语言学概论中文导论3Noam Chomsky
2009-2010学年第二学期语言学试卷
湖南科技大学考试试题纸（A卷）(2009 -2010学年第2 学期)英语语言学概论课程英语专业07级英语教育2-5班班级考试时量100分钟学生人数命题教师周启强系主任交题时间：2010 年6月10日考试时间：年月日I. Fill in the blank with ONE word, the first letter of which is already given as aclue. Note that you are to write down the whole word on your answer sheet without changing the letter given: (15*2=30 points)1. That the denial of one member of two words implies the assertion of the other is thecharacteristic of c______ antonyms.2. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and themore specific words are called its h______.3. The sentence “John smokes” may be analysed as S(j) in terms of predication, whereS represents the predicate and j an a____.4. According to Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts, “to suggest that someoneshould see the doctor” should fall into the category of d______.5. C______ analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze wordmeaning.6. Some English learners will invent such words as “teached”, “hitted”, etc. byimitating the regular past form of the English verb. This error is said to result from o .7. When a group of people come to take a pidgin as their mother tongue, it becomes ac language.8. According to Leech, taboos and euphemisms often result from the r_____ meaningof some words relevant to death, sex, etc. .9. In making conversation, the generally principle that all participants are expected toobserve is called the C Principle proposed by J. Grice.10. The sentence "John bought three apples yesterday" p ____ the sentence "Johnbought some fruit yesterday."11. The phenomenon that a word may have several related senses is called p______.12. Linguistic D____ is a theory which believes that our language will decide ourway of looking at the world.13. The level of syntactic representation after the transformational process is usuallytermed s___ structure.14. At first, J. Austin made a distinction between performatives and c____, which hefinally gave up for a variety of reasons.15. In their course of language acquisition, children's utterances are one-wordsentences, which are called the h_____ stage.II. Match the linguists in Column A with the important works or papers on linguistics in Column B. (10*1=10 points)A B16. L. Bloomfield a. Course in General Linguistics17. N. Chomsky b. The Meaning of Meaning18. Austin c. The Case for Case19. M. A. K. Halliday d. Logic and Conversation20. C. Fillmore e. Syntactic Structures21. H. P. Grice f. Language22. F. de. Saussure g. How to Do Things with Words23. C. K. Ogden & I. A Richards h. An Introduction to FunctionalGrammarIII. Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Write a T for true and an F for false on your answer sheet: (10*1=10 points)26.Locutionary act expresses the intention of the speaker.27. Speech variety refers to any form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.28. Social factors cannot be included in our description of language and language use.29. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.30.Culture in a narrow sense refers to culture that is concrete, substantial and observable.31. The study objects of both semantics and pragmatics are meaning, with semantics focusing on meaning in context and pragmatics static meaning.32. If G = girl, P = pretty, the sentence "Every girl is pretty" may be formalised as(()&())x G x P x .IV . Analyse linguistic data and finish the subsequent tasks as required.36. Noam Chomsky has been quoted as saying:It is about as likely that an ape will prove to have a language ability as thatthere is an island somewhere with a species of flightless birds waiting for human beings to teach them to fly.Does Chomsky think that an ape can be taught to master a human language? Doyou agree or disagree with him? Make a comment on his remark.37. The following is a conversation between a boy and a girl:Boy: Do you love me.Girl: En... I like you very much.1) What is the conversational complicature in the girl's reply?2) Explain why there is such an implicature in terms of a pragmatic theory youare familiar with.3) Imagine an occasion on which the implicature is defeased.38. The following sentences may be SEMANTICALLY or STRUTRUALLYambiguous. Explain the ambiguity by providing two sentences that paraphrase the multiple meanings.1) He waited by the bank.2) Is he really that kind?3) You should see her shop.4) Every man loves a woman.湖南师范大学2006—2007学年第二学期2004级期末/补考/重修 英语语言学答题纸课程代码：05023032 考核方式: 笔试闭卷 考试时量：100 分钟 试卷类型：AI. Multiple choice1—56—10 11—15II. Fill in the blanks16.17. 18.19. 20.21. 22.23. 24.25.III. True or False26. __ _ _____27. _________ 28. _____ _______ 29. ____ ____30. ____ ______ 31. _____ ______ 32. _______ 33. ____ ______ 34. __________ 35. _______ 36. _____ ______ 37. _____ _______ 38. ______39. _________ 40. __________IV . Pair Matching41—45:46—50:学院专业年级任课教师学号姓名性别座位号V . Do as required 51.52. 53. 54. 学院 专业 年级 任课教师 学号 姓名 性别 座位号湖南师范大学2006—2007学年第二学期2004级期末/补考/重修 英语语言学考核试题标准答案及评分细则 课程代码：05023032 考核方式: 笔试闭卷 考试时量：100 分钟 试卷类型：A 一、选择填空，每空1分，共15分。
语言学概论(英)试卷二
1. The distinction between competence and performance was put forward by _____. A. Leonard Bloomfield B. Ferdinand de Saussure C. Noam Chomsky D. M. A. K. Halliday2. The study of language development at a period of time, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place, is generally termed as _______ linguistics. A. applied B. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronic3. According to de Saus sure, ________ refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. A. performance B. competence C. parole D. langue4. According to Noam Chomsky, language is the product of_______. A. an innate faculty, unique to humans B. communication201 年 月江苏省高等教育自学考试8801语言学概论（英）一、 选择题（每小题1分，共20分）在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答 案，并将其字母标号填入题干的括号内。
C. environmental conditioningD. all of the above5. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]6. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. Phonology7. A sound produced with the vocal cords vibrating is said to be a __________ sound.A. resonantB. voicelessC.voicedD. consonant8. __________ are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.A. VelarsB. LabialsC. PalatalsD. Alveolars9. The Engl ish word “ modernizers” is composed of __________ morphemes.A. 4B.3C. 2D. 510. The phrase “men and women” belongs to the ________ construction.A. predicateB. coordinateC. subordinateD. exocentric11. In the TG grammar, the _______ structure represents the syntactic propertiesof a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.A. deepB. surfaceC. generativeD. transformational12. The English language has______.A. morphemesB. syntaxC. number agreementD. all of the above13. Hyponyms of the same ______ are co- hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy14. _____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identifiedby shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country15. _____ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.A.SemanticsB. PragmaticsC.SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics16. _____ found that natural language had its own logic and concluded cooperative principle.A. JohnAustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones17. ____ refers to how we construct an utterance from idea to completed sentence.A. Language comprehensionB. Language productionC. Language acquisitionD. Language listening18. “_____” is often understood as a language system between the target languageand the learner’s native language.A. Input HypothesisB. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC. InterlanguageD. Contrastive Analysis19. Which one of the following statements about errors in foreign language learningin FALSE? _________.A. Errors can not be avoided in foreign language learning.B. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressedand consequently what remains for him to learn.C. Errors are something bad that should not be allowed in foreign language learning.D. Errors provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learned oracquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing is his discovery of the language.20. The use of non-standard English persists because_______.A. the working class is incapable of speaking “correctly”B. English is a complicated and therefore difficult language to masterC. subordinate groups use non-standard English to promote solidarityD. teachers do not properly stress the importance of standard English in schools二、填空题（每小题1分，共10分）21. Not all the sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occurin the same environment, they are said to be in the ______ distribution. 22. According to the “semantic triangle” presented by Ogden and Richards, thesymbol or ______ refers to the linguistic elements, and the thought or reference refers to concept.23. A ______ vowel is one produced by holding the tongue towards front of the mouth.24. ______ phonetics studies the human speech organs and the way in which the speechsounds are produced.25. ______ refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set of different meanings.26. Linguistics is a branch of science which takes ______ its object of investigation.27. Langue is the ideal language user’s knowled ge of the rules. ______ is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances.28. ______ construction refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses having equivalent syntactic status.29. ______ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.30. ______ meaning is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the same environment.31. If the context of use is considered, the study of meaning is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.______________________________________________________________ 32. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention. ______________________________________________________________33. Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise. ______________________________________________________________34. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker's intention. ______________________________________________________________35. Of the views concerning the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ______________________________________________________________36. design features三、 判断说明题（每小题2分，共10分）在题后的括号内，正确的写“T ”，错误的写“F ”，并在题下空处说明理由。
当代语言学的第一题英文及答案
当代语⾔学的第⼀题英⽂及答案Key to the multiple-choice and judgment exercisesChapter 1II. 1) Plato 2) Aristotle 3) Xun Zi 4) (Noam) Chomsky5) (Ferdinand de) SaussureChapter 2II. 1) Plato 2) Herder 3) Galileo 4) William Johns5) the Linguistic Society of ParisIII. 1) syntax 2) pragmatics 3)morphology 4) phonetics5) phonology 6) semantics 7) semanticsIV. 1) psycholinguistics 2) historical linguistics3) sociolinguistics 4) psycholinguistics5) sociolinguistics 6) applied linguistics (in the broad sense)7) applied linguistics 8) psycholinguisticsChapter 3II. Order of the speech organs on the left corresponding to their proper definitions on the right: soft palate; alveolar ridge; pharynx; hard palate; vocal cords; trachea; larynxIII. 1) b 2) t 3) ?4) m 5) f 6)l 7) d?8) j 9) ?10) sIV. (The correct feature is given after the arrow)1) b) front → central2) a) semi-open → open3) c) low → high4) c) high → mid5) d) rounded → unroundedV. 1) incorrect. inside the chest → inside the head2) correct.3) incorrect. auditory phonetics → acoustic phonetics4) correct.5) incorrect. A syllable cannot contain more than one vowels. Even if a diphthong or thiphthong is contained, it is still a single vowel, pronounced within one chest pulse.6) incorrect. The location of the words “Chinese” and “English” in the statements should be exchanged.7) correct8) correctChapter 4II. 1) morphemes 2) Bound 3) Compounds 4) idiomatic5) agglutinatingIII. 1) The older gentleman voted wisely .a a c a a a c a b2) The children skipped rope and played games joyfullya a c a c a a a c a c ab b3) 他们赛跑拿了第⼀。
语言学导论课后答案
语言学导论课后答案【篇一：语言学导论复习题】txt>i. blank-filling1. the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronice ______________ linguistic study; the descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic _____linguistic study. modern linguists tend to prefer a synchronic approach to a diachronic ______ one.2. speech _____ and writing _____ are the two major media oflinguistic communication. modern linguistics regards the speech language as the primary medium of humanlanguage.3. if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive ; if the linguistic study aims to lay downrules for “ correct and standard ” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive _____ .4. langue _____ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5. language is a system of arbitrary _____ vocal symbolsused for human communication _____ .6. competence ____ can be defined as the ideal user?sknowledge of the rules of his language, and performance can be defined as the actual realization ofthis knowledge in linguistic communication.7. language is arbitrary _____ in the sense that there is nointrinsic 本质的connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.8. the fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal .9. language is productive ____ or creative in that its userscan produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.10. language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or in far-away places. this is what displacement _____means.11. the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.12. linguistics can be defined as the systematic ____ studyof language _____ .13. duality of structures is also referred to as double _____articulation 结构双重性________ .ii. multiple choice1. the distinction between langue and parole was made by the swiss linguist ___ in the early 20th century.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth2. the distinction between competence and performance was made by the american linguist ___ in the late 1950?s.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth3. a modern linguist would not prefer to be a(n) ___.a. observerb. analyzerc. judged. recorderii. true or false judgement( ) 1. langue is concrete while parole is abstract. langue is relatively stable whileparole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.( ) 2. similar to saussure, chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is theideal speaker?s performance, not his competence.( ) 3. modern linguistics is prescriptive while traditional grammar is descriptive.( ) 4. modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.( ) 5. traditional grammar forced languages into a latin-based framework. ( ) 6. in modern linguistics, a diachronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a synchronic one.( ) 7. “ language is a system ” means that elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.( ) 8. language is culturally as well as genetically transmitted.( ) 9. linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.( ) 10. in a broad sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistictheories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.( ) 11.a modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.keys:i. blank-filling1. synchronic, diachronic, synchronic, diachronic2. speech, writing, speech3. descriptive, prescriptive4. langue, parole5. arbitrary, communication6. competence, performance7. arbitrary8. vocal9. productive10. displacement11. general12. systematic/scientific, language13. double articulationii. multiple choice1. b2. a3. c iii. true or false judgement1. f2. f3. f4. t5. t6. f7. t8. f9. t 10. f11. t2 phonologyi. blank-filling1. phonetics _____ is defined as the study of the phonicmedium of language.2. the three important branches of phonetics are: (1) 发音学articulatory phonetics, which studies how a speakeruses his speech organs to articulate the sounds;(2) 听觉acoustic _____ phonetics, which studies the physicalproperties of speech sounds and (3) 声学acoustic _______ phonetics, which studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.4. vibration of the vocal ______ cords ____ results in aquality of speech sounds called “ voicing ____________ ”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in english.5. there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. the transcription with letter-symbols only and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. the former is called broad transcription while the latter is callednarrow ______ transcription.6. the sound [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. in the word pit, the sound[p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. in the case of pit, the [p] sound issaid to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated .7. speech sounds in english can be divided into two broad categories: vowels _______________ and consonants _____ .8. when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless ______________________ .9. in terms of manner of articulation the english consonants can be classified into the following types: stops ____________ ,fricatives ______ , affricates _____ , liquids _____ ,nasals ______ , glides ____ . in terms of place of articulation,the english consonants can be classified into the following types: bilabial , labiodental ______ , dental _________ ,alveolar _____ , palatal _____ , velar _____ , glottal _____ consonants.10. english vowels may be distinguished as front ____ ,central _____ , and back _____ according to which part of thetongue is held highest.11. according to the openness of the mouth, we can classify the vowels into: close ______________ vowels, semi close _____vowels, semi open _____ vowels and open ______ vowels.12. vowels can be classified according to the shape of the lips. in english, all the front vowels are uounded _____________ vowels andmost back vowels are rounded _____ .13. the english vowels can be classified according to the length of the sound. the long vowels are all tense ________________vowels and the lax _____ vowels are lax vowels.14. a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone __________________ in a certainphonetic context.15. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.16. phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. if they are two distinctive phonemes they are said to form a phonemic contrast . if they are allophones of thesame phoneme, then they are said to be in complementary distribution .17. when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal __________ pair19. rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential ________________ rules.21. the parts of speech that are normally stressed in an english sentence are nouns __________________ , main ______ verbs,adjectives ____ , adverbs _____ , numerals _____ anddemonstrative _____ pronouns; the other categories of wordslike articles _____ , person _____ pronouns, auxiliary _____verbs, preposition _____ , and conj unctions _____ are usuallynot stressed.25. in english we can produce a sound by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions, the sound thus produced is calleda diphthong _____________________________ .26. speech _____ sounds are sounds that convey meaning inhuman communication.27. ipa is the short form for international _____phonetic _____ alphabet ____ or i _____ p _____association _____ .28. in english glides are sometimes called semivowels _____ .the english glides are _w ____ and ___j ___.29. a phoneme consists of a set of distinctive 与众不同的_____ features. it is just because of these features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. ii. multiple choice1. which of the following is not a suprasegmental feature?a. phonemeb. stressc. toned. intonation2. the english word that contains a voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop is .a. peakb. speakc. tip c. topic3. chinese is a(n) ___ language.a. intonationb. tonec. pitchd. stress4. the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called _______________________ .a. sequential rulesb. combining rulesc. assimilation rulesd. deletion rules5. which of the following is a minimal pair?a. fear, pearb. put, hutc. bit, beatd. beat, beastiii. true or false judgement( ) 2. linguists are interested in all sounds produced by humans.( ) 3. the “ same” sounds we claim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical.( ) 4. narrow transcription is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.( ) 6. a phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value.( ) 7. the location of stress in english does not distinguish meaning.( ) 10. conventionally phonemes are placed within square brackets, and phones in slashes.keys: blank-filling 1.phonetics2. rticulatory, acoustic, auditory4.vocal cords, voicing5.broad, narrow6. aspirated, unaspirated7. vowels, consonants8. voiceless9. stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal10. front, central, back11. close, semi-close, semi-open, open12. uounded, rounded13. tense, lax14. phone15. allophones16. phonemic contrast, complementary distribution17. minimal pair19.sequential21.nouns, main, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, demonstrative; articles, person, auxiliary, prepositions, conjunctions 25.diphthong26.speech27.international phonetic alphabet, international phonetic association28.semivowels, [w], [j]29.distinctive multiple choice 1-5abbac true or false judgement 2.f 3.t 4.f 6.t 7.f 10.f3. morphologyi. blank filling1. in english, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are sometimes called o class words since we can regularlyadd new words to these classes. the other syntactic categories, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, are sometimes called c class words since new words arenot usually added to them.2. m _____ refers to the study of the internal structure ofw _____ , and the rules by which words are formed.3. the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called m .4. some morphemes occurs only before other morphemes. suchmorphemes are called p _________ ; other morphemes occuronly after other morphemes, such morphemes are called s .5. when some morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes a new word is formed, such morphemes are called d _______________ morphemes.6. bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on are referred to as i ____________________________ morphemes.篇二：《语言学概论》练习题答案】＞一、名词解释1 、语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展等。
《语言学导论》复习思考题
《语言学导论》复习思考题《语言学导论》复习思考题Ⅰ. In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question, or best completes the sentence. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET.1. According to Noam Chomsky, language is the product of_______.A. an innate faculty, unique to humansB. communicationC. environmental conditioningD. all of the above2. Which of the following statements is FALSE ________.A. Language is just for communication.B. Language is one of many ways in which we experience the world.^C. Language is a sign system.D. Language is arbitrary and conventional.3. Which one of the following statements about errors in foreign language learning in FALSE _________.A. Errors can not be avoided in foreign language learning.B. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and consequently what remains for him to learn.C. Errors are something bad that should not be allowed in foreign language learning.D. Errors provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing is his discovery of the language.4. The English language has______.【A. morphemesB. syntaxC. number agreementD. all of the above5. “He” and “she” are not examples of gender agreement in English, because_____.A. they are pronounsB. they need not agree with other words in an English sentenceC. they mark biological/social genderD. both b and c above6. A phoneme is_____.A. the smallest meaningful unit in language—B. the smallest unit in languageC. the same as an allophoneD. both b and c above7. Of the following, what are the two types of phonetics______.A. acoustic and electricB. arbitrary and auditoryC. articulatory and acousticD. allophonic and allomorphic8. /Wik/ is a transcription of_______.A. sickB. chickC. chicD. thick、9. The Black English sentence “I don't gotta do nothing” isconsid ered incorrect because________.A. it contains a double negative and is thus inherently incorrectB. it is impossible to understandC. it is not associated with the upper class use of standard EnglishD. both a and b above10. The use of non-standard English persists because_______.A. the working class is incapable of speaking “correctly”【B. English is a complicated and therefore difficult language to masterC. subordinate groups use non-standard English to promote solidarityD. teachers do not properly stress the importance of standard English in schools11. True or false: Chinese has no inflections for grammatical case. ______.A. TrueB. False12. What is defined as 'the study of sentence structure' ______.A. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. Syntax13. ______ refers to the fact that there is no necessary or logical relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. ______.%A. DisplacementB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. duality14. The study of a language at some point of time is called________.A. computational linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. synchronic linguistics15. ________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech communityA. LangueB. performanceC. competenceD. parole16. Traditional grammar is ________.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. non-Latin-basedD. wrong^17. ______ is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.A. PhonologyB. Phonetic alphabetC. Corpus linguisticsD. Phonetics18. _____ is the minimal unit in the sound system of alanguage, which is of distinctive value.A. AllophoneB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. Morpheme19. Which of the following factors does not help to identifya word ______.A. Relative shortness uninterruptibilityC. A minimum free formD. Stability20. Speech act theory was initially developed by _______.~A. HallidayB. AustinC. SearleD. Grice21. The four major modes of semantic change are_______.A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB. extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation22. The relation between the two words “husband” and “wife” can be described as____.A. gradable antonymyB. converse antonymy|C. complementary antonymyD. synonymy23. “friendly” is a _______.A. compoundB. inflectional wordC. derivativeD. morpheme24. The construction “honest people” is _______.A. a coordinate constructionB. an exocentric constructionC. an endocentric constructionD. an immediate constituent25. The word “brunch” and “motel” are _______.-A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back-formationD. clipped words26. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it” is _______.A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phatic27. Which of the following sounds is a voiced bilabial stop ______.A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]28. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless affricate _______.A. [w]B. [f]C. [tF]D. [dV];29. In the sentence “Can I have a bite to drink” the speaker may not have a problem with competence, but with_______.A. performanceB. utteranceC. syntaxD. context30. The phrase “Colorful ideas sleep furiously” is an example of_______.A. rapport talkB. indexical languageC. an ungrammatical but acceptable sentenceD. a grammatical but unacceptable sentence31. There are ______ morphemes in the word “children’s”!A. sixB. twoC. threeD. four32. The words “take” and “table” are called _______ because they can stand asa word by themselves.A. inflectional morphemesB. free morphemesC. stemsD. roots33. Identify the morphemes in the word 'unimaginative':A. un-im-ag-in-at-iveB. un-imaginativeC. un-imagin-ativeD. unimagin-ative34. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity _______.`A. Husband/ WifeB. Alive/DeadC. Hot/ ColdD. White/ Black35. The Whorf Hypothesis claims that________.A. language is full of “rich points”, whose meanings are difficult to translate into another languageB. abstract terms are easily translatableC. accents are part of identityD. language influences culture-specific ways of knowing36. The phrase ‘time is a commodity’ is an example of_______.A. The Whorf HypothesisB. A metaphoric system'C. A non-standard varietyD. A rich point37. The last phoneme in the word “hang” is a _______.A. glottalB. palatalC. dentalD. nasal38. Three places of articulation that involve the teeth and/or the lips are:A. palatal, velar, glottalB. bilabial, labiodental, dentalC. stop, fricative, affricativeD. nasal, lateral, semi vowel39. In the sentence 'I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday', which of the following does not appear _______.A. AdjectiveB. PrepositionC. AdverbD. Conjunction-40. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “plant/grass” ______.A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. HyponymyD. Allomorphs41. The syllabic structure of the word “linguistics” is ______.A. CVCCVCCVCCB. CVCCCVCCVCCC. CVCCVVCCVCCD. CVCVVCCVCC42. The phonetic transcription with diacritics is called _____.A. broad transcriptionB. International Phonetic AlphabetC. American English PronunciationD. narrow transcription(43. The Black English sentence “I don't gotta do nothing” is considered incorrect because:a) it contains a double negative and is thus inherently incorrectb) it is impossible to understandc) it is not associated with the upper class use of standard Englishd) both a and b above44. According to their ______, words can classified into closed-class and open-class words.A. variabilityB. membershipC. similaritiesD. functions45. When language is used to "do things", it serves the _____ function.|A. evocativeB. expressiveC. directiveD. performative46. "Classroom" is a _______.A. free morphemeB. derivativeC. compoundD. root.47. The phrase “time is a commodity” is an example of_______.A. The Whorf HypothesisB. A metaphoric systemC. A non-standard varietyD. A rich point48. _______ is a type of phonological process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.A. AssimilationB. TransformationC. Code-switchingD. interference/49. _______ refers to the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language.A. InterlanguageB. Positive transferC. Negative transferD. Overgeneralization50. In the sentence “I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday”, which of the following does not appear _______.A. AdjectiveB. PrepositionC. AdverbD. Conjunction51. _______ is that part of the meaning of word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.A. ConnotationB. Affective meaningC. DenotationD. Sense52. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as ______.|A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal53. The semantic components of the word “boy” can be expressed as _____.A. +human, +male, +adultB. +human, -male, +adultC. +human, -male, -adultD. +human, +male, -adult54. Conjunctions, preposition, pronouns and articles can be classified as ____.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. pro-formsD. content words55. If two sounds are of no distinctive value, but are varieties of the same phoneme, they are called ______./A. phonesB. speech soundsC. allophonesD. morphs56. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiced stop.A. [b]B. [d]C. [p]D. [k]57. “You stand up” is transformed into “Stand up”. Whichtransformational rule is used according to TG Grammar _____.A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion58. The words such as TOFEL, NATO, UFO are _____.A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back formationD. clipped words~59. The words such as “brunch”, “motel” are _______.A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back formationD. clipped words60. ______ are produced when the obstruction is complete at first, then released slowly with friction resulting from partial obstruction.A. NasalsB. GlidesC. FricativesD. Affricatives61. “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which of the following transformational rules is used ______.A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion62. “The man put on his hat” is transformed into “The man put his hat on”. Which transformational rule is applied here _______.[A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion63. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it” is ______.A. directiveB. informativeC. emotiveD. phatic64. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop _____.A. [m]B. [f]C. [p]D. [b]65. Which of the following languages is a tone languageA. RussianB. ChineseC. EnglishD. French66. ________ speaking, no variety of language is better than or superior to others.《A. GenerallyB. SociallyC. PoliticallyD. Linguistically67. Grammar-based language learning and teaching fails partially because _____.A. still no precise information is obtained concerning how grammar can be learnedB. grammar can not be taught at allC. it is useless to teach grammar in language classesD. learners can learn better without grammarforeign language learners to achieve effective learning, the input should_____.A. not be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed@B. be interesting and simpleC. not be so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at allD. Both A and C69. Interlanguage is _____.A. is produced by every foreign language learnersB. a mixture of the learner’s mother tongue and the target languageC. imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native langua geD. Both A and C》70. Error analysis may be carried out in order to______.A. identify strategies which learners use in language learningB. try to identify the causes of learner errors.C. obtain information on common difficulties in language learningD. All of the above.71. Many Chinese English learners may, at the beginn ing stage, produce “mans” and “photoes” as the plural forms of “man” and “photo”. This is most likely the result of _______ in the process of foreign language learning.A. Negative transferB. OvergeneralizationC. Positive transferD. mother tongue interference,72. Which of the following qualities is not the requirement ofa good test _______.A. ObjectivityB. ReliabilityC. ValidityD. Both A and C73. Which of the following statements about machine translation is likely to be wrong _______.A. Machine translation has always been a chief concern in computational linguistics.B. There are areas where machine translation surpasses human translations.C. Sooner or later, machine translation will replace human translation completely.D. In some areas, human translations surpasses machine translation.74. Teaching culture in our language classes can _______.；A. get the students familiar with cultural differencesB. help the students transcend their own culture and seethings as the members of the target culture willC. emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesD. All of the above.75. According to Grice’s theory, a conversa tional implicature arises when the cooperative principle and its maxims are _______.A. strictly observedB. secretly and deliberately violatedC. blatantly or apparently violatedD. Both A and BⅡ. Match each of the following terms in C olumn A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET. …Part OneColumn A1. constituent2. complementary distribution3. design features4. diglossia5. displacement6. homonymy)7. language interference8. registers9. selectional restrictions10. semantic anomalyColumn BA. the phenomenon that human language can cope with any subject whatever, and it does not matter how far away the topicof conversation is in time and spaceB. the framework proposed by Hockett, which discusses the defining properties of human language as against animal communicationC. the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verb【D. the type of language which is selected as appropriate to a type of situationE. the phenomena that allophones occur in different phonetic environmentsF. a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to playG. the case that two, or more meanings may be associated with the same linguistic formH. the case that one of the arguments or the predicate of the main predication is self-contradictoryI. any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms that appears at the bottom of one of the lines in the tree diagram of the syntactic analysisJ. the use of elements from one language while speaking another.Part Two】Column A1. duality of structure2. free morphemes3. endocentric construction4. International Phonetic Alphabet5. Psycholinguistics6. the syntagmatic relation7. derivational morphemes"8. regional dialect9. sequential rules10. presuppositionColumn BA. the study of the relationship between language and mind.B. the bound morphemes which are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) to derive or form a new word \C. the organization of language into two levels: a lower level of sounds which combine to form a higher level of meaningful unitsD. a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.E. linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.F. the rules which govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.G. one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituentsH. the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn't assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentenceI. the morphemes which can constitute words by themselvesJ. the one between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.Part ThreeColumn A2. blending3. compounds4. arbitrariness5. cultural transmission6. diachronic linguistics《7. distinctive features8. standard dialect9. ultimate constituent10. CreoleColumn BA. the study of the language development or change over timeB. the features that a phoneme has and that distinguish it from other phonemesC. the words that are produced by stringing together words>D. the smallest grammatical unit obtained through binary segmentationE. a particular variety of a language, not related to any particular group of language usersF. a language formed when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech communityG. word formed by combining parts of other wordsH. the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speakerI. the oppositeness of meaning between lexemesJ. a design feature of language which refers to the fact that there is no logical connection between the signifier and thesignified of a sign.Part Four|Column A1. a proposition2. a speech community3. an utterance4. bilingualism5. constatives6. performatives7. registers8. sociolect9. the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis10. utterance meaningColumn BA. the suggestion that different languages carve the world up in different ways, and that as a result their speakers think about it differentlyB. something conveyed by a sentence in a context other than its literal meaningC. varieties of language that are related to useD. a piece of language actually used in a particular context:E. the linguistic variety used by people belonging to a particular social classF. a community the members of which have or believe they have at least one common variety of languageG. what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statementH. sentences which describe or state something; they are either true or falseI. the situation where at least two languages are used side by side by an individual or by a group of speakers, with each having a different role to playJ. sentences that do not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false Part FiveColumn A】1. an analytic proposition2. binary cutting3. connotation4. derivation5. lexicology6. logical semantics7. reference8. semantic feature<9. the chain relation10. the choice relationColumn BA. the relation holding between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all presentB. the basic unit of meaning in a wordC. the study of the meaning of a sentence in terms of its truth conditionsD. one whose grammatical form and lexical meaning make it necessarily true, without reference to external criteriaE. the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning 。
乔姆斯基Noam Chomsky
乔姆斯基Noam Chomsky诺姆·乔姆斯基，美国语言学家、哲学家、政治活动家，转换-生成语法的创始人。
1928年12月7日出生于美国宾夕法尼亚州的费城。
早年就学于宾夕法尼亚大学，攻读语言学、哲学和数学，1947年，在哈里斯的影响下他开始研究语言学。
1951年在宾夕法尼亚大学完成硕士论文《现代希伯莱语语素音位学》，1955年又在该校完成博士论文《转换分析》，获得博士学位。
从1955年秋天开始，他一直在麻省理工学院工作，曾任该校语言学与哲学系主任，并任该校认知科学研究中心主任，为语言学界培养了一批有素养的学者。
乔姆斯基把语言研究和数学、现代数理逻辑结合起来，提出了新的语言理论，即转换生成语法，形成了一个语言学的新派别，即转换生成语法学派。
他的语言学和哲学著作有：《句法结构》(1957)、《当前语言学理论中的争端》（1964）、《句法理论的若干问题》(1965)、《语言学的笛卡尔主义》(1966)、《语言和心灵》(1968)、《知识和自由问题》（1971）、《生成语法的语义学研究》(1972)、《语言理论的逻辑结构》(1975)、《语言论》(1975)、《规则与表达》(1980)等。
乔姆斯基研究的不是一般语言现象即语言的运用，而是语言能力。
他的转换生成语法就是关于语言能力的语法，这种语法理论的研究对象是“被理想化了的说话人和听话人的语言知识”。
他认为语言理论的主要任务是向人们提供选择语法时要依据的标准。
生成语法就是这样的语法理论，其中心思想是：某一语言的语法应该生成所有的句子。
他认为语言能力是说某种语言的人对这种语言的内在认识，而语言运用则是它具体使用语言的行动。
在一般情况下，语言能力和语言运用并不是符合的，语言运用并非语言能力的直接反映。
乔姆斯基说，他的语言理论与索绪尔的语言理论有一定联系，索绪尔是区别语言与言语的关系，而他是区别语言能力与语言运用的关系。
但是他认为必须否定索绪尔的下述观点：语言是意义和声音的网络。
03语言学概论期末考试卷A及答案
2003级英语专业（专升本）语言学概论期末试题A卷（请把所有答案写在答题纸上）Ⅰ.Directions:Read each of the following statements carefully and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets.(2%×15=30%)1．The study of sound systems and patterns is called ( )A. semanticsB. phoneticsC. phonology D syntax2．The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of air streamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips3．The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called ( ).A. syntaxB. morphologyC. phoneticsD. semantics4. “Sweets” and “candy” are used respectively in Britain in and America,but refer to the same thing. The words are synonyms. ( )A. collocationalB. stylisticC. completeD. dialectal5. The word “ smog” is formed through.( ).A. backformationB. blendingC. clippingD. derivation6. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by in 1957. ( )A. L. BloomfieldB. F. SaussureC. M. A. K. HallidayD. N. Chomsky7．The words that contain only one morpheme are called . （）A. bound morphemesB. affixesC. free morphemesD. roots8．Speech act theory was first proposed by . ( )A. John AustinB. John SearleC. Noam ChomskyD. John Firth9．is the study of language in relation to the mind. ( )A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. Semantics10．Which word can be analyzed as +HUMAN-ADULT-MALE （）A．boy B．girlC．man D．woman11．The pair of words "young" and "old" are_______（）.A. gradable oppositesB. converse oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms12．There are deixis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.（）A.3B.4C. 5D.613．The relationship between "fruit" and "apple" is . （）A. polysemyB.hyponymyC. homonymyD. synonymy14. is defined as the study of meaning. （）A. PhoneticsB. MorphologyC. SyntaxD. Semantics 15．.theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contribution in learning a second language. ( )A.nativistB.environmentalistC.functionalistD.motivationII. Judge if the following statements are true or false. (1%×10=10%)1．Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. ( )2．A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one ormore phonemes. ( )3．The smallest meaningful unit of language is called allomorphs. ( )4．There is only one morpheme in the word “went”. ( )5．The sentence “ He is jogging” belongs to material processes. ( )6．Flour/flower, pale/pail, whole/hole are homophones. ( )7．The bachelor is unmarried. This sentence is contradiction. ( )8. Leech proposes the politeness principle. ( )9. The positive role L1 plays is called interference. ( )10. A regional dialect is the form of a language used by the governmentand communication media, taught in schools and universities. ( )Ⅲ.Paraphrase the following ambiguous sentences. (5%×3=15%)1.Flying planes can be dangers.2.Can you see the man with a pair of binoculars?3.Tom hates his boss and so do I.Ⅳ.Explain the following terms。
试卷《科目：语言学导论》2
试卷《科⽬：语⾔学导论》28. What is the full name of LAD? DA. Language Associative DistrictB. Language Acquisition DistrictC. Language Associative DeviceD. Language Acquisition Device9. Speech act theory was originally proposed by___A___.A. AustinB. SearleC. ChomskyD. Richard10. Zhang Tao, an English learner, has learned that adding “ed” to the end of a verb is therule for regular past tense formation and so he says: “My wife goed to Beijing.” Zhang Tao’s mistake is attributed to ___D____.A. fossilizationB. negative transferC. positive transferD. overgeneralization11. Which of the following meanings is not a term of Geoffrey Leech? CA. Conceptual meaningB. Social meaningC. Lexical meaningD. Thematic meaning12. Which of the following is not the focus of pragmatics？ CA. contextual meaningB. utterance meaningC. metaphorical meaningD. speaker meaning13. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by __B___.A. William JamesB. Noam ChomskyC. John SearleD. Paul Grice14. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of __D___.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement15. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movementtakes place is commonly termed the ___D___.A. phrase structureB. surface structureC. syntactic structureD. deep structure16. The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day, eight days a wee k.”obviously violates the maxim of _A_____.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner17. One way to analyze lexical meaning is ___C__.A. predication analysisB. stylistic analysisC. componential analysisD. proposition analysis18. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __B___ because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. illocutionary actC. perlocutionary actD. constative act19. A bilingual speaker often uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker, a speech situation known as __D___.A. discourse role-switchingB. activity role-switchingC. social role-switchingD. code-switching20. Chomsky uses the term __D___ to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of th e rules of his language in linguistic communication.A. langueB. competenceC. paroleD. performance21. Transformational-Generative Grammar was introduced by _C___in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. F. SaussureC. N. ChomskyD.M. A. K. Halliday22. “Sweets” and “candy” are used respectively in Britain in and America, but referto the same thing. The words are _B____ synonyms.A. collocativeB. dialectalC. completeD. stylistic23. “How fast did he dri ve when he ran the red light?”_C____“He ran the red light”.A. entailsB. contradictsC. presupposesD. includes24. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called___C_____.A. semanticsB. sociolinguisticsC. pragmaticsD. psycholinguistics25. The superordinate term of the group of words “love, anger, happiness, sadness, fear” is__D___.A. fearB. angerC. loveD. emotionII. Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true orF for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (10 points)( F ) 1. Language can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approaches can equally favored by modern linguists.( F ) 2. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language.( F ) 3. It is generally believed that first language is learned, while a second language is acquired.( F ) 4. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the samesense.( T ) 5. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, just as it is not obscene; but it can connote sexist attitudes as well as attitudes about socialtaboos or racism.(F ) 6. Since language is arbitrary, learners of a foreign language should pay moreattention to the arbitrariness instead of the conventionality of the target language. ( T ) 7. Sociolingu ists are interested in “terms of address” because they offer some socio-cultural information about the type of relationship between the speaker and the hearer.( F ) 8. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.( T ) 9. Creole is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.( T ) 10. The significance of Grice’s Cooperative Principle lies in that it explains how it i s possible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.III. Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (15 points)1. Negative transferNegative transfer is commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning. For example, Chinese students, due to the interference of their mother tongue, often make mistakes like “Although…but…”, “He come tomorrow.”and “I not want go.”2. Language acquisitionLanguage acquisitio n refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. For example, the acquisition of Chinese in China and the acquisition of British English in England.3. LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4. TabooTaboo, or rather linguistic taboo, refers to an obscene, profane, or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite” society. F or example, fuck, breast, shit, etc.5. ContextContext is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer, For example, the knowledge of the language used and the knowledge of the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.I V. Answer the following questions according to what you’ve learned in linguistics.1. State briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and theterm learning in language acquisition study?The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes. Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning, while a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e. acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily precluded having to acquire it later.2. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples to showhow the flouting of these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature (give at least two examples, each flouting a different maxim)The four maxims of the cooperative principle are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of manner and maxim of relation.Example1A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?This is said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is “I don’t wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner.”Example 2A : Shall we get something for the kids”B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is “I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream.”。
乔姆斯基言语行为述评中文
乔姆斯基言语行为述评中文摘要：1.乔姆斯基的背景和成就2.斯金纳的语言学习理论3.乔姆斯基对斯金纳理论的批评4.乔姆斯基的语言行为认知理论5.乔姆斯基理论的影响和启示正文：1.乔姆斯基的背景和成就乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）是一位知名的语言学家、哲学家和政治评论家。
他在语言学领域有着重要的贡献，被认为是20 世纪最重要的语言学家之一。
乔姆斯基的《生成语法》被认为是现代语言学的奠基之作，他提出了“语言习得机制”的理论，认为人类天生具有学习语言的能力。
2.斯金纳的语言学习理论斯金纳（B.F.Skinner）是一位著名的行为主义心理学家，他的语言学习理论认为，语言学习是一个简单的刺激- 反应过程。
斯金纳认为，语言行为是通过环境因素和外部刺激来形成的，个体通过与环境的交互，形成语言行为。
他强调了环境和外部刺激对语言学习的重要作用。
3.乔姆斯基对斯金纳理论的批评乔姆斯基在1959 年的《语言行为评述》一文中，对斯金纳的语言学习理论进行了批评。
他认为，斯金纳的理论过于简化了语言学习的过程，忽略了个体在语言学习中的主观能动性。
乔姆斯基认为，语言学习是一个复杂的认知过程，需要个体发挥主观能动性，通过理解和应用语言规则来实现。
4.乔姆斯基的语言行为认知理论乔姆斯基提出了一种新的语言行为认知理论，他认为，语言行为是由个体内部的语言规则和结构来决定的。
乔姆斯基认为，语言学习是一个天生的、内在的过程，个体通过内在的语言习得机制，自然而然地学习语言。
他的理论强调了个体在语言学习中的主观能动性和内在结构。
5.乔姆斯基理论的影响和启示乔姆斯基的语言行为认知理论对语言学领域产生了深远的影响。
他的理论推动了语言学从行为主义向认知主义的发展，为后来的语言学家提供了重要的启示。
乔姆斯基（Noam
乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）语⾔习得理论乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky, 1928--），美国语⾔学家，转换-⽣成语法的创始⼈。
1928年12⽉7⽇出⽣于美国宾⼣法尼亚州的费城。
1947年，在哈⾥斯的影响下他开始研究语⾔学。
1951年在宾⼣法尼亚⼤学完成硕⼠论⽂《现代希伯莱语语素⾳位学》，1955年⼜在该校完成博⼠论⽂《转换分析》，获得博⼠学位。
从1955年秋天开始，他⼀直在⿇省理⼯学院⼯作，曾任该校语⾔学与哲学系主任，并任该校认知科学研究中⼼主任，为语⾔学界培养了⼀批有素养的学者。
1 乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论 乔姆斯基在《语⾔与⼼智》⼀书中提出了“普遍语法”(Universal Grammar)的概念,以后简称为(UG)。
他假设⼉童⼀落⽣⼤脑⾥就存在⼀种独特的语⾔习得机制(Language AcquisitionDevice),以后简称LAD。
这种机制使得⼉童从周围听到有限的句⼦却能说出⽆限的句⼦。
他还提出⼀个语⾔习得的公式:最初的语⾔资料→LAD→语⾔能⼒。
乔姆斯基认为⼉童头脑中的LAD的主要组成部分是语⾔普遍特征,即普遍语法(UG)和⼀套评价系统。
⼉童听到外来语⾔后启动普遍语法,并在普遍语法的指导和控制下,在外来语⾔材料的基础上,通过假设——演绎的⽅法,在头脑中逐步形成有关母语的、系统的语法知识。
UG存在于⼈的⼤脑中,帮助⼈类习得语⾔,是⼈与⽣俱来的语⾔初始状态。
UG以第⼀语⾔习得速度快、知识准确、具有创造⼒等为依据研究第⼀语⾔。
乔姆斯基关于UG的假设为我们解释了为什么⼩孩⼦⼀⽣下来,⽤不了3-5年,不⽤接受系统的教育便已掌握了⾃⼰母语的主要特点。
UG是所有⼈类语⾔都遵循的⼀些共同原则和规则,但是如果语⾔知识仅仅是这些原则的话,那全世界的⼈就应该说同⼀种语⾔,但事实并⾮如此。
为了更合理的解释这⼀现象,就要应⽤到上⾯提到的评价系统。
也就是UG学说中的“原则和参数理论”(Principle and parameters in syntacticaltheory)。
NoamChomsky简介
Noam Chomsky生平[编辑]乔姆斯基出生在宾夕法尼亚州的费城。
他的父亲威廉·乔姆斯基（William Chomsky）是一位希伯来学者，来自一个后来被纳粹灭绝了的乌克兰小镇。
他的母亲艾尔西·乔姆斯基·西蒙诺夫斯基（Elsie Chomsky Simonofsky）是白俄罗斯人，但跟她的丈夫不同的是，她生长在美国，说“普通的纽约英语”。
他们两人的第一语言都是意第绪语，虽然乔姆斯基本人说父母在家禁止讲这种语言。
他说，他们住在分裂为“意第绪区”和“希伯来区”的犹太人聚居地，他的家庭认同后者，并用“纯粹的希伯来文化和文学”教导他。
乔姆斯基记得他的第一篇文章写于十岁那年，文章是论在巴塞罗那陷落之后，纳粹主义蔓延的威胁。
从十二岁或十三岁开始，乔姆斯基更加彻底地认同无政府主义。
他毕业于费城中央高中，从1945年起在宾夕法尼亚大学师从哲学家C·维斯特·切奇曼（C. West Churchman）、尼尔逊·古德曼（Nelson Goodman）和语言学家泽里格·哈里斯（Zellig Harris）学习哲学和语言学。
哈里斯对他讲授了自己在语言结构线性算子方面的发现。
乔姆斯基后来把这些解释为对来自标记系统的上下文无关文法产物的操作。
哈里斯的政治观点对乔姆斯基政治立场的形成产生了重要影响。
1949年，乔姆斯基和语言学家卡罗尔·沙茨结婚（Carol Schatz）。
婚后育有两个女儿分别是阿维瓦（Aviva，1957年）与戴安（Diane，1960年），和一个儿子哈里（Harry，1967年）。
乔姆斯基于1955年从宾夕法尼亚大学取得语言学博士学位，他的大部分博士研究是用四年时间以哈佛大学年轻学者的身份在哈佛大学完成的。
在博士论文中，他开始发现自己的一些语言学思想；后来他将这些进一步阐发，写成了他在语言学方面大概最有名的著作《句法结构》。
语言学导论课后答案
语言学导论课后答案【篇一：语言学导论复习题】txt>i. blank-filling1. the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronice_____ linguistic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic______ linguistic study. modern linguists tend to prefer asynchronic______ approach to a diachronic______ one.2. speech______ and writing______ are the two major media of linguistic communication. modern linguistics regards the speech______ language as the primary medium of human language.3. if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive_______; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive______.4. langue______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, andparole______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.5. language is a system of arbitrary_______ vocal symbols used for human communication______.6. competence______ can be defined as the ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language, andperformance______ can be defined as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.7. language is arbitrary______ in the sense that there is no intrinsic本质的 connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.8. the fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal______.9. language is productive______ or creative in that its users can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.10. language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or in far-away places. this is what displacement______ means.11. the study of language as a whole is often calledgeneral______ linguistics.12. linguistics can be defined as the systematic______ study of language______.13. duality of structures is also referred to as double______ articulation结构双重性______.ii. multiple choice1. the distinction between langue and parole was made by the swiss linguist ___ in the early 20th century.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth2. the distinction between competence and performance was made by the american linguist ___ in the late 1950?s.a. noam. chomskyb. f. de saussurec. charles hockettd. j.r. firth3. a modern linguist would not prefer to be a(n) ___.a. observerb. analyzerc. judged. recorderii. true or false judgement( ) 1. langue is concrete while parole is abstract. langue is relatively stable whileparole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.( ) 2. similar to saussure, chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is theideal speaker?s performance, not his competence.( ) 3. modern linguistics is prescriptive while traditional grammar is descriptive.( ) 4. modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.( ) 5. traditional grammar forced languages into a latin-based framework.( ) 6. in modern linguistics, a diachronic approach seems to enjoy priority over asynchronic one.( ) 7. “language is a system” means that elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.( ) 8. language is culturally as well as genetically transmitted.( ) 9. linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.( ) 10. in a broad sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistictheories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.( ) 11.a modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought tobe said.keys:i. blank-filling1. synchronic, diachronic, synchronic, diachronic2. speech, writing, speech3. descriptive, prescriptive4. langue, parole5. arbitrary, communication6. competence, performance7. arbitrary8. vocal9. productive10. displacement11. general12. systematic/scientific, language13. double articulationii. multiple choice1. b2. a3. ciii. true or false judgement1. f2. f3. f4. t5. t6. f7. t8. f9. t 10. f11. t2 phonologyi. blank-filling1. phonetics______ is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.2. the three important branches of phonetics are: (1) 发音学articulatory_______ phonetics, which studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds;(2) 听觉acoustic______ phonetics, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds and (3) 声学acoustic _______ phonetics, which studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.4. vibration of the vocal_______ cords______ results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing______”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in english.5. there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. the transcription with letter-symbols only and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. the former is called broad_____ transcription while the latter is called narrow______ transcription.6. the sound [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. in the word pit, the sound[p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. in the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated ______ and in the case of spit, the [p] sound isunaspirated______.7. speech sounds in english can be divided into two broad categories: vowels______ and consonants______.8. when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless______.9. in terms of manner of articulation the english consonants can be classified into the following types: stops_______, fricatives_______, affricates______, liquids______,nasals_______, glides______. in terms of place of articulation, the english consonants can be classified into the following types: bilabial______, labiodental ______, dental______, alveolar______, palatal______, velar______, glottal______ consonants.10. english vowels may be distinguished as front______, central______, and back ______ according to which part of the tongue is held highest.11. according to the openness of the mouth, we can classify the vowels into: close ______ vowels, semi close______ vowels, semi open ______ vowels and open ______ vowels.12. vowels can be classified according to the shape of the lips. in english, all the front vowels are uounded ______ vowels and most back vowels are rounded ______.13. the english vowels can be classified according to the length of the sound. the long vowels are all tense______ vowels and the lax______ vowels are lax vowels.14. a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone______ in a certain phonetic context.15. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called theallophones______ of that phoneme.16. phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. if they are two distinctive phonemes they are said to form a phonemic______ contrast______. if they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they are said to be in complementary_______ distribution______.17. when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal______ pair______.19. rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential______ rules.21. the parts of speech that are normally stressed in an english sentence are nouns _____, main______ verbs, adjectives______, adverbs______, numerals ______ and demonstrative______ pronouns; the other categories of words like articles______, person______ pronouns, auxiliary______ verbs, preposition______, and conj unctions______ are usually not stressed.25. in english we can produce a sound by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions, the sound thus produced is called a diphthong______.26. speech______ sounds are sounds that convey meaning in human communication.27. ipa is the short form for international______phonetic______ alphabet______ or i______ p______ association______.28. in english glides are sometimes called semivowels______. the english glides are _w _____ and ___j ___.29. a phoneme consists of a set of distinctive与众不同的______ features. it is just because of these features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. ii. multiple choice1. which of the following is not a suprasegmental feature?a. phonemeb. stressc. toned. intonation2. the english word that contains a voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop is ____.a. peakb. speakc. tip c. topic3. chinese is a(n) ___ language.a. intonationb. tonec. pitchd. stress4. the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called _________.a. sequential rulesb. combining rulesc. assimilation rulesd. deletion rules5. which of the following is a minimal pair?a. fear, pearb. put, hutc. bit, beatd. beat, beastiii. true or false judgement( ) 2. linguists are interested in all sounds produced by humans.( ) 3. the “same” sounds we claim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical.( ) 4. narrow transcription is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.( ) 6. a phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value.( ) 7. the location of stress in english does not distinguish meaning.( ) 10. conventionally phonemes are placed within square brackets, and phones in slashes.keys:blank-filling1.phonetics2.rticulatory, acoustic, auditory4.vocal cords, voicing5.broad, narrow6.aspirated, unaspirated7.vowels, consonants8.voiceless9.stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal10.front, central, back11.close, semi-close, semi-open, open12.uounded, rounded13.tense, lax14.phone15.allophones16.phonemic contrast, complementary distribution17.minimal pair19.sequential21.nouns, main, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, demonstrative; articles, person, auxiliary, prepositions, conjunctions25.diphthong26.speech27.international phonetic alphabet, international phonetic association28.semivowels, [w], [j]29.distinctivemultiple choice1-5abbactrue or false judgement2.f3.t4.f 6.t 7.f 10.f3. morphologyi. blank filling1. in english, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are sometimes called o______ class words since we can regularly add new words to these classes. the other syntactic categories, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, are sometimes called c______ class words since new words are not usually added to them.2. m______ refers to the study of the internal structure ofw______, and the rules by which words are formed.3. the most basic element of meaning is traditionally calledm______.4. some morphemes occurs only before other morphemes. such morphemes are called p______; other morphemes occur only after other morphemes, such morphemes are calleds______.5. when some morphemes are conjoined to other morphemesa new word is formed, such morphemes are called d______ morphemes.6. bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on are referred to as i______ morphemes.【篇二：《语言学概论》练习题答案】>一、名词解释1、语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展等。
语言学-chomsky
T eamwork---Linguistic Course By:Business English Class 1---Group 4Task:Survey on Noam ChomskyLeader&Editor:Material Offering:Proofreader:（注：按照姓氏拼音首字母a b c……顺序排列）Noam ChomskyBrief Introduction:●中文名：诺姆·乔姆斯基●外文名：Noam Chomsky●国籍：美国●出生地：美国宾夕法尼亚州的费城●出生日期：1928年12月7日●职业：学术人物语言学家●毕业院校：宾夕法尼亚大学●主要成就：语言学家，转换-生成语法创始人●代表作品：《现代希伯莱语语素音位学》《转换分析》《句法结构》Chomsky’s Revolution in Linguistic“转换生成语法”（Transformashionl Generative 自20世纪50年代中期开始，Grammar，简称TG）取代描写语言学，成为美国语言学的主流。
转换生成理论很快发展成为现代欧美语言学中最有影响的一种理论。
①乔姆斯基是一位富有探索精神的语言学家。
他的父亲是希伯来语学者。
受其影响，乔姆斯基最初把兴趣点放在研究希伯来语上。
他用结构主义的方法研究希伯莱语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立起转换－生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。
可这种用离散数学方法研究句法结构的方法论早在1930年便由鲁道夫·卡尔纳(Rudolph Car nap)提出。
转换规则由乔姆斯基的老师Zellig Harris提出。
而形态音位规则（Morphophonemic’s rule）则与布费尔德学派如出一辙。
乔姆斯基在《句法结构》一书中只是将这三种早已存在的研究方法进行了综合。
这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们称为"乔姆斯基革命"。
语言学概论知识点师大版
1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.1)Arbitrariness任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary:2) Duality 二元性Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures/levels两层结构. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) Creativity (or Productivity) 创造性Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.4) Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.3. Functions of language1) informative (ideational)信息功能2) interpersonal 人际功能3) Performative施为功能4) Emotive (expressive)感情功能5) Phatic communion寒暄交谈6) Recreational娱乐功能7) Metalingual 元语言功能4. Linguistics语言学is the scientific study of language.5. Descriptive描述式–The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive规定式–the linguistic study aims to lay down rules f or “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.6. SYNCHRONIC”共时, in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time, and “DIACHRONIC”历时, in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time are treated historically7. Langue & Parole大题Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole.索绪尔用语言和言语来区别说话者的语言能力和语言上（表达）的实际表现或语料。
乔姆斯基的语言学理论
乔姆斯基的语言学理论据《圣经·旧约》上说，人类的祖先最初讲的是同一种语言。
他们在底格里斯河和幼发拉底河之间的巴比伦市定居，日子越过越好，决定修建一座可以通到天上去的高塔—巴比伦塔。
上帝大怒，决定让人世间的语言发生混乱，使人们互相言语不通。
这样就无法合作修建高塔.然而,人类在上帝面前从来就不是温顺的羔羊,他们总是在努力进行着不同语言之间的沟通.他们有的直接学习某种外语,有的对人类语言普遍规律进行探索,有的企图建立统一的世界语.从某种意上讲,这些有识之士都可以称作是再造巴比伦通天塔的工程师。
而转换生成语言学的创始人乔姆斯基无疑是其中最杰出的一位.一、乔姆斯基其人乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky, 1928-- ），美国语言学家，转换-生成语法的创始人。
1928年12月7日出生于美国宾西法尼亚州的费城的一个犹太家庭,父亲是一位研究希伯来语的学者。
1947年，在哈里斯的影响下他开始研究语言学。
1951年在宾西法尼亚大学完成硕士论文《现代希伯莱语语素音位学》，1955年又在该校完成博士论文《转换分析》，获得博士学位。
从1955年秋天开始，他一直在麻省理工学院工作，曾任该校语言学与哲学系主任，并任该校认知科学研究中心主任，为语言学界培养了一批有素养的学者。
乔姆斯基是一位富有探索精神的语言学家。
最初，他用结构主义的方法研究希伯莱语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立起转换-生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。
这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们称为"乔姆斯基革命"。
后来他又不断丰富和发展转换-生成语法的理论和方法，相继发表了《句法理论要略》、《深层结构、表层结构和语义解释》、《支配和约束论集》等重要著作，对世界语言学的发展方向产生了巨大的影响。
二、生成语言学理论发展阶段关于乔姆斯基理论发展的阶段，有三阶段四阶段五阶段等说法，为了方便讲述，我们采取三个阶段的说法。
Chomsky
相同： 都采用了二元对比的研究方法 都同意语言学的研究对象不是“言语”或语言运用，而是“语言” 或语言能力。
生成学派在句法学方面的观点 《句法结构》
（1）句法类 定义：句法类是指履行某一特定语法功能的单词类 或短语类 分类：单词类 短语类 单词类：单词类 又叫做词性（名词，动词， 形容词，副词） 句法类：名词短语（NP），动词短语（VP）， 介词短语（PP），形容词短语（AP）
（2）句法位移 定义：句法位移是指一个句子的成分从原来的 位置位移到另 一个新位置 ①NP位移：NP位移涉及两种结构：被动句和提升结构， 被动句由主动句移位产生，NP移位不仅发生在被动句 中，而且发生在提升结构中，提升结构主要有两种一 类是含有提升动词的结构，另一类是含有提升形容词 的结构 ②Aux-位移：指如 be,have,do,may,can,shall,should之类的助动词从 原来的位置移动到句首 ③Wh-位移：主要发生在wh-问句中，包括直接wh-问 句和间接wh-问句以及关系分句
语言能力（competence)
VS
语言（langue）
不同： 索绪尔从社会角度观察问题，把“语言”看成“社会产物”，是 一个社团所遵循的必要惯例的集合； 乔姆斯基从心理学角度看问题，把语言能力看成是人脑的特性之一。 索绪尔的语言是“静态”的； 乔姆斯基的语言能力是动态的，是生成语言过程中的潜在能力。
《语言理论的逻辑结构》 (1955) Syntactic Structures《句法结构》 (1957) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax 《句法理论若干问题》(1966) Cartesian Linguistics 《笛卡尔语言学》(1966) Language and Mind《语言与思维》(1968) Reflections on Language《对语言的思考》 (1975) Rules and Representations《规则与表达》 (1980)
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语言习得机制(LAD)
? 儿童学习母语很快，并且毫不费劲。
? 尽管语言环境中存在着巨大差异，但是他们却获得相同 层面的语言能力。
? 儿童在有限的时间内，从对语言的有限熏陶学会了语言 的所有语法。
这些表明，婴儿生来就具备发展语言的倾向，正如同其 生来就学会走路一样。
第二语言习得(SLA)
音位规则是将形态表达 改变为音位表达的改写 规则。
标准理论时期
句子有深层结构（Deep structure) 和表层结构（Surface structure ）深层结构是句子的抽象表达，即结构组织的底层平面， 他决定着如何解释这个句子。表层结构是句法表达的最后阶段， 为音位规则提供输入，它最接近我们平常所说的话，深层结构决 定意义，表层结构决定声音。 Chomsky 认为，生成语法包括三大组成部分：句法部分、音位 部分和语义部分。
Personality Self-confidence Interest Anxiety
Talents
Comprehensible Input (i+1)
Language Acquisition Device
Affective filter
Monitor
Intake
Output (Performance)
基
改写规则
深层结构
础
部 分
词典
语义部分
转换
表层结构 音位规则
语义解释
语音解释
扩展标准理论时期
(1) Not many arrows hit the target.
(2) Many arrows didn't hit the target.
这两句的深层结构为NOT [ many arrows h。it通th过e转 targe
第一语言模式时期
第一语言模式包括：
Σ : Sentence
F : X1 . Y1
.
.
Xn
Yn
T1 .
.
Tj .
Z1 . W1
.
.
Zm
Wm
短语结构规则 转换结构规则 形态音位规则
短语结构规则也叫改 写规则。这套规则生成 一串词素，又叫语符列 ，其次序也许正确，也 许不正确，再运用转换 规则。转换规则可以增 加词素、减少词素和改 变词素的次序。形态
? Competence: 在最理想的条件下，说话人/听话人所 掌握的语言知识。它是潜含的，只有在语言行为中观察 得到。语言能力是稳定的，长久的。语言能力在不同的 时间、地点、场合，表现为不同的语言行为。
? Performance: 语言运用是对语言知识在适当的场合 下的具体使用。它是表露在外面，可以直接观察。语言 运用是多变的，瞬息的。语言运用永远不能完全反映语 言能力，因为说话人受着记忆，情绪，劳累等条件的限 制。
（2）要简单(simple): 简化一切可以简化的规则，达到利用有 限的规则生成无限的句子。
（3）要清楚明白(explicit): 不许含糊不清，模棱两可。 （4）形式化(formal): 尽量避免用文字叙述ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ则，因为文字有
时不科学，不严谨；要象代数一样，用字母代替文字，用 公式代替叙述。 （5）要有循环性(recursive): 规则要能重复使用，才能生成无 限的句子。
Learned Knowledge To monitor
语言习得
Chomsky 推理人脑的初始状态包括人类的一切语言共同具有的 特点（普遍语法）。“普通语法是一切人类语言必须具有的原则、 条件和规则系统，代表了人类语言的最基本东西”对任何人来讲 都是不变的。每一种语言都要符合普通语法，只能在其他次要方 面有所不同。
生成语法
? 五十年代初--1965年 第一语言模式时期(The First language Model)
? 1965年---1970 年 标准理论时期(Standard Theory)
? 1970年以后 扩充式标准理论时期(Extended Standard Theory)
第一语言模式时期
（1）具有生成性(generative): 通过这些规则，能自动生成符 合语法的句子。
? 语言习得机制（LAD） ? 后天因素
?=后天因素 普通语法(UG) “经验“ 个别语法(PG)
PG=α?UG 通过参数?的变化（即儿童的出生地不同，周围的语言不同），可 以得出具体的语言。例如，α=a 时,a?UG可能是汉语语法。 α=b 时,b?UG 可能是英语语法。
语言能力（Competence) 和语言运用(Performance)
换，由于逻辑成分NOT,所以两个句子在语义上存在差异。着表明语
义解释在表层结构中的确扮演着某些作用。
音位规则
基础部分 深层结构 表层结构
短语结构；词汇 转换成分 语义解释规则
音位表达
逻辑形式表达
Chomsky 目前完全将语义解释置于表层结构之中，而且逻辑形式 表征是相应地源自于语义解释规则。
Thank you !