自考英语语言学200610
自考“英语语言学”资料（2）
1.11What is the phatic function？ The“phatic function”refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining socialcontacts（rather than for exchanging information or ideas）Greetings，farewells，and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.Much of the phatic language（e.g“How are you？”“Fine，thanks.”）is insincere if taken literally，but it is important.If you don't say“Hello”to a friend you meet，or if you don't answer his“Hi”，you ruin your friendship.1.12.What is the directive function？ The“directive function”means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something.Most imperative sentences perform this function，e.g“Tell me the result when you finish.”Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sortscan，according to J.Austin and J.Searle's“indrect speech act theory”（see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp271-278）at least，serve the purpose of direction too，e.g.“If I were you，I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears！” 1.13.What is the informative function？ Language serves an“informational function”when used to tell something，characterized by the use of declarative rmative statements are often labelled as true or false（falsehood）According to P.Grice's“Cooperative Principle”（see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp282-283），one ought not to violate the“Maxim of Quality”，when he is informing at all. 1.14.What is the interrogative function？ When language is used to obtain information，it serves an“interrogative function”This includes all questions that expect replies，statements，imperatives etc，according to the“indirect speech act theory”，may have this function as well，e.g.“I'd like to know you better.”This may bring forth a lot of personal information.Note that rhetorical questions make an exception，since they demand no answer，at least not the reader's/listener's answer 1.15.What is the expressive function？ The“expressive function”is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples，like“Good heavens”“My God”Sentences like“I'm sorry about the delay”can serve as good examples too，though in a subtle way.While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements，language used for the expressive function evaluates，appraises or asserts the speaker's own attitudes. 1.16.What is the evocative function？ The“evocative function”is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.Its aim is，for example，to amuse，startle，antagonize，soothe，worry or please.Jokes（not practical jokes，though）are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener；advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities；propaganda to influence public opinion.Obviously，the expressive and the evocative functions often go together，i.e.you may express，for example，your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in，or imposing it on，your listener. That's also the case with the other way round. 1.17.What is the performative function？ This means people speak to“do things”or perform actions.On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence.When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan，the mayor may say“OK”,which means more than speech,and more than an average social individual may do for the construction.The judge's imprisonment sentence,the president's war or independence declaration,etc，are performatives as well（see J.Austin's speech Act Theory，Hu Zhuanglin，ecal.，pp271-278）。
00830现代语言学200610历年真题及答案
全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试现代语言学试题课程代码：0830Ⅰ.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets.(2%×10=20%)1．Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of（）A．all consonants B．vowels onlyC．all consonants and some vowels D．all vowels and some consonants2．The negative prefix“ in-”in English, when added to the adjective “possible”, is actuallypronounced/im/,and spelt as “im”. This is the result of the ______________rule at work.（）A．deletion B．assimilationC．phonetic D．sequential3．The word “ecology” is a two-morpheme cluster that contains_______________.（）A．two roots B．a root and a suffixC．a root and a free morpheme D．a prefix and a root4．When we move the adverbial phrase “every day” in the sentence “Every day, we study English”to the end of the sentence, we are now ______________ the phrase to the right.（）A．rewriting B．preposingC．postposing D．maintaining5．Antonyms are divided into several kinds .Which of the following is NOT a kind of antonyms?（）A．complementary B．relationalC．superordinate D．gradable6．In terms of predication analysis , the utterance“ Is it going to snow this afternoon?” is a______________（）A．one-place predication B．two-place predicationC．three-place predication D．no-place predication7．In Old English, word order was freer because the case endings were rich. So in Old English,word orders included SVO, VSO, SOV and OSV. However, Modern English has a much weaker case system, so its sentences have to follow a basic word order of________________.（）A．SOV B．SVOC．VSO D．OSV8．Black English is a kind of _______________dialect.（）A．regional B．standardC．ethnic D．situational9．The critical period for language acquisition refers to the short period of _____________years old in one’s life, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language.（）A．1-2 B．2-12C．1-12 D．13-1810．In a sense, humans can be said to be biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.What is meant by this ______________view of language acquisition is that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.（）A．behaviorist B．nativistC．mentalist D．empiricistⅡ. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)11.A scientific study of language is based on the s________________ investigation of languagedata.12.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human linguistic communication and areof interest to linguistic studies are called the p________________ medium of language.13.phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences with infinite length, due totheir r________________ properties.14.A f_________________ clause is a clause that takes a subject and a main verb, and at the sametime stands structurally alone.15.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true. The relationshipbetween X and Y is i_________________16.In Austin’ s early speech act theory, c________________ were statements that either state ordescribe, and were thus verifiable.17.In the historical development of language, sound change is inevitable, such as sound loss,sound a________________ and sound movement.18.Slang is often perceived as a low or vulgar form of language and is deemed to be undesirable inf_________________ styles of language.19.D_________________ listening tests involve simultaneously presenting, through earphones,two different auditory signals, one to the right ear and the other to the left ear.20.At children’s language development, one-word utterances can be used to express a concept orpredication similar to a sentence in adult speech. For example, a child might use the word “dada” to mean “Dada, come here”, “more” to mean “Give me more candy”. Those utterances can also be called h_________________ sentences.Ⅲ.Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the bracket in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and give the correct version.(2%×10=20%) 21.( )Language can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approachesare equally favored by modern linguists.22. ( )Stress is a suprasegmental feature that is exclusively used with words, not withsentences.23. ( )A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen between itscomponents, or as two separate words. It is simply a matter of convention.24. ( )Major lexical categories are closed categories because the number of lexical items inthese categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.25. ( )The important criteria to distinguish polysemy from homonymy are the etymology ofthe words in question and the closeness of the relationship between the meanings in question.26. ( )The significance of Grice’s Cooperative Principle lies in that it explains how it ispossible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.27. ( )The invention of steam-powered boats gave the verb sail an opportunity to extend itsmeaning to boats without sails. This example indicates that the meaning or semantic representation of words may become broader.28. ( )An official language is in fact a national language.29. ( )Generally speaking, left-handed people have their language centers in the lefthemisphere of the brain.30. ( )A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number ofyears to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.Ⅳ.Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration.(3%×10=30%)31.phonemic contrast32.free morphemes33.hierarchical structure34.co-hyponyms35.utterance meaning36.perlocutionary act37.internal borrowing38.subvocal speech39.contrastive analysis40.caretaker speechⅤ.Answer the following questions.(10%×2=20%)41.Discuss any FOUR of the features of human language that distinguish it from animalcommunication system.42.What is bilingualism? What is a bilingual community? What does it mean that most bilingualcommunities have one thing in common?。
自考英语(本科-)《现代语言学》-复习大纲设计
what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
自考“英语语言学”资料（3）
1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies？ The description of a language at some point of time（as if it stopped developing）is a synchrony study synchrony. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study （diachronic）.An essay entitled“On the Use of THE”，for example，may be synchronic，if the author does not recall the past of THE，and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration（see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp25-27）。
1.22.What is speech and what is writing？ （1）No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis，namely，the primacy of speech over writing.Speech is primary，because it existed long long before writing systems came into being.Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly，written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds，as in English and French as in Japanese. （2）In contrast to speech,spoken form of language,writing as written codes,gives language new scope and use that speech does not have.Firstly,messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby，so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby，so that people of our time can read Beowulf，Samuel Johnson，and Edgar A.Poe.Thirdly，oral messages are readily subject to distortion，either intentional or unintentional （causing misunderstanding or malentendu），while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. （3）Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech，different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore. 1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches？ A linguistic study is“descriptive”if it only describes and analyses the facts of language，and“prescriptive”if it tries to lay down rules for“correct”language behavior.Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on“high”（literary or religious）written records.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive，however.the latter believes that whatever occurs in naturalspeech（hesitation，incomplete utterance，misunderstanding，etc.）should be described in the analysis，and not be marked as incorrect，abnormal，corrupt，or lousy.These，with changes in vocabulary and structures，need to be explained also. 1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole？ F.de Saussure refers“langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers“parole”to the actual or actualized language，or the realization of ngue is abstract，parole specific to the speaking situation；langue not actually spoken by an individual，parole always a naturally occurring event；langue relatively stable and systematic，parole is a mass of confused facts，thus not suitable for systematic investigation.What a linguist ought to do,according to Saussure,is to abstract langue from instances of parole，i.e.to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance，which casts great influence on later linguists. 1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance？ （1）According to N.Chomsky,“competence”is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of hislanguage，and“performance”is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker's competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors . So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. （2）Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence，rather than performance.In other words，they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. （3）Chomsky's competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as，though similar to,F.de Saussure's langue-parole ngue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community,while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual.Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically. 1.26.What is linguistic potential？What is actual linguistic behaviour？ These two terms,or the potential-behavior distinction，were made by M.A.K.Halliday in the 1960s，from a functionalpoint of view.There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture，and similarly there are many things he can say，for example，to many people，on many topics.What he actually says （i.e.his“actual linguistic behavior”）on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items，each of which he could have said （linguistic potential）。
全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试英语阅读(二)试题
全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试英语阅读(二)试题课程代码：00596Ⅰ.Reading Comprehension.(50 points,2points for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are five passages. After each passage, there are five questions followed by four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best answer and then write the corresponding letter on your Answer Sheet.Passage OnePlants and animals that have been studied carefully seem to have built-in clocks．These biological clocks，as they are called，usually are not quite exact in measuring time．However，they work pretty well because they are“ reset ”each day，when the sun comes up．Do pigeons use their biological clocks to help them find directions from the sun? We can keep pigeons in a room lit only by lamps．And we can program the lighting to produce artificial “days”，different from the day outside．After a while we have shifted their clocks．Now we take them far away from home and let them go on a sunny day．Most of them start out as if they know just which way to go，but choose a wrong direction．They have picked a direction that would be correct for the position of the sun and the time of day according to their shifted clocks．It is known and experimented that homing pigeons can tell directions by the sun．But what happens when the sky is darkly overcast by clouds and no one can see where the sun is? Then the pigeons still find their way home．The same experiment has been repeated many times on sunny days and the result was always the same．But on very overcast days clock-shifted pigeons are just as good as normal pigeons in starting out in the right directions．So it seems that pigeons also have some extra sense of direction to use when they cannot see the sun．Naturally，people have wondered whether pigeons might have a built-in compass－something that would tell them about the directions of the earth’s magnetic field．One way to test that idea would be to see if a pigeon’s sense of direction can be fooled by a magnet attached to its back．With a strong magnet close by，a compass can no longer tell direction．To test the idea，a group of ten pigeons had strong little magnet bars attached to their backs．Another group carried brass bars instead which were not magnetic．In a number of experiments，both groups were taken away from home and let go．On sunny days none of the magnet-pigeons was fooled．They were just as good as the brass-pigeons in starting out in the right direction toward home．On cloudy，overcast days，however，with no sun the brass-pigeons chose the right direction，but the magnet-pigeons were in trouble．They later started out in different directions and acted completely lost．════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第1页-Questions 1-5 are based on Passage One．1．Which of the following can best describe the organization of the passage?A．Questions are raised first and then experiments to answer them are cited．B．opinions are given first and then evidences against them ore quoted．C．Statements come first and examples supporting them follow．D．People’s long held belief s are cited first and exceptions come after．2．What can be inferred from the passage about biological clocks?A．They are used by all plants and animals to tell time．B．Pigeons’biological clocks are regulated every day with the sunrise．C．The built-in biological clocks cannot be changed．D．They gradually developed as pigeons grow mature．3．H ow can people shift pigeons’ biological clocks?A．By training them when they are young．B．By minor and harmless operations．C．By taking them really far away from home．D．By keeping them in artificial days．4．Whic h is true about pigeons’ finding directions?A．With a brass on back they can find directions sooner．B．They can find directions better than other birds．C．They use the earth’s magnetic field and the sun to find directions．D．They can find directions only to their home．5．What does the author want to say by citing the last experiment?A．On heavily cloudy days，pigeons that are not well trained do not fly.B．Pigeons use different sources to find directions on different weather.C．Magnetic field is an important source in helping pigeons to find directions.D．The little magnet bars make it easier for pigeons to find directions．Passage TwoIn some ways,yes—but the differences matter more．Just as human history has been shaped by the rise and fall of successive empires，the computer industry has, in the few decades of its existence，been dominated by one large company after another．During the mainframe era，IBM wore the crown．But it fumbled the transition to smaller machines in the ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第2页-personal-computer era，and the throne was usurped by Microsoft．Now，at the dawn of the new era of Internet services，Google is widely seen as the heir to the kingdom．As the upstart has matured into a powerful industry giant，the suggestion that “Google is the new Microsoft”has become commonplace in computing circles．Is it true?The comparison is both a compliment and a reproach．It is a compliment because it implies that Google has now become the company that defines the environment in which other technology firms operate，just as IBM and Microsoft once did．As with Microsoft in its heyday，Google is the technology firm where the smartest geeks aspire to work；it embodies the technological zeitgeist；and it is a highly regarded company that has become a household name．But the comparison is also a reproach，because it highlights growing concern that Google is now too powerful for its own good，or that of the industry，or indeed that of the world at large．For many people，Google provides the front door to the Internet．For many online businesses,their position in its search ranking—the workings of which are a closely guarded secret—is a matter of life or death．Too much power is thus concentrated in Goo gle’s hands，say critics，including Microsoft’s Bi ll Gates．Microsoft and other big Internet firms，including eBay，Amazon and Yahoo，are now said to be negotiating various alliances in order to provide a counterweight to the new behemoth．Smaller firms feel even more vulnerable．As soon as Google says it is moving into a particular market，small fry in that market now dart for cover，unless they are lucky enough to be acquired by Google．Yet there are some crucial ways in which Google differs from Microsoft．For a start，it is a far more innovative company，and its use of small，flexible teams has so far allowed it to remain innovative even as it has grown．Microsoft，in contrast，has stagnated as a result of its size and dominance．It is least innovative in the markets in which it faces the least competition—operating systems，office software and web browsers—though it is，curiously，still capable of innovating in markets in which it has strong rivals(notably video gaming)．Try to avoid using Microsoft software for a day，particularly if you work in an office，and you will have difficulty；but surviving a day without Google is relatively easy．It has strong competitors in all the markets in which it operates：search，online advertising，mapping，software services，and so on．Large firms such as Yahoo，which previously farmed searches out to Google，have switched to other technologies．Goo gle’s market share in search has fallen from a high of a round 80％to around 50％today．Perhaps the clearest evidence that Googl e’s continued dominance is not inevitable is the fate of Alta Vista，the former top dog in Internet search．Who remembers it today?Questions 6-10 are based on Passage Two．6．The comparison made among IBM，Microsoft and Google suggests that_____.A．IBM is no longer an important firm in the computer industryB．Microsoft has always been dominant in the computer industry════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第3页-C．Google is gaining a dominant position in computing technologyD．it is not valid to make a comparison between the three firms7．Which of the following is NOT true about Google?A．Google is widely known only in computing circles．B．Google is being criticized for being too powerful．C．Google is of vital importance to online businesses．D．Google is likely to eplace Microsoft in computer industry．8．Compared with Microsoft, ogle is said to be more_____.A．stagnate in technology B．inflexible in structureC．ambitious in development D．innovative in market9．Microsoft is facing challenges in_____.A．operating system B．office softwareC．web browsers D．video gaming10．Which is used as an example to predict the likely future of Goo gle’s Internet earch?A．Alta Vista．B．Yahoo．C．eBay．D．Amazon．Passage ThreeIt is such an odd relationship between people and pandas．We are so fond of them that when the Chinese government lent a pair to the San Diego Zoo for six months，the number of visitors increased sharply，and the zoo sold over half a million panda T-shirts．When a Panda was born in Tokyo Zoo in 1986，thousands of people phoned daily to hear a recording of the baby’s c ry．Although the reason we love pandas is not easy to explain，animal scientists offer some plausible theories．They suggest that parenting instincts are aroused by the common characteristics of babies：round faces and small jaws．Pandas，even in adulthood，display all of these interesting features．Until recently，however，it seemed nearly certain that this much-loved creature was destined to die out．Even now the giant panda numbers fewer than 1000 in a shrinking wilderness in one small area in China，an untimely end for the wo rld’s most beloved wild species may still be avoidable．“It’s easy to save the panda，”says George Schaller，the New York Zoological So ciety’s panda expert and a world renowned zoologist．“All it needs is bamboo and peace．”Wild life experts have recommended some basic steps to help．A detailed plan for the protection of panda has been ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第4页-drawn up by the Wildlife Fund，in cooperation with the Chinese Ministry of Forestry．The plan calls for a 70％increase in the panda preserve at a cost of $20，000，000 over five years．The plan was submitted to the Chinese government in August，1989．After more than a year of debating and delay，the National People’s Congress voted in favor of the bill to fund the plan．Almost 100 pandas are kept in Chinese Zoos and at institutions in other countries，but during the past three decades fewer than 100 baby pandas have been born in China．And the majority of these have died young．Despite such unfavorable circumstance，the giant pandas prospects are better now than in the recent past．New insights into behavior，diet and physiology offer hope to protect and raise these animals more effectively．The most promising hope for panda’s future seems to be the increased efforts by Chinese government．They have established 13 panda reserves and announced plans for 14 more．A farm has been relocated away from a panda habitat, and some 60 families living in one reserve have been relocated，costing the government nearly $ 370，00．Public concern for the welfare of pandas has been heightened by stiff penalties for poaching—although it remains a serious problem．A few farmers have captured isolated pandas and released them back to larger habitats．Questions 11-15 are based on Passage Three．11．The passage mainly discusses_______．A．the mysterious life of pandasB．attentions towards panda protectionC．public liking for pandasD．the strange behaviors of pandas12．Pandas are much loved by people for all of the following reasons EXCEPT_______．A．their baby-like featuresB．their round faces and small jawsC．their attractive criesD．their inactivity13．Which of the following factors plays a NEGATIVE rol e to panda’s surviving?A．Public concern for panda’s welfa re has been heightened．B．Chinese government invested more money in panda protection．C．Proper protection measures were not taken in time．D．More reserves will be established in China．14．Which of the following plays a key role in panda protection?════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第5页-A．Animal behaviorists．B．Chinese government．C．American zoologists．D．The zoos which raise pandas．15．Pandas can be better protected today owing to______．A．a better understanding of the animalB．the increase in foreign fundsC．their increasing popularityD．the efforts of American scientistsPassage FourThat experiences influence subsequent behavior is evidence of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering．Learning could not occur without the function popularly named memory．Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to 1ead to skilful performance on the piano，to recitation of a poem，and even to reading and understanding these words．So-called intelligent behavior demands memory，remembering being a primary requirement for reasoning．The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory．Typically，the decision to cross a street is based on remembering many earlier experiences．Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task or for any learned material．Over a period of no practice what has been learned tends to be forgotten；and the adaptive consequences may not seem obvious．Yet，dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to be adaptive．In this sense，the ability to forget can be interpreted to have survived through a process of natural selection in animals．Indeed，when one’s memory of an emotionally painful experien ce leads to serious anxiety，forgetting may produce relief．Nevertheless，an evolutionary interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection．In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible．aspects，it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade．Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time，since old memories weaken and the new tend to stand out，providing clues for inferring duration．Without forgetting，adaptive ability would suffer，for example，learned behavior that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be．Cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forgot so little that their everyday activities were full of confusion．This forgetting seems to serve that survival of the individual and the species．Another line of thought assumes a memory storage system of limited capacity that provides adaptive flexibility specifically through forgetting．In this view，continual adjustments are made between learning or memory storage (input) and forgetting (output)．Indeed，there is evidence that the rate at which individuals forget is directly related to how much they have learned．Such data offers gross support of contemporary models of memory that assume an input-output balance．════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第6页-Questions 16-20 are based on Passage Four.16. From the evolutionary point of view,_______.A．sudden forgetting may bring about adaptive consequencesB．forgetting for lack of practice tends to be obviously inadaptiveC．if a person gets very forgetful all of a sudden he must be very adaptiveD．forgetting is an indication of an individual’s adaptability17.According to the passage, if a person never forgot,_______.A．he would survive bestB．he would have a lot of troubleC．the evolution of memory would stopD．his ability to learn would be enhanced18.From the last paragraph we know that _______.A．forgetfulness is a response to learningB．memory is a compensation for forgettingC．the capacity of a memory storage system is limitedD．the memory storage system is balanced19.The tone of the passage can best be described as _______.A．humorous B．theoreticalC．exaggerative D．philosophical20.The author’s main purpose in writing this passage is to _______.A．interpret the function of forgettingB．illustrate the process of adaptingC．explain the performance of memoryD．emphasize the importance of learningPassage FiveMany people believe that beavers are intelligent animals. After all, their dams are fine examples of engineering. The engineering feats of beavers are well known, but it will be useful to recall their main features.A pair of beavers will construct a dam across a river. The water held back by the dam overflows the bank on either side of the river, flooding the adjacent ground and forming a pond. At some point in the pond the beavers then build their home, which is called a lodge. This consists of a conical pile of branches and sticks of two to six feet in length held together with ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第7页-mud and stones, the top of which projects above the waterline. It serves as a shelter from the elements, a refuge from enemies and a base for food supplies to be drawn upon in winter.From an engineering point of view the lodge could hardly be improved．Not only does it contain a central chamber just above water level，but it also has one or more escape tunnels，well-insulated walls and a vertical chimney，which regulates the temperature inside and gives air-conditioning．It is altogether a cunning piece of construction，with all modern conveniences．It is，in fact，better protected against the effects of flooding than many human habitations．Trees are essential to beavers．They eat the bark on the upper branches，and in order to reach these they must fell the trees．Tree-felling is a skilled job，as anyone who has felled even a sapling knows．But beavers fell more than saplings．A pair is said to be able to fell a tree four inches in diameter in 15 minutes．They do it by gnawing all round the trunk，as high up from the ground as they can reach．They often build platforms of mud and earth to enable them to cut through the tree where the trunk is narrower．The engineering skill of beavers is to a large extent a result of their ability to use their front paws as hands．A female will carry her young held under her chin with her front paws walking on her hind legs．A similar method is used by all beavers when transporting stones or mud，although they also carry such materials on their broad flat tails．The forepaws are also used for burrowing and for dragging heavier logs．It is easy，therefore，to see why people should tal k about the beaver’ s skill，cleverness and intelligence．However，the structure of the beaver’s brain gives no indication that the animal is any more intelligent than other rodents．Any of its actions，which appear to be the result of a higher order of reasoning，can be shown to be due to instinct and are suspected of being the outcome of an inborn pattern of behavior．Questions 21-25 are based on Passage Five．21．The passage implies that beavers prefer to build their home in_____.A．deep water B．shallow waterC．rivers rather than pond D．1akes rather than rivers22．The word “ elements ” in Paragraph 2 means_____.A．natural habitations for animalsB．environment natural to an individualC．atmospheric forces as rain, wind or snowD．substances as earth, water, air and fire23．The sentence “F rom an engineering point of view the lodge could hardly be improved ”means___．A．the lodge was too poor to improve════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第8页-B．the lodge was left much to improveC．the lodge was nearly perfectD．it is easy to improve the lodge24．Beavers fell trees mainly to___．A．build dams B．build their lodgesC．gain food D．exercise their jaws25．Which of the following statements is best to describe beavers?A．They are clever animals and learn quickly．B．They are more intelligent than other animals．C．Many of their skills are developed in late life．D．Many of their skills are inborn capabilities．Ⅱ．Vocabulary.(10 points, 1 point for each)Directions：Scan the following passage and find the words which have roughly the same meanings as those given below．The number in the brackets after each word definition refers to the number of paragraph in which the target word is．Write the word you choose on the Answer Sheet．Camps are either temporary，that is changed from day to day，or they are permanent and may be visited year after year，or they may be used for a few weeks at a time. Temporary camps are the ones we are considering，and these can be elaborate or very，very simple．I prefer the latter，and I am sure the boys will agree with me．During the autumn and when the weather is dry and the nights not too cool, the best way to camp is in the open，sleeping on beds of boughs，about a roaring fire，and with one blanket under and another over．Small dog tents，like the ones our soldiers carried in the Civil War, are cheap and very convenient. Each man carried a section，and two made a tent, into which two men crawled when it rained，but in dry weather they preferred to sleep in the open，even when it was freezing．Shelters of boughs，arranged in an A-formed fashion from a ridge pole make good temporary shelters and are first rate as wind breaks at night．A shack built of crossed logs requires some time to build and some skill to make，but it is not beyond the reach of any boy who has seen—and who has not—an old-fashioned log shanty．26.not lasting(Para.1)plicated (Para.1)28.making a loud sound (Para.2)════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第9页-29.bed covering (Para.2)30.moved with the body close to the ground (Para.3)31.held above other things (Para.3)32.terribly cold (Para.3)33.a long rounded piece of wood (Para.4)34.outside the limits (Para.5)35.a roughly-built house like a shack (Para.5)Ⅲ.Summarization.(20 points,2 points for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are ten paragraphs. Each of the paragraphs is followed by an incomplete phrase or sentence. Spell out the missing letters of the word on your Answer Sheet.Paragraph OneHigh salaries in the electricity, telecommunications and other monopoly industries have drawn strong criticism in China, where the Gini coefficient, now stands at 0.46, exceeding the internationally recognized alarm level of 0.45. So China is considering cutting wages in monopoly industries to reduce the country’s widening income gap. A draft directive document has been worked out for this purpose.36.The need to n ____the income gap.Paragraph TwoThrough operating remote controls and TV sets, people can log onto the Internet, send and receive E-mails, order dishes, and transfer accounts. They can choose different watching angles and show supports to particular teams while watching televised football games. Of course these services are not free. Experts say pay-TV is a little different with digital TV, but both stand for the developing trend of China’s television industry.37.The e_____ of pay-TV.Paragraph ThreeThis new kind of website is known as a“weblog ”,or “ bolg ”.A weblog is an online journal, typically consisting of a personal diary or social and political commentary ,sometimes with replies from readers. Blogs have common elements:updated frequently(usually daily); informal; grouped by date with links to archives of older posts.38.The passage talks about w_____.Paragraph FourA fashionable word in English these days is YAHOO, a word popularized by the Internet search engine carrying the same name. The original“yahoos”were quite different. They were the nasty, brutish, short and subhuman savages described ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第10页-in the Gulliver’s Travels.Today they are die-hard fans of the home team of any sport or sport enthusiasts who can’t help loving the home team.39.How did the w____ yahoo come?Paragraph FiveOn your interview day, you should arrive at least half an hour earlier. Tell the secretary at the reception desk about your arranged interview as soon as you get there, and wait in the lounge just to relax. But while waiting, watch your posture. When your name is called, let your interviewer see a candidate full of confidence and ready for nothing else but the interview.40.T_____for interviewees.Paragraph SixA BMW is designed to bring confidence and joy to every moment you spend behind the wheel. Over the vast blanket of hard-packed snow and ice during the winter months, to respond with lightning accuracy in each of these situations may be impossible for a human driver, but not for a BMW equipped with All Season Traction.41.Gua antee of s____ for BMW drivers.Paragraph Seven“There are few earthly things more beautiful than a university ,”wrote John Mansfield in his tribute to English universities—and his words are equally true today. He admired the splendid beauty of the university, he said, because it was “a place where those who hate ignorance may strive to know, where those who perceive truth may strive to make others see.”42.The paragraph is about the u____ education.Paragraph EightConsumers of electricity usually accept the fact that power cuts frequently occur during thunderstorms. If outages(电力中断)occur on a sunny day, consumers will blame the power company. However, most outages occur due to circumstances beyond the power company’s control. Animals with the ability to reach the top of power poles can knock out power of many houses.43.There are many c_____ for power failure.Paragraph NineA poll was taken recently surveying twelve hundred adults in the United States to find out what they considered important in their lives. Ninety-six percent said that having a good family life was important. Ninety-five percent said that using their mind and abilities was important, which marks a shift in the type of work from physical labor to mental skills. 44.People’s v_____ towards life.════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第11页-Paragraph TenSome people feel very nervous when they fly in airplanes. No matter how hard they try, they cannot lower their anxiety. Many notice their anxiety but only a few are conscious of the way they express their tension. Some try to hide their nervousness; some become aggressive, attacking people by making them the butt of cruel jokes.45.Different r____ to tension when flying.Ⅳ.Translation.(20 points, 4 points for each)Directions: In the following passage, there are five groups of underlined sentences. Read the passage and translate these sentences into Chinese. Write your translation on the Answer Sheet.Only 100 years ago man lived in harmony with nature. There weren’t so many people then and their wants were fewer. Whatever wastes were produced could be absorbed by nature and were soon covered over.(46) Today this harmonious relationship is threatened by man’s lack of foresight and planning, and by his carelessness and greed. For man is slowly poisoning his environment.Pollution is a “dirty”word. To pollute means to contaminate—to spoil something by introducing impurities which make it unfit or unclean to use. Pollution comes in many forms. We see it, smell it, taste it, drink it ,and stumble through it.(47) We literally live in pollution, and, not surprisingly, it is beginning to threaten our health, our happiness, and our very civilization.Once we thought of pollution as meaning simply smog—the choking, stinging, dirty air that hovers over cities. But air pollution, while it is still the most dangerous, is only one type of contamination among several which attack the most basic life function.Through the uncontrolled use of insecticides, man has polluted the land, killing the wildlife. By dumping sewage and chemicals into rivers and lakes, we have contaminated our drinking water. We are polluting the ocean, too, killing the fish and thereby depriving ourselves of an invaluable food supply.(48) Part of the problem is our exploding population. More and more people produce more wastes. But this problem is intensified by our “throw-away”technology. Each year Americans dispose of 7 million autos, 20 million tons of waste paper,25 million pounds of toothpaste tubes and 48 million cans. We throw away gum wrappers, newspapers, and paper plates. It is easier and cheaper to buy a new one and discard the old, even though 95% of its parts may still be functioning. Soon we will wear clothing made of paper:“Wear it once and throw it away,”will be the slogan of the fashion-conscious.(49)Where is this all to end? Are we turning the world into a gigantic dump, or is there hope that we can solve the pollution problem? Fortunately, solutions are in sight. A few of them are positively ingenious.Take the problem of discarded cars, for instance. They are too bulky to ship as scrap to a steel mill. They must first be ════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════试卷下载网（-）领先的专注于考试的网络媒体与服务平台- 本套试题共分13页，当前页是第12页-。
福建省2010高等教育自学考试英语专业
福建省2010高等教育自学考试英语专业(本科段)《日语》课程考试大纲一、课程的性质与设置目的《日语》是高等教育自学考试英语（本科段）的专业课程之一。
目的是通过本课程的学习，培养考生具有初步的听、说、读、写、译的能力，使考生能以日语为工具，获取专业所需要的信息。
同时，通过本课程的学习，充实自己的文化知识，扩大知识面。
二、使用教材《新大学日语简明教程》，王诗荣高等教育出版社2007年版。
三、学习内容(含重点、难点)第1課発音あ·ア————な·ナ行清音新出単語予備知識一、日本的文字二、日语单词的音调練習第2課発音一、は·ハ————わ·ワ行清音二、拨音新出単語予備知識一、日语的特点二、日语汉字的音读和训读練習第3課発音一、浊音二、半浊音三、促音新出単語予備知識一、日语词汇的来源二、日语单词的写法練習第4課発音一、长音二、拗音、拗长音、拗促音、拗拨音新出単語予備知識词类練習第5課本文これは何ですか会話新出単語文法一、敬体判断句与指定助动词です二、助词类别三、こそあど系词汇練習第6課本文ここは僕のうちだ会話新出単語文法一、简体判断句与指定助动词だ二、存在句与存在动词ある、いる、おる三、并列助词と、终助词ね四、句子成分(一)練習第7課本文日本と日本人会話新出単語文法一、文章体判断句与指定助动词である二、动词终止形三、动词的自、他分类与宾格助词を四、格助词に、ヘ、から、并列助词や、副助词など五、句子成分(二)第8課本文自己紹介会話新出単語文法一、动词按活用分类二、动词连用形与敬体叙述句三、格助词で、まで、提示助词は、も（一）四、时间名词的用法練習第9課本文中国と日本会話新出単語文法一、形容动词和以形容动词作谓语的描写句二、主谓谓语句練習第10課本文日本の季節会話新出単語文法一、形容词和以形容词作谓语的描写句二、格助词より三、数词及其用法練習第11課本文鈴木さんの仕事と生活会話新出単語文法一、敬体助动词ます二、动词连用形的各种用法三、格助词を、副助词くらい、だけ、接续助词が、ので練習第12課本文田舎会話新出単語文法一、五段活用动词的音变二、补助动词いる三、接续助词て、と練習第13課本文夏休み会話新出単語文法一、动词连体形二、形式体言の、こと、もの三、接续助词から、格助词の、并列助词か、提示助词しか、复合助词までに四、惯用型練習第14課本文いろいろな学生会話新出単語文法一、过去完成助动词た二、样态助动词そうだ三、并列助词たり、し、接续助词ながら、副助词まで四、年、月、日的读法五、惯用型第15課本文漢字会話新出単語文法一、动词假定形与接续助词ば二、接续助词けれども、终助词わ三、补助动词みる四、特殊五段活用动词五、惯用型練習第16課本文映画を見る会話新出単語文法一、推量助动词う、よう、らしい二、比况助动词ようだ三、补格助词と、终助词な、副助词か四、惯用型練習第17課本文一、在宅勤務二、カラオケ教室会話新出単語文法一、动词未然形与否定助动词ない、ぬ二、愿望助动词たい、たがる、传闻助动词そうだ三、接续助词ても、终助词よ四、惯用型練習第18課本文一、声の表情二、みかん会話新出単語文法一、补助动词ある、くる、いく、しまう、おく二、副助词ずつ三、人称代词練習第19課本文一、交通信号二、日記会話新出単語文法一、动词活用总表及动词命令形二、副助词ばかり、ほど、提示助词でも三、推量助动词まい四、惯用型練習第20課本文一、ありがとう二、道を尋ねる会話新出単語文法一、授受动词及其用法二、补助动词やる、くれる、もらう三、惯用型練習第21課本文一、私の留学生活二、一つの部屋が三つになる会話新出単語文法一、可能语态与可能助动词れる、られる二、接续助词のに三、接尾词すぎる四、惯用型第22課本文一、訪問二、田中さんとその秘書会話新出単語文法一、使动语态与使动助动词せる、させる二、并列助词とか、提示助词こそ練習第23課本文一、招待されて困ること二、お祭り会話新出単語文法一、被动语态与被动助动词れる、られる二、惯用型練習第24課本文一、友だちへの手紙二、日記会話新出単語文法一、敬语二、惯用型練習第25課（復習）本文一、一休さんの話二、金持ちになる薬会話新出単語文法一、助词和助动词归纳二、惯用型模擬テスト（一）第26課本文日本語のあいさつの言葉会話新出単語文法一、句子成分与句子类别二、惯用型練習第27課本文一、今のわたし二、電車に乗る三、万歩計新出単語文法一、并列句、主从句和包孕句二、惯用型練習第28課本文一、留守番電話二、カード時代三、宅配便会話新出単語文法一、句子的语气二、惯用型練習第29課本文一、住宅二、高層住宅三、地下生活会話新出単語文法一、句子分析二、提示助词も（二）三、惯用型練習第30課本文一、社員の教育二、弁当箱には愛情が入っている三、私の旅行会話新出単語文法一、文章中的简体句与会话中的简体句二、惯用型三、惯用型知识練習第31課本文一、夏をどう過ごすか二、ガラス新出単語文法一、补格助词に（二）二、惯用型三、翻译知识(一)練習第32課本文一、子供の成長二、友だちとの交わりと人の成長会話新出単語文法一、惯用型二、翻译知识（二）練習第33課本文一、物の消費と人間関係の営み二、話し上手は聞き上手会話新出単語文法一、终助词かしら、并列助词なり二、惯用型三、翻译知识(三)練習第34課本文一、日本的贈り物二、科学の言葉と詩の言葉会話新出単語文法一、接续助词とも、提示助词さえ、终助词い二、惯用型三、翻译知识(四)練習第35課本文電気代節約会話新出単語文法惯用型归纳模擬テスト（二四、教学媒体与学习方法本课程的教学媒体以文字教材和录音教材为主。
自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisition
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得一、本章纲要二、本章重点Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1) is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。
语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。
有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。
习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。
The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.1.First language acquisition第一语言习得Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。
自考“英语语言学”资料（1）
1.1.What is language？ Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system，since linguistic elements are arranged systematically，rather than randomly.Arbitrary，in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work （like book）and the object it refers to.This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different books：book in English，livre in French，in Japanese，in Chinese，check in Korean.It issymbolic，because words are associated with objects，actions，ideas etc.by nothing but ly，people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal，because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages，developed or new。
Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms.The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak （and listen）before they write （and read）also indicates that language is primarily vocal，rather than written.The term human in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 1.2.What are design features of language？ Design features here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness，duality，productivity，displacement，cultural transmission and interchangeability 1.3.What is arbitrariness？ By“arbitrariness”，we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds（see I .1）A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a nguage is therefore largely arbitrary.But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association，if we think of echo words，like“bang”，“crash”，“roar”，which are motivated in a certain sense.Secondly，some compounds（words compounded to be one word ）are not entirely arbitrary either.“Type”and“write”are opaque or unmotivated words，while“type-writer”is less so，or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it.So we can say“arbitrariness”is a matter of degree. 1.4.What is duality？ Linguists refer“duality”（of structure）to the fact that in all languages so far investigated，one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first，higher level，language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units （such as morphemes，words etc.）；at the second，lower level，it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves，but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al.（p.6），language is a system of two sets of structures，one of sounds and the other of meaning.This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units（words），and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences（note that we have dictionaries of words，but no dictionary of sentences！）Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge.No animal communication system enjoys this duality，or even approaches this honour. 1.5.What is productivity？ Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one's native language，including those that has never heard before，but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.No one has ever said or heard“A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”，but he can say it when necessary，and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity，though，productivity never goes outside the language，thus also called“rule-bound creativity”（by N.Chomsky）。
自考“英语语言学”资料（6）
1.51.What is a sentence？ L.Bloomfield defines“sentence”as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from，i.e.，it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form，it is a structurally independent linguistic form.It is also called a maximum free form.1.52.What are syntactic relations？ “Syntactic relations”refer to the ways in which words，word groups or phrases form sentences；hence three kinds of syntactic relations： positional relations，relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence. （1）“Positional relation”，or“word order”，refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F.de Saussure called“syntagmatic relations”，or of what other linguistscall“horizontal relations”or“chain relations”。
(完整word版)06年4月自考英语语法试题及答案已校,推荐文档
2006年4月高等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试英语语法试卷第一部分选择题（共20分）一、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分）在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将 黑。
未涂、错涂或多涂均无分。
1. A hot shower, a cup of milk; a bag of potato chips, and the n a good sleep _________ the luxury that he n eeded after the exam in ati on.A. areB. wasC. wereD. is 2. Check out the weather at your dest in ati on _______ you might forget to take somethi ng importa nt with you. A. so B. or C. that D. whe n 3. I had to get up early __________ I might catch the first bus.A. so thatB. in orderC. becauseD. for 4. Joh n is going to marry Susa n once ________ gets consent from his pare nts. A. itB. heC. sheD. they5. A: Is Joh n tryi ng to en ter Harvard Law School?B: No, I __________believe he is. He hates lawyers. A. noth ingB. doesC. don'tD. do 6. The family _________asked to come to the decisi on that the child must be operated on as quickly as possible.A. wereB. isC. areD. was7.There a tall man wanting to play tennis with you.A. isB. areC. sta ndD .appear s8.We covered the sick old man a bla nket.A. byB. forC. withD. through9.She had no sympathy the old lady.A. inB. forC. i ntoD .on10His fondness play ing table-te nnis is bey ond our imagi nati on.A. inB. ofC. forD. with11Before we discuss the major topic today, let's start with a.issue first.A. lessB. lesserC. fewD. fewer12. There are _______ than the mayor of the tow n.A. more in tellige nt mon keysB. mon keys more in tellige ntC. i ntellige nt mon keys moreD. more mon keys in tellige nt13. I don't think he can fool her into __________ his promises. A. believe B. believed C. to believe D. believi ng 14. It is very dangerous to bribe a police officer __________ lies. A. to tell B. telli ng C. tell D. told 15. I would rather take a taxi every day tha n ________ my own car. A. havi ng bought B. have boughtC. buyD. to buy 16. There's nothing to do today, so you may as well _________ home.A. goB. goingC. to goD. gone17. I want you to cut the paper _________ I do.A. the same way likeB. like the wayC. in the same way thatD. in the same way as18. ________ they found cheat ing at the exam, they would be expelled from the school. A. If B. Be C. WereD. Had 19. They had _________a fierce dog . no one dare to go n ear their house.A. such...asB. so...thatC. such...a nd20. Take an umbrella _________ it should rain.答题卡”的相应代码涂 D. such...thatA. so thatB. in caseC. becauseD. if第二部分非选择题(共80分)二、多项选择题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分。
自考“英语语言学”资料（5）
1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology？What are suprasegmental features？ “Suprasegmental phonology”refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme，such as syllable，word and sentence. Hu Zhuanglin et al.,（p，73）includes stress,length and pitch as what they suppose to be“principal suprasegmental features”，calling the concurrent patterning of three“intonation”.Dai Weidong（pp23-25） lists three also，but they are stress，tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology？ “Morphology”is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.It is generally divided into two fields： inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology. 1.43.What is inflection/inflexion？ “Inflection”is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes，such as number，person，finiteness，aspect，and case，which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached. 1.44.What is a morpheme？What is an allomorph？ （1） The“morpheme”is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content，a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning，whether it is lexical or grammatical.The word“boxes”，for example，has two morphemes：“box”and“-es”，neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don't wish to sacrifice meaning.Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. （2） Allomorphs，like allophones vs.phones，are the alternate shapes （and thus phonetic forms） of the same morphemes.Some morphemes，though，have no more than one invariable form in all contexts，suchas“dog”，“cat”，etc.The variants of the plurality“-s”make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples：map-maps，mouse-mice，sheep-sheep etc. 1.45.What is a free morpheme？What is a bound morpheme？ A“free morpheme”is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself，such as 'bed“，”tree“，etc.A ”bound morpheme“ is one that appears with at least another morpheme，such as ”-s“ in ”beds“，”-al“ in ”national“ and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.Those polymorphemic words are either compounds （combination of two or more free morphemes ）or derivatives （word derived from free morphemes）。
自考英语语言学Chapter_2_Phonology
Chapter 2 Phonology音系学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Of two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of information conveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later in school.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介（2006填空；2001，32名词解释）This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics语音学2.1 What is phonetics? 什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
自考英语语言学
自考英语语言学Certainly, I will provide you with an English essay on the topic of "Self-study of English Linguistics" that meets the requirements you have specified.The field of English linguistics is a vast and fascinating area of study that encompasses the scientific analysis of the English language. As a self-study enthusiast, delving into the intricacies of English linguistics can be a rewarding and enriching experience. From understanding the historical development of the language to exploring the nuances of its grammar and phonology, the journey of self-study in this domain can open up a world of linguistic discoveries.One of the primary aspects of English linguistics that one can explore through self-study is the evolution of the language over time. The English language has a rich and complex history, with roots tracing back to the Germanic tribes that settled in Britain during the 5th century. By understanding the various stages of the language's development, from Old English to Middle English and eventually to Modern English, one can gain a deeper appreciation for the linguistic changes and adaptations that have shaped the language we use today. This historical perspective can shed light on the origins ofwords, the transformation of grammatical structures, and the influence of other languages on the English language.Another crucial component of English linguistics that can be delved into through self-study is the structure and grammar of the language. Exploring the parts of speech, sentence structures, and the rules that govern the use of English can lead to a more nuanced understanding of how the language functions. This knowledge can be particularly valuable for individuals who are non-native English speakers or those who wish to improve their command of the language for academicor professional purposes. By studying the intricacies of English grammar, one can develop a stronger grasp of the language's conventions and enhance their ability to communicate effectively.Phonology, the study of the sound system of a language, is another area of English linguistics that can be deeply explored through self-study. Understanding the production and distribution of English sounds, as well as the patterns of stress, intonation, and rhythm, can significantly improve one's pronunciation and listening comprehension. This knowledge can be particularly useful for individuals who are learning English as a second language or those who wish to enhance their communication skills in professional or academic settings.In addition to the core areas of English linguistics, self-study can alsodelve into the fascinating realm of sociolinguistics. This field examines the relationship between language and society, exploring how factors such as regional dialects, social class, and cultural influences shape the way language is used and perceived. By exploring the sociolinguistic aspects of English, one can gain a more nuanced understanding of the diversity and complexity of the language, as well as the ways in which it is influenced by the broader social and cultural context.One of the key benefits of self-study in English linguistics is the opportunity to tailor the learning experience to one's own interests and goals. Whether one is interested in the historical development of the language, the intricacies of its grammar, the subtleties of its phonology, or the sociocultural factors that shape its usage, self-study allows for a personalized and in-depth exploration of these topics. Additionally, the availability of a wealth of online resources, such as academic journals, online courses, and language-learning platforms, has made it easier than ever for individuals to engage in self-directed study of English linguistics.However, it is important to note that self-study in English linguistics, like any academic discipline, requires a certain level of dedication, discipline, and critical thinking. It is essential to approach the subject matter with a curious and analytical mindset, constantly questioning and challenging one's own assumptions and findings. Additionally, itis crucial to seek out reliable and reputable sources of information, as the internet can be a vast and sometimes unreliable repository of linguistic knowledge.In conclusion, the self-study of English linguistics can be a deeply rewarding and enriching experience. By delving into the historical, structural, phonological, and sociolinguistic aspects of the English language, individuals can develop a more nuanced understanding of this complex and ever-evolving means of communication. The flexibility and personalization of self-study allow for a tailored learning journey, catering to one's specific interests and goals. However, it is essential to approach the subject with a critical and disciplined mindset, leveraging reliable sources and continuously expanding one's knowledge and understanding of this fascinating field of study.。
自考语言学复习大纲(整理)
自考英语语言学复习大纲Chapter 1Introduction 绪论1.What is linguistics?什么是语言学1.1Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
2.What is language?什么是语言？2.1Definitions:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。
(1)language is a system (2)language is arbitrary (3)language is vocal (4)language is human specific Chapter 2Phonology 音位学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介2.Phonetics 语音学 a.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学。
b.The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.语音学c.The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.音位学d.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.形态学e.The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.句法学f.The study of meaning in language is called semantics.语义学g.The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.语用学h.The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.社会语言学i.The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics.心理语言学j.The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is general known as applied linguistics.应用语言学h.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,(人类语言学)neurological linguistics(神经语言学),mathematical linguistics(数字语言学)and computational linguistics(计算机语言学).1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴a.语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrarinessb.语言的能产性Productivityc.语言的双重性Dualityd.语言的移位性Displacemente.语言的文化传递性Cultural transmission1Prescriptive vs.Descriptive 规定性与描写性2Synchronic vs.Diachronic 共时性与历时性(Saussure)3Speech and Writing 口头语和书面语4Langue and Parole (both from French words)语言（抽象）和言语（具体）(Saussure)5Competence and Performance 语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky)1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些重要的区分2.2Design features语言的甄别性特征Hockett人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征语言学内部的主要分支跨学科分支2.1Definition:phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音↘three points of view 2.2Organs of speech 从三个角度审视语言的发音器官2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds —broad and narrow transcriptions IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标语音的正字表征—宽式标音和严式标音There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds:两种标音方法2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类(1)articulatory phonetics 发音语音学→研究语言的产生(2)auditory phonetics 听觉语音学→研究语言怎样被感知(3)acoustic phonetics 声学语音学→研究语音的物理属性The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔(the throat)→喉咙The oral cavity 口腔(the mouth)→嘴巴The nasal cavity 鼻腔(the nose)→鼻子One is the transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics called narrow transcription.stops 闭塞音/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/fricatives 摩擦音/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/θ/,/ð/,/h/affricates 塞擦音/tʃ/,/dʒ/liquids 流音/l/,/r/nasals 鼻音/m/,/n/,/ŋ/glides 滑音/w/,/j/bilabial 双唇音/p/,/b/,/m/,/w/labiodental 唇齿音/f/,/v/dental 齿音/θ/,/ð/alveolar 齿龈音/t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/palatal 鄂音/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,/dʒ/,/j/velar 软腭音/k/,/g/,/ŋ/glottal 喉音/h/Front 前元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/Central 中元音/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/back 后元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/,/a:/close vowels 闭元音/i:/,/i/,/ɜ:/,/u/semi-close vowels 半闭元音/e/,/ɜ:/semi-open vowels 半开元音/ə/,/ɔ:/open vowels 开元音/æ/,/a/,/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/a:/Consonants 辅音in terms of manner of articulation 按照发音方式in terms of place of articulation按照发音部位Vowels元音the position of the tongue in the mouth按照舌在口腔的位置the openness of the mouth 按照嘴的张合度the shape of the lips 按照嘴唇形状the length of the vowels 按照音的长度rounded vowels 圆唇元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/,/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/long vowels 长元音/a:/,/ɔ:/,/ə:/,/i:/,/u:/short vowels 短元音/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/ə/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/æ/monophthong 单元音在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/əu/,/ɔi/,/iə/,/εə/,/uə/3.Phonology 音位学3.1phonology and phonetics 音位学和语音学3.2phone,phoneme,allophone 音素、音位和音位变体3.3Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体3.4Some rules in phonology 3.5Suprasegmental features Chapter 3Morphology 形态学1.Definition:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。
自考“英语语言学”资料（4）
1.31.What is the manner of articulation？ The“manner of articulation”literally means the way a sound is articulated.At a given place of articulation，the airstream may be obstructed in various ways，resulting in various manners of articulation，are the following：（1） plosive：[p,b,t,d,k,g]（2）nasal：[m,n]（3）trill（4）tap or flap（5）lateral：[l]（6）fricative：[f,v,s,z]（7）approximant：[w,j]（8）affricate1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels？ Phoneticians，in spite of the difficulty，group vowels in 5 types：（1）long and short vowels，e.g.[i]（4）rounded and unround vowels，e.g.[i]（5）pure and gliding vowels，e.g.[I]. 1.33.What is IPA？When did it come into being ？ The IPA，abbreviation of“International Phonetic Alphabet”,is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources,including diacritics indicating length,stress and intonation,indicating phonetic variation.Ever since it was developed in 1888，IPA has undergone a number of revisions. 1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription？ In handbook of phonetics，Henry Sweet made a distinction between“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions，which he called“Narrow Romic”.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds，including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language. 1.35.What is phonology？What is difference between phonetics and phonology？ （1）“Phonology”is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall.Minimal pair，phonemes，allophones，free variation，complementary distribution，etc.，are all to be investigated by a phonologist. （2）Phonetics，as discussed in I.28，is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description，classification and transcription.A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds，whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features，morphological features，and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances，to recognize aforeign“accent”，to make up new words，to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses，to know what is and what is not a sound in one's language. 1.36.What is a phone？What is a phoneme？What is an allophone？ （1）A“phone”is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.When we hear the following words pronounced：[pit]，[tip]，[spit]，etc.，the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing，and three different[p]'s，readily making possible the“narrow transcription or diacritics”.Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A“phoneme”is a phonological unit；it is a unit that is of distinctive value.As an abstract unit，a phoneme is not any particular sound，but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example，the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit]，[tip] and [spit]. （2）The phones representing a phoneme are called its“allophones”，i.e.the different （i.e.phones）but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.So the different[p]'s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p].How a phoneme is represented by a phone，or which allophone is to be used，is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed；these rules are to be found out by a phonologist. 1.37.What are minimal pairs？ When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string，the two forms（i.e.，word）are supposed to form a“minimalpair”，e.g.“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”，“till”and“dill”，“till”and“kill”，etc.All these words together constitute a minimal set.They are identical in form except for the initial consonants.There are many minimal pairs in English，which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes.It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language（see Hu Zhuanglin et al.，pp65-66）。
2006年10月自学考试--外语教学法试题与答案
全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试外语教学法试题课程代码：00833I．Multiple Choice：(15%)Directions：In this section，you are given 15 questions beneath each of which are four choices marked A，B，C，and D. You are to make the best choice either to complete the incomplete statement or to answer the question. One point is given to each correct choice. 1．Which of the following techniques is NOT used in the Grammar-Translation Method?（）A．Reading B．TranslationC．Written work D．Oral presentation2．American structuralism came into being at _________.（）A．the beginning of the 20th century B．in the 19th centuryC．in the 1940s D．in the 1930s3．Students’ mistakes are ________ corrected in the classrooms of the Direct Method.（）A．never B．immediatelyC．seldom D．carelessly4．Which of the following methods is likely to support the idea that students study English at different levels?（）A．The Global Method B．The Dual Activity MethodC．The Leveled method D．The ASSRF Method5．In the Direct Method ______ are used as teaching units.（）A．words B．phrasesC．sentences D．discourses6．_______ wrote a book of Greek Grammar.（）A．Apollonius Dyscolus B．Dianysius ThraxC．Noam Chomsky D．M.A.K.Halliday7．Many proponents of the Communicative Approach advocate the use of _______ materials in 浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 1 页共10 页the language classrooms.（）A．classic B．authenticC．modern D．oral8．________ is particularly interested in the relationship between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.（）A．Transformational Grammar B．PragmaticsC．Structuralism D．The Situational Approach9．In the recent development of FLT, there has been an emphasis on（）A．a practical knowledge of the grammar of languageB．a decisive role of teachersC．students’ performance and reflectionsD．the individual as learner10．According to the Grammar-Translation Method, Latin grammar was considered to be the ______ grammar.（）A．best and oldest B．most logical and well-organizedC．most widely learned D．most popular11．According to Morrow, activities that are truly communicative have three features. They are information gap, ________ and _________.（）A．choice, feedback B．choice, situationC．situation, discourse D．discourse, function12．In Chomsky’s opinion, linguistic competence refers to the _________ of the language that a native speaker possesses.（）A．inborn device B．universal grammarC．internalized knowledge D．general principles13．In the Communicative Approach group and pair work is favoured to ________ the time allotted to each student to practice the use of language.（）A．minimize B．shortenC．maximize D．reduce14．One of the important ways of correcting language mistakes in the Direct Method is _______.浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 2 页共10 页（）A．discussion B．explanationC．demonstration D．self-correction15．What’s the ultimate aim of the Dual Activity Method?（）A．To help students overcome their negative feelings.B．To develop students’ independence and autonomy in learning and using the language.C．To enhance students’ self-confidence.D．To create a relaxed, cooperative atmosphere.II．Filling Blanks：（20%）Directions：In this section there are 15 statements with 20 blanks . You are to fill in each blank with ONE appropriate word. One point is given to each blank.16．In the Natural Approach, to minimize stress, the learners are not required to ________.especially at the beginning stage, but they are expected to make responses.17．Viewed from the nature and purpose of education, the Grammar-Translation Method was a(n) ________ of classical humanism.18．New language points are presented situationally in the Oral Approach, that is ,words should be presented in ________, and sentences should be presented in meaningful ________ and not be taught as isolated ,disconnected elements.19．Krashen’s second language learning theory is mostly based on the ________ model. 20．Cognitive Approach holds that students should be led to learn and use the language by making hypothesis, testing the ________ and then make corrections.21．For Krashen, the affective filter is the principal source of individual ________ in second language acquisition.22．Cognitive Approach holds that mistakes are unavoidable in the creative use of ________. 23．To Piaget, the starting point of cognitive development must be activity on the part of the child, not passive reception of outside ________ .24．The Audiolingual Method originated in ________ and became very fashionable in ________. 25．In Krashen’s monitor model, acquisition refers to the subconscious process leading to the development of “ ________ ” .浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 3 页共10 页26．Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby attempted to develop a methodology theoretically ________, intellectually ordered and ________ workable.27．According to the Natural Approach, as effective classroom input must be interesting , topics of universal ________ will be valuable to the learners.28．According to behaviourist psychology, learning a language is a process of acquiring a set of appropriate language ________ chains , a ________ process of habit formation. 29．Krashen and Terrell suggest that a language is essentially its ________.30．In the army programme, the ________ served as a source of language for imitation ,and the ________ supervised the learning experience.III．Matching：（15%）Directions：This section consists of three groups of pairs listed in two columns, A and B. You are to match the one marked ①，②，③，④，or ⑤ in Column A with the one marked a, b, c, d, or e in Column B. One point is given to each pair you match.31．A: theories of second language acquisition B: methods of foreign or second languageteaching①. traditional linguistics a. the Audiolingual Method②. the habit-formation theory b. the Cognitive Approach③. the discourse theory c. the Natural Approach④. the monitor theory d. the Communicative Approach⑤. the cognitive theory e. the Grammar-Translation Method32．A: techniques used in the Cognitive B: the purposeApproach①. discrimination a. to activate oral and written skills②. physical response b. to develop students’ ability to use thelanguage independent of the text③. sentence combination c. to give students practice in listeningcomprehension④. describing pictures d. to give students practice in telling thedifference between linguistic items浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 4 页共10 页⑤. prepared speech on a topic of interest e. to give students practice in the use of thegrammar rules33．A: the main feature of the Grammar-B: the advantage or disadvantage associated Translation Method with the feature①. emphasis on the teaching of the second a. little attention paid to speaking or listening language grammar②. translation being the principal practice b. a good mastery of the grammar system of the technique target language being helpful for students inteachers colleges③. emphasis on reading and writing c. language learned being unable to meet thepractical needs of learners④. native language being the main medium of d. better understanding of abstract words instruction⑤. priority of literary language e. few demands on teachersIV. Questions for Brief Answers：（30%）Directions：This section has six questions . You are to briefly answer them . Five points are given to each question.34．What are the objectives of the Communicative Approach?35．According to Rivers , how is the history of ELT divided?36．What were Palmer’s two complementary objectives in English language teaching while he was working in Japan?37．What are the four characteristics of the Natural Approach?38．What are the objectives of the Grammar-Translation Method?39．Give two examples to briefly illustrate operant conditioning in language studies.V. Questions for Long Answers：（20%）Directions：The two questions in this section are to be answered on the basis of your own teaching experience as well as the theoretical knowledge you’ve learned .Ten points are given to each question.40．Why is it important for an FL learner to study the target culture while acquiring the target 浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 5 页共10 页language?41．What are the roles of the teacher and student in the Natural Approach?浙00833# 外语教学法试题第 6 页共10 页浙00833# 外语教学法试题第7 页共10 页浙00833# 外语教学法试题第8 页共10 页给大家推荐一个英语微信群Empty Your Cup英语微信群是目前学习英语最有效的方法，群里都是说英语，没有半个中文，而且规则非常严格，是一个超级不错的英语学习环境，群里有好多英语超好的超牛逼的人，还有鬼佬和外国美眉。
06 级英语十班三 组
2. 功能语言学与外语教学理论
功能语言学的任务： 功能语言学的任务：研究语言是如何实现 其多重功能的，即表达多重意义： 其多重功能的，即表达多重意义： 概念意义： 概念意义：再现周围事物或经验 人际意义： 人际意义：构建和维持人际社会关系 语篇意义： 语篇意义：构建恰当的语篇
功能语言学对语言教学的影响
06级英语十班三 级英语十班三组 级英语十班三
组员：田庆菊 王丽娜 田庆菊 贾晓霞 王雪艳 韩冉冉
（1）语言学理论对于语言教学理论影响 （2）语言学与语言教学的关系
语言教学理论对于语言教学的影响
语言教学理论发展的思潮 语言教学理论发展的特点 语言学理论的发展对语言教学（ 语言学理论的发展对语言教学（特别 是外语教学） 是外语教学）的影响
Language is viewed as a system of forms in linguistics, but it is regarded as a set of skills in the field of language teaching. Language teaching aims at the learner’s mastery of language. To bridge the gap between the theories of linguistics and the practice of foreign language teaching， applied linguistics ， serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them userfriendly to language teacher.
北外语言学概论2006(610)
– 声带是两片富有弹性的肌肉，前端连结甲状 软骨，后端连结杓状软骨。杓状软骨的开合 回转，使声带或紧或松，或开或闭。呼吸或 发噪音时，声带放松，声门大开，气流可以 自由出入；发乐音时，声带靠拢，声门关闭， 气流从声门的窄缝里挤出，颤动声带，产生 响亮的声音。
– 3.口腔、鼻腔和咽腔（共鸣器，调音区）
这一节主要是介绍语音的物理属性。
一、 语音四要素
• 音高 • 音重 （音强） • 音长 • 音质（音色、音品）
语音的物理属性
声音是物体振动所产生的以空气为媒介传 播的一种声波。发音体由于外力的压迫， 由静止状态发生颤动，推动周围的空气 并使空气形成疏密相间的波，这就叫声 波。
声音有乐音和噪音之分：周期性出现重 复波形的音波叫乐音，不是周期性出现 重复的音波叫噪音。
毕业
受用
旷课
语言学概论
第七讲 3月20日
第三节 发音
一、 发音器官 二、 两类音素：元音和辅音 三、 元音 四、 辅音
这一节主要介绍语音的生理属性，掌 握元音和辅音的区别及发音原理。
一、 发音器官
•肺 • 喉头和声带 • 口腔、鼻腔、咽腔
1.肺（动力区）
肺是呼吸气流的活动风箱，是呼吸器官的中 心，也是发音的动力站。由肺部活动产生的 气流通过支气管、气管到达喉头，作用于声 带、咽腔、口腔、鼻腔等发音器官，经过这 些发音器官的调节，就发出各种不同的声音。
• 汉语中的声调主要是由音高不同形成的。
2.音强
音强指声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的 大小，振幅小，声音弱；振幅大，声音 强。振幅大小又取决于发音时用力的大 小，用力大，呼出的气流对发音器官的 冲击就强，声波振幅就大，声音就强， 反之则弱。现代汉语中，轻重音的差别， 主要是音强不同。
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全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试现代语言学试题课程代码：00830Ⅰ.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets.(2%×10=20%)1．Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of（）A．all consonants B．vowels onlyC．all consonants and some vowels D．all vowels and some consonants2．The negative prefix“ in-”in English, when added to the adjective “possible”, is actually pronounced/im/,and spelt as “im”. This is the result of the ______________rule at work.（）A．deletion B．assimilationC．phonetic D．sequential3．The word “ecology” is a two-morpheme cluster that contains_______________.（）A．two roots B．a root and a suffixC．a root and a free morpheme D．a prefix and a root4．When we move the adverbial phrase “every day” in the sentence “Every day, we study English”to the end of the sentence, we are now ______________ the phrase to the right.（）A．rewriting B．preposingC．postposing D．maintaining5．Antonyms are divided into several kinds .Which of the following is NOT a kind of antonyms?（）A．complementary B．relationalC．superordinate D．gradable6．In terms of predication analysis , the utterance“ Is it going to snow this afternoon?” is a______________（）A．one-place predication B．two-place predicationC．three-place predication D．no-place predication7．In Old English, word order was freer because the case endings were rich. So in Old English, word orders included SVO, VSO, SOV and OSV. However, Modern English has a much 浙00830#现代语言学试题第1 页共5 页weaker case system, so its sentences have to follow a basic word order of________________.（）A．SOV B．SVOC．VSO D．OSV8．Black English is a kind of _______________dialect.（）A．regional B．standardC．ethnic D．situational9．The critical period for language acquisition refers to the short period of _____________years old in one’s life, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language.（）A．1-2 B．2-12C．1-12 D．13-1810．In a sense, humans can be said to be biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.What is meant by this ______________view of language acquisition is that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.（）A．behaviorist B．nativistC．mentalist D．empiricistⅡ. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)11.A scientific study of language is based on the s________________ investigation of languagedata.12.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human linguistic communication and areof interest to linguistic studies are called the p________________ medium of language.13. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences with infinite length, due totheir r________________ properties.14. A f_________________ clause is a clause that takes a subject and a main verb, and at thesame time stands structurally alone.15.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true. The relationshipbetween X and Y is i_________________浙00830#现代语言学试题第2 页共5 页16.In Austin’ s early speech act theory, c________________ were statements that either state ordescribe, and were thus verifiable.17.In the historical development of language, sound change is inevitable, such as sound loss,sound a________________ and sound movement.18.Slang is often perceived as a low or vulgar form of language and is deemed to be undesirablein f_________________ styles of language.19.D_________________ listening tests involve simultaneously presenting, through earphones,two different auditory signals, one to the right ear and the other to the left ear.20.At children’s language development, one-word utterances can be used to express a concept orpredication similar to a sentence in adult speech. For example, a child might use the word “dada” to mean “Dada, come here”, “more” to mean “Give me more candy”. Those utterances can also be called h_________________ sentences.Ⅲ.Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the bracket in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and give the correct version.(2%×10=20%) 21.( )Language can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approachesare equally favored by modern linguists.22. ( )Stress is a suprasegmental feature that is exclusively used with words, not withsentences.23. ( )A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen between itscomponents, or as two separate words. It is simply a matter of convention.24. ( )Major lexical categories are closed categories because the number of lexical items inthese categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.25. ( )The important criteria to distinguish polysemy from homonymy are the etymology ofthe words in question and the closeness of the relationship between the meanings in question.26. ( )The significance of Grice’s Cooperative Principle lies in that it explains how it ispossible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.27. ( )The invention of steam-powered boats gave the verb sail an opportunity to extend itsmeaning to boats without sails. This example indicates that the meaning or semantic representation of words may become broader.浙00830#现代语言学试题第3 页共5 页28. ( )An official language is in fact a national language.29. ( )Generally speaking, left-handed people have their language centers in the lefthemisphere of the brain.30. ( )A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number ofyears to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.Ⅳ.Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration.(3%×10=30%)31.phonemic contrast32.free morphemes33.hierarchical structure34.co-hyponyms35.utterance meaning36.perlocutionary act37.internal borrowing38.subvocal speech39.contrastive analysis40.caretaker speechⅤ.Answer the following questions.(10%×2=20%)41.Discuss any FOUR of the features of human language that distinguish it from animalcommunication system.42.What is bilingualism? What is a bilingual community? What does it mean that most bilingualcommunities have one thing in common?浙00830#现代语言学试题第4 页共5 页全国200 年10月高等教育自学考试现代语言学试题课程代码：00830第一部分选择题Ⅰ.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets.(2%×10=20%)第二部分非选择题Ⅱ. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)Ⅲ. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and give the correct version.(2%×10=20%) Ⅳ. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration.(3%×10=30%)Ⅴ. Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)41.浙00830#现代语言学试题第5 页共5 页。