive command 描述事情应该如何Descriptive statement 描述事情本是怎样Synchronic(共时)vs. Diachronic(历时)【共时是研究某个历史阶段内的语言,历时是研究整个历史阶段的语言】共时有关书籍“A Grammar of Modern Greek”《现代希腊语语法》“The structure of Shakespeare’s English”《莎士比亚英语语法研究》历时Saussure’s Descriptive study(索绪尔的历时语言学研究)Langue (语言)& parole(言语)Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.索绪尔用语言和言语区分说话者的语言能力和语言上的实际表现或语料Consonants(辅音)and vowels(元音)The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream(气流阻碍).Allophones(音位变体)[p]和[p h]是两个不同的音子,即音位[p]的变化形式,这种音位的变化叫做同一音位的音位变体(allophones of the same phoneme),该例中两个音位变体处于互补分布状态,他们从不出现在相同的环境中,即[p]只能出现在[s]之后,而[p h]只能出现在其它位置表示为/p/ →[p] / [s] _____[p h] elsewhere这种随位置不同音位读音出现差别的现象称为音位变体现象(allophony)或同音位变体(allophonic variation)Suprasegmentals(超音段特征)语音问题中超出单音音段以上的方面The principal suprasegmentals are:Syllable(音节)Stress(重音)Tone(声调)Intonation(语调)Morphology(形态学)Morphemes(语素)Word-formationCompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.windmill haircutSyntactic relations(句法关系)Positional Relation(位置关系)也称为Word Order(词序)Endocentric(向心结构)【还可以分成Coordination(并列关系)和Subordination(主从关系)】该结构的分布在功能上相当于它的一个或多个成分,即一个词或词组可确定为“中心”(Centre)或“中心词”(Head)。
语言学 困难词语解释
Design features are features that define out human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity displacement, cultural transmission, etc. Arbitrariness means forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义没有天然的联系。
eg: we cannot explain why a book is called a book.1.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性syntax refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.3.arbitrariness and convention任意性和规约性Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. 任意性使语言有潜在的创造力,而规约性又使学习语言变得辛苦。
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. A syllable音节is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself.Scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morpheme语素. Creativity means by using it we can create new meanings and endless sentences.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
语言学——精选推荐
语⾔学English Linguistics英语语⾔学Chapter SixLanguage and Cognition语⾔与认知What is language ?What is cognition ?I . Cognition(I). Definition:Mental processes of an individual, information processingMental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.(Ⅱ).Three approaches to the study of language and cognition:1.The formal approach: addresses the structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.2.The psychological approach: looks at language from the perspective of general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, attention to reasoning. PSYCHOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS ⼼理语⾔学3.The conceptual approach: addresses how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 认知语⾔学Ⅱ. Psycholinguistics(I). Definition:Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.(Ⅱ).Three subjects of researchLanguage acquisitionLanguage comprehensionLanguage production1. Language Acquisition(1). Definition:Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.(2). Studies on Language acquisition:One of the central topics in psycholinguisticsAll normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does.Children’s acquisition of language has received much attention.Scholars kept diaries of children’s speech for their research data.(3). Stages of Language acquisition:a. Holophrastic stage (from two months to a year)–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.b.Two-word stage (around 18 months)c. Three-word stage–Give doggie paper.–Put truck window.–Tractor go floor.d. Fluent grammatical conversation stageEmbed one constituent inside another:–Give doggie paper.–Give big doggie paper.Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.All parts of a language are acquired before the child turns four.2. Language comprehension(1). Definition:The mental process in which humans can understand sentences that carry novel messages in a way exquisitely sensitive to the structure of the language.(2). Stages of language comprehension:a. word recognitionb. comprehension of sentencesc. comprehension of texts3. Language production(1). Definition:In psycholinguistics, language production is the production of spoken or written language. It describes all of the stages between having a concept, and translating that concept into linguistic form.(2). Stages of language production:a. access to wordsb. generation of sentencesc. written language productionⅢ. Cognitive LinguisticsDefinition:It is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. ?It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the (I) Construal and Construal Operations (识解与识解活动)Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different waysConstrual Operations include the following aspects:Attention / salience(注意⁄突显)We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.a We drove along the road.(a line:one-dimenaional)b. She ran across the road.(a surface:two-dimenaional)c. The workers dug through the road.(a volume:three-dimenaional)a. He cleaned the window. (glass)b. He opened the window. (frame)a. I’ve broken the window. (I)b. A stone has broken the window. (stone)2. Judgment / Comparison (判断⁄⽐较)Figure / Ground (图形⁄背景)We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time.We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. ?Figure-ground organization –The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background.–The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground.Figure-groundFigure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects.In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector (射体)for a moving figure and landmark (界标)for the ground of a moving figure. There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]There are still some peanuts[figure] in the bag[ground]Batman[figure] was standing on the roof[ground]The computer[figure] under the table[ground] is mineThe spacecraft[figure] was hovering over Metropolis[ground]Tarzan[trajector] jumped into the river[landmark]Spiderman[trajector] climbed up the wall[landmark]The bird[trajector] winged its way out the window[landmark]We[trajector] went across the field[landmark]I[trajector]’m going to London[landmark]3. Perspective⁄Situatedness(视⾓⁄情景)Perspective :the way in which we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It generally depends on two things: where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewinghow the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.–The tree is behind the man.–The tree is in front of the man.(Ⅱ) Categorization(范畴化)1. Definition:The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.2. Three levels in categories:–basic level–superordinate level–subordinate levelBasic level Superordinate levelAnimalHorse Dog CatChihuahua German dachshundshepherdSubordinate levelVertical organization(Ⅲ) Image Schema(意象图式)Definition:A recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience (Mark Johnson).2. Patterns of image schemas:Center-periphery schema(中央—边缘图式)Involves–a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and–degrees of distance from the core.Examples (English):–The structure of an apple–An individual’s perceptual sphere–An individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality (周边性)Containment schema(容器图式)Involves a physical or metaphorical–boundary–enclosed area or volume, or–excluded area or volume.Bodily experience: human bodies as containers.Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior–The ship is coming into view.–She’s deep in thought.–We stood in silence.Cycle schema (循环图式)Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following:–A starting point–A progression through successive events without backtracking–A return to the initial stateThe schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.Examples (English)–Days–Weeks–Years–Sleeping and waking–Breathing–Circulation–Emotional buildup and releaseForce schema (⼒量图式)Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements:–A source and target of the force–A direction and intensity of the force–A path of motion of the source and/or target–A sequence of causationExamples (English):–Physical: Wind, Gravity–Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc.–Interaction, directionality, causality–Compulsion–Blockage–Counterforce–Diversion–Removal of restraintLink schema(连接图式)Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them.Entity A Entity BExamples (English):–A child holding her mother’s hand–Someone plugging a lamp into the wall–A causal “connection”–Kinship “ties”Part-whole schema(部分—整体图式)Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.Examples (English):–Physical: The body and its parts–Metaphorical: The familyPath schema(路径图式)Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, andconsists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.Examples (English):Physical: Paths; TrajectoriesMetaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: –Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality.–You have reached the midpoint of your flight training.–She's just starting out to make her fortune.–Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.Scale schema(刻度图式)Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, andconsists of any of the following:–A closed- or open-endedprogression of amount–A position in the progressionof amount–One or more norms of amountExamples:–Physical amounts–Properties in the number system–Economic entities such as supply and demandVerticality schema(垂直图式)Involves “up” and “down” relations.Examples:–Standing upright–Climbing stairs–Viewing a flagpole–Watching water rise in a tub(Ⅳ) MetaphorGeorge Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. <中⼩学英语教学与研究>2011第6期英语中的概念隐喻表达法崔传明⽯磊(⼭东科技⼤学,⼭东泰安271000)隐喻(metaphor)就是把⼀个领域的概念投射到另⼀领域,或者说从⼀个认知域—来源(source domain)投射到另⼀个认知域—⽬标域(target domain)。
语言学名词解释
Chapter 6Pragmatics: it can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.Deixis: in all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means “pointing” via language.Reference:in pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or a writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.Inference: an inference is an additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what is meant.Anaphora: the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which is used in earlier text or conversation is called anaphora.Presupposion: a spesker said to you “when did you stop beating your wife”,the speaker has the assumption that you used to beat your wife and no longer do so. Such assumptions are called presupposion.Speech act theory: it was proposed by J.L.austin and has been developed by j.r. searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or describe things, but to “do” things, perform acts.Illocutionary acts: representatives directives commissives expressives declarations Indirect speech act: whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have a indirect speech act.The cooperative principle: H.P.grice belives that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of the utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the CP. To put it simply, the cp means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.(quality quantity relation manner)Conversatonal implicatures: a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.The six maxims of the PP(tact generosity approbati on modesty agreement sympathy)Chapter 7Discourse:language above the sentence or above the clause.Discourse analysis: is also called discourse linguistics and discourse studies, or text linguistics. It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form a larger meaninful units such as paragraphs, interviews, conversations ,etc.Given information: it is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.New information: it is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.Topic: the topic represents what the utterance is about and it is the one that thespeaker decides to take as the starting point.The comment is what is said about it. Cohesion: it refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.Cohesive devices include reference{endophora(anaphora and cataphora)and exophora}, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction(coordinators and subordinators) and lexical cohesion(repetition synonym and superordinate).Discourse markers: expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.conversational analysis: the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are ans how conversation is used in oordinary life is called conversational analysis.(adjacency pairs, preference structure and presequences)Adjacency pairs:a sequence of two related utterance by two different speakers. The second part is always a response to the first.Presequences: the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions are called presequences.赞同Chapter8Sociolinguistics: when we study the language in relation to society. It is called sociolinguistics.Language varieties: language changes along social changes and it also changes from region to region, fron oone social group to another and from individual to individual. The products of such changes are called varieties of the language.lile the rise and fall of xiaojie.Standard language: the dominant and prestigious variety of language is often called standard language or standard variety or standard dialect., the variety of language which had the highest status in one community or a nation and which is based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of a language.RP andSAEorGA. Dialect: a variety of language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect. Dialects can be classified into four types(regional or geographical dialects and temporal dialects and sociolects and idiolects)regional or geographical dialects: varieties of language spoken in a geographical areatemporal dialects:varieties of language used at a specific stages in the historical development.Sociolects: varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social class. Idiolects:varieties of language used by individual speaker, wirh peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary ans grammar.Register: most speakers of a language speak one way with friends, another on a job interview or presenting a report in class, another taling to children and still another with their parents. These varieties are classified according to use is called register.like(pickled, high, drunk and intoxicated)M.A.K.Halliday’s register theory is determined by three factor field and mode andtenorField of discours e refers to what is happening, including what is talking about.e.g. the fields of linguistics and religion and advertising.Mode of discourse refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation.e.g. speech and writingTenor of discourse refers to the relationa among the participants in a language activity.e.g. colloquial and formalPidgins and creolesPidgins: a pidgin is a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone ,but is learnt on contact situation such as trading. The process by which the pidgin develops is called pidginization.Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.Language planning: the government carefully examine all the languages and dialects in the country and decide which is the standard official language. They also make plans for the regional use and development of other languages and dialects. This is now called language planning.Status planning(change) and corpus planning(develop)Diglossia:with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. A situation of this kind is called diglossia.Bilingualism: ir refers to a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. MultilingualisCode-switching:bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation. This phenomenon is called code-switching. There are two major kinds of code-switching: situational code-switching (no topic change is involved) and metaphorical code-switching.Taboo: a word that we are reluctant to use may be called a taboo word. Euphemisms: a moe acceptable substitute of a taboo word is called a euphemism.(euphemistic)It has been suggested that there are a great deal of extra politeness in female speech which makes use of the following linguistics devices1 frequent use of hedges2 abundant use of tag question3 gereater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men4preference for ues of the standard form of language.Chapter10Cognitive linguistics: the approach that language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it is called congnitive linguistics. Categorization: the mental process of classification is called categorazation, which isone of the important capabilitied of the human mind.Category: the special term for this phenomemon is called category(dog and tree) The classical theory: the classical theory of categorization. It has four assumptions 1 a thing can not both be and not be, cannot both have the feature and not have it, and cannot both belong to a category and not belong to it.2 the features are binary 3 the categories have clear boundaries 4 all members of a category have equal status.The prototype theory: the best examples of one category are called prototype.(bird and color and fruit)Levels of categorization: s uperordinate levels basic levels and subordinate levels Basic-level categories are basic in three respects:1 perception 2 communication 3 knowledge organization(feature and attributes)Iconicity of order: it refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction.(open the bottle and pour wine) Iconicity of distance: that is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(causation and multi-adjectives befoere a noun)Iconicity of complexity: the phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity. Grammaticalization:the process whereby an independent words are shifted to the status of the grammatical elements is called grammaticalization.The difference of pragmatics and semanticsSemantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speaker uses the language in ways which cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and how the hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of the meaning that is not covered by semantics, pragmatics=meaning-semantics.新旧信息的区别:Sometimes, given information need not be introduced into a discourse by a second speaker, because it has been introduced in the previous sentence and can thus be assumed to be in the hear’s mind. A piece of information is sometimes taken as given information because of its close association with sth. that has just been mentioned in the discourse.(Kent returned my car. One of the wheel---) . Noun phrase carrying new information usually receive more stress than those carrying given information, and they are commomly expressed in a more elborate fashion.(There was a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on, quiet elegantly dressed. ). Given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways that are abbreviated or reduced. Sometimes given information is simply left out of a sentence altogether.(A:Who’s at th door? B:The mailman.)皮钦语A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and very reduced grammatical structure which may expand when it is used over a long time or for many purposes. Sometimes,a pidgin dies out of its own accord. At other times it increases in importance, and becomes used in more and more areas of life.Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.对传统语言学的新认识:Cognitive linguistics provides many new angles for our insight into language. Its significant position in linguistics is evident. It seems to give us hope that some unsolved problems in language studies may be solved in cognitive linguistics.厕所委婉语:There are many euphemisms for toilet, such as wc,power room, men’s room, ladies’room, gentlemen,bathroom,restroom, wash room, washing room, loo, john and so on. In many cultures, people avoid referring to this place by toilet or lavatory because they are unpleasant to the ear. The use of euphemisms reflect social attitudes or social customs. We choose the words or expressions of euphemisms because they are more polite and pleasant to use without embarrassing others.女性更接近标准语:There are two possible reasons. One is that women are usually more status-conscious than men and they are aware of their lower status in society and as a result, they may use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claim equality or even achieve a higher social status. The other reason might be attributed to the education. Women are educated to behave like a lady when they are little girls and such education may influence their speech as well.隐喻转喻与传统隐喻转喻的区别及隐喻和转喻的相同点和不同点Traditionally, metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one thing is the other, as in “He is a tiger”. It is a property of words. In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is a property of concepts, and it is a powerful cognitive tool for our conceptualization of abstract categories. According to cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain. According to the classical definition, metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word is substituted for another on the basis of some material, causal or conceptual relation. Some typical substitutions include author for work, abstract features for concrete entities. In the cognitive linguistic view, metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental process to another cognitive category, the target, within the same cognitive domain, or idealized cognitive model.The main claims made by cognitive linguists in the description of metaphor also apply to metonymy: (i) both are regarded as being conceptual in nature; (ii) both can be conventionalized; (iii) both are means of extending the resources of a language; (iv) both can be explained as mapping processes. Difference: metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains, while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain.。
语言学——精选推荐
Chapter 6Cognition(概念,选择题)I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics(概念,选择题)Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics (名词解释)Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations (名词解释,三种分类)Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization (名词解释、三种分类)Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas (名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题)Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor (名词解释)Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1)ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2)structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3)orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy (名词解释)Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (重点-大题)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation(重点-大题)1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom(重点-大题)To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic (名词解释)Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory (名词解释)It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives (大题举例子)Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act (大题)The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: (大题or名词解释)It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle (大题)A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory (名词解释)This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9(名词解释)Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。
《语言学教程》 3 形态学(收藏)
可能[不]改变原词的词性
增加与否取决于所属短语或句子中的其 增加与否只是取决于不同的表意意图。 他因素。
主要是后缀。名词复数;名词所有格; 前缀,后缀,或同时。
动词第三人称单数;过去式;过去分词; 名变动,形变副,形变动,形容词变否
现在分词;动名词;比较级和最高级
定,形变名,动变名,等
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Morpheme [语素]
derivative inflectional words [派生屈折词]
F
F+F
F+BI
F+BD, BD+F+BD
BD+B F+BD+BI BD+F+BI
21
语素的分类[2] [在多语素词(除复合词外)内部的划分]
Root [词根]
free root morpheme (自由词根语素) bound root morpheme (粘附词根语素)
18
形态学的定义[四种] • 1. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the systematic study of morphemes, which
studies the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed. • 2. Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the
text
[语篇]
clause complex/sentence [小句复合体/句子]
clause word group / phrase
语言学重点 名词解释
名词解释Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是任意的有声符号系统,人们可以借助它来达到交流的目的。
Arbitrariness(任意性): the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning 语言符号的形式与意义之间没有必然联系bear(具有)Phoneme(音位): It is a phonological concept, an abstract unit. It refer to the smallest unit of sound which is used to distinguish between words. 是一个音韵学概念,是一个抽象单位,它是用来区分单词的声音的最小单位。
Back-formation(逆构词法)refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.是构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词Coordination (并列关系)is a common syntactic(语法的)pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction(结合)such as and, but and or .并列是英语以及其他语言中一种常见的句法关系,由同类型的两个或两个以上的范畴,借助连词and,but或者or组合而成。
语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)
语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇):语言学名词解释第四版教程语言学教程第四版笔记语言学教程考试题语言学教程中文版pdf篇一:新编语言学教程名词解释(部分重点)(1) linguistics: (语言学)the scienti?c or systematic study of language.(2) language: (语言)a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: (任意性)the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:(双重性)the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:(语言能力)knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use,i.e. performance.(6) performance:(语言运用)Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: (共时语言学)the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: (历时语言学)the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:(音位)the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: (音位学)the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:(形态学)the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:(词素)the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: (自由词素)a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: (黏着词素)a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:(语素变体)the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.(句法学)(5) IC analysis:(Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法)the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function(概念功能): the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function(人际功能): the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function(语篇功能): to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:(上下义关系)the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym:(整体部分关系)the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:(语用学) a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:(指示)the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors in?uence the structure and use of language.(社会语言学)(8) diglossia:(双语) a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:(双语现象)the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region ora nation.(11) taboo:(禁忌)a word or expression that is prohibited by thepolite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:(委婉语)a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room”for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.(认知语言学)篇二:]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》前四章名词解释胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax 句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals 喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound 向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme 语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) calque 仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative 离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction 向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程(感觉过程)relational process(a process of being)关系过程(属性过程)verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程(讲话过程)existential process生存过程篇三:胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1. design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysisin linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization.11. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics includepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et15. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.17. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.this an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspiratedt.Boththand tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.26. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or theobstruction of air.29. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.30. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it islexical or grammatical.34. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39. allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60. Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.68. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.69. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.70. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on. 71. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overallmacrostructure of the story.73. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria ofsimplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.81. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar. 82. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87. sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a。
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members of neighboring categories
they are much less informative relative to their immediate
2
superior category
they are frequently polymorphemic, the most common pattern
superordinate categories have fewer defining features than basic level categories
immediate superordinate of basic level categories often have a singleattribute relation to higher superordinate category
Categorization
definition:
is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood. is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge.
linguistically, names for superordinate categories are often mass nouns when basic level terms are count l
a composite form typically combines two or more words that signify basis level categories,like rain coat, apple juice, and wheel chair.
subordinate categories are less good categories than basic
1
categories, because although their members have high
mutual resemblance, they have low distinctiveness from
the most inclusive level for which there are visual image can be formed.
the most inclusive level at which partwhole information is represent ed.
All catagories of dogs are different,but they still have enough to distinguished from cats birds and so on.
1
the basic level
2
Lorem
the superordinate level
ipsum
3
the subordinate level
The characteristic can be summed up under Croft and Cruse’s four points :
The most inclusive level at which there are characteristic patterns of behavioral interaction.
The second level is superordinate level, which is the general one
For example, if someone asks you to think of a vehicle and you might think of a tree or a flower. This is parasitical Categorization.
superordinate category are less good categories than basic level categories, because although members are relatively distinct from members of neighboring categories, within-category resemblance is relatively low.
3
being modifier-head