语用学Chapter 2 Deixis and reference陈新仁何自然何伟
语用学Chapter 12 Cross-cultural pragmatics陈新仁何自然何伟
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E. 道谢与道歉方面的语用差异
汉语中的谢谢与英语中的“thank you”适用场合 不尽相同。 服务业中: 在汉语交际中，被服务者感谢付出服务者。 而操英语的本族人认为是相反的： Thank you for your service! That’s my duty! I’m glad to be of help.
6
• 英，语言学家，利奇（Leech,1983) • 语用学: a) 语用语言学（ pragmalinguistics )
b) 社交语用学（sociopragmatice)
7
II. 语际语用学
• 语际语用学（20世纪70、80 年代末）：从语用学 的角度研究第二语言的习得或第二语言学习过程 中出现的中介语，包括中介语的类型与特征，产 生的原因，给交际带来的负面影响、语用失误。
A: Yes or no?
B: Thank you! I will try to come.
29
PS.：操英语的本族人，特别是美国 人，在握手道别时会讲客气话，没有 具体时间、地点的邀请不必认真。 Give me a call sometime. Let’s have lunch sometime.
• 太过完整，会产生言外之意，误以为说话人不耐烦，耍脾 气，对对方的提问不领情，觉得是多管闲事。回答："Yes. I have."就可以了。
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III. 社交文化语用研究
英汉语用差异
社交应酬方面的语用差异
招呼用语 道别用语
恭维与赞扬
邀请与应答方面 道谢与道歉方面
人际关系方面的语用差异
13
• C) 探讨语际语中的语用迁移
• 语用迁移（pragmatic transfer) ：外语习者将母 语母语文化中的有关知识借用到外语的使用与理 解中来。 • 按迁移的结果与目标语关系分类： • 正向迁移（positive transfer ) • 负向迁移（negative transfer)
语用学PPT deixis 指示代词
A. Time adverbials
Examples: now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, soon, recently, two days ago, in three minutes, from now on, right away • now — the time point of speaking today • yesterday — the day before that of speaking • tomorrow— the day after that of speaking • (two days)ago — (two days) before the time of speaking
Time expressions can be used deicticly, when the speaker uses his own time of speaking as the reference time, or non—deicticly when the fixed time of an important event is used as the reference point of time.
BACK
C. Tense of verbs
(a grammatical category)
As a rule, in deictic use of tense, the time of speaking is used as the deictic center. So, present tense is used for the event happening at/during the time of speaking, past tense for the event happening before the time of speaking.
陈新仁,南京大学外国语学院英语系教授,副主任,博士生
《语用学与语言教学》导读(陈新仁, 2006,世界图书出版公司)编者按：本文首先简要回顾了语用学研究的历史，然后介绍了当前国内语用学研究情况，阐述了语用学研究的重要意义，接着介绍《语用学与语言教学》一书的编者和作者，并对书的各章内容进行了引领导览，旨在使读者对于语用学研究以及《语用学与语言教学》一书能够得到一个鸟瞰式的认识。
目录第1章语言教学中的语用学 Cabriele Kasper and Kenneth R. RoseI理论与实证研究背景第2章关于实证性证据的评价：开展语用教学的依据？Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig第3章语际语语用学的课堂研究 Gabriele KasperII 课堂环境下语用学的学习问题第4章语用意识和语法意识：学习环境的影响？Kimberly Niezgoda and CarstenRöver第5章为什么将日语作为外语的学习者不能区分敬体与非敬体？Haruko MinegishiCook第6章用日语作为外语表达一致的能力发展的纵向研究Amy Snyder OhtaIII 语用教学的效果第7章通过教学习得法语的应对程式Anthony J. Liddicoat and Chantal Crozet第8章关于恭维和回应恭维的归纳教学法与演绎教学法Kenneth R. Rose and ConnieNg Kwai-fun第9章输入强化在发展语用能力过程中的作用Satomi Takahashi第10章日语中sumimasen的显性语用教学法与隐性语用教学法Satomi Takahashi第11章显性教学·将日语作为外语的学习者对应对性话语标记语的使用DinaRudolph YoshimiIV 语用能力的评估第12章德语口语测试中对称呼语的使用的考察Thom M. Norris第13章语用教学的评价指标：一些量化评估工具Thom Hudson第14章语用测试：目的不同，测试不同James Dean Brown语际语用学研究的历史回顾及当前动态语用学作为一门独立的学科至今不到30年，但就在这短短的30年中，语用学的发展无论在国外还是在国内都非常迅猛，新理论不断涌现，应用范围不断拓展，研究方法不断创新。
《语用学deixis》PPT课件
centaurs, goblins, dragons, phoenix,…
In
pragmatic sense, we might think of reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader, to identify something. Those linguistic forms are referring expressions, which can be: Proper nouns: Shakespeare, Cathy Revuelto, Hawaii,…. Noun phrases: the author, the singer, the island, …or a man, a woman, a beautiful place,… Pronouns: he, it, her, them,…
A
horse is a four-legged solid-hoofed animal with flowing mane and tail, used from early times to carry loads, for riding, etc. My horse is white.
Unicorns,
Referennse and reference
•Referential and attributive uses
•Names and referents
•The role of co-text •Anaphoric reference
The
sense is the "cognitive significance" or "mode of presentation" of the referent. The sense of a proper name is whatever meaning it has, when there is no object to be indicated. The reference is the object that the expression refers to. The reference (or referent) of a proper name is the object it means or indicates.
商务语篇人称指示语的语用认知功能探索
商务语篇人称指示语的语用认知功能探索李波【摘要】人称指示语是语用学的重要研究内容。
商务语篇中的人称指示语具有积极的语用认知功能、语用顺应认知功能、话语标记及言语互动功能、信息结束标记功能等等。
商务语篇中人称指示语的灵活运用促进语篇的连贯性,增加交际者话语的最大关联性,同时保护了会话者的面子,顺应了礼貌与合作原则。
【期刊名称】《林区教学》【年(卷),期】2012(000)011【总页数】2页(P62-63)【关键词】商务语篇;指示语;语用认知;认知功能【作者】李波【作者单位】牡丹江师范学院应用英语学院,黑龙江牡丹江157011【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H136一、指示语概述Deixis来自希腊语，指利用语言进行“指点”或“标示”。
话语以两种不同的方式与真实世界发生联系。
一种是可以直接描述出来的，另一种涉及到某个话语在其周围的现实中的定位。
这种定位是语言在现实世界中的锚定，锚定是通过指向世界某些维度上的变项来实现的，这个现象是指示现象。
而用于指示现象的词语被称作指示语。
在实际交际中，这些语言单位的具体所指需借助交际参加者和其他语境因素才能得到正确的解释。
耶夫·维索尔伦根据会话的维度把指示语分为时间指示语、空间指示语、社会指示语和语篇指示语。
本研究将仅限于探索语言使用者:人称指示语。
人称指示语，指交际参加者之间表示相互称谓、相互之间人际关系的词语，这些词语的所指以交际参加者为参照而得以明确。
人称指示语进一步分为第一人称、第二人称、第三人称，其不仅仅局限在发话人和释话人身份确认的研究上，交际的兴趣也会集中在“他人”(第三人称)身上。
身份确认的过程通常涉及到将人定位于社交世界中的特征的前景化的过程［1］。
人称指示语的选择与各自所指之间有既定的现实对应关系，而且遵守一定的质和量的准则。
但在特定的语境中，为表达特定的语意和达到特定的说话目的，说话人常常采用灵活的语用策略，从而形成人称指示语的非常规性用法。
语用学Deixis
• (5) Social deixis: honorifics敬语 (forms
to show respect such as Professor Li)
• Big Sale Tomorrow.
• Deixis belongs to pragmatic study
since it reveals a very close relationship between language and context.
Deixis
CONTENT
• Exercise
• The notion of deixis
• Deictic usage VS non-deictic usage
• Different usages of deictic terms
EXERCISE
• a. Flying planes can be dangerous.
• Flying planes can be planes that are flying.飞行 中的飞机是危险的。 • To fly the plane is a dangerous behavior.飞飞机 是一件危险的事。
• b. Shooting of hunters is cruel.
• Shooting animals is a cruel behavior. • Shooting hunters is a cruel behavior.
• c. It’s the taste.
• It’s the taste I like • It’s the taste I dislike.
NOTION
• Deixis, derived from Greek, means “show”, “point” or “indicate” in English.
语用学 deixis课件
B 不同的言语平面（speech levels），如坦率或礼貌 的言谈、敬语或谦语等的认别。
C 谈话场合，如正式与非正式场合、严肃与随便场 合的区别。
D 人名、职务和亲属的称谓，如根据说话人、听话 人和第三者的关系反映出不同的称谓表达方式。
E 作为社交行为的言语表现方式，如问候、道谢等
F 配合其他社交行为而使用的言语表现方式。
不才
称别人：君、公、子、卿、阁下、先生
称妻子：内人、荆妇、山妻
称儿子：小儿、犬子
称别人的儿女：令郎、令嗣、令爱、令媛
谦：寒舍、敝姓
尊：贵姓、贵体
语用学 deixis
19
2. 2 characteristics of deixis
• All deictic expressions depend, for their interpretation, on the speaker and the hearer who share the same context.
语用学 deixis
5
• Deictic expressions include definite noun phrases, personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, tenses, etc.
• 表空间位置的副词：
Johnny lives upstairs.
view. This can be understood as egocentric
语用学 deixis
22
deictic center (ⅰ) the central person
the speaker
(ⅱ) the central time the time at which speaker produces the utterance.
话语分析法及其在语用学研究中的运用陈新仁
The field of discourse analysis (DA) is vast, varied and contested with traditions ranging from conversational analysis (Sacks, 1995, [1964-1972]), to more Foucauldian inspired approaches (e.g. Kendall & Wickham, 1999), to critical discourse approaches (Van Dijk, 2001; Fairclough, 2003).
(O‘Rourke, B. K. An Overview of Discourse Analytical Approaches to
Research. In: J. Hogan, P. Dolan and P. Donnelly (eds.), Approaches to Qualitative Research: Theory and Its Practical Application. Cork: Oak Tree Press, 2009, pp. 209-228.)
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（语用学）【圣才出品】
刘润清《新编语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（语⽤学）【圣才出品】第6章语⽤学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory⾔语⾏为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语⽤学的定义；语法分析与语⽤学的区别；微观语⽤学中的基本概念；宏观语⽤学中⾔语⾏为理论(发话⾏为、⾏事⾏为和取效⾏为)；合作原则；实例分析⾔语⾏为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语⽤学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语⽤学是研究语⾔实际运⽤的学科，集中研究说话⼈意义、话语意义或语境意义。
批评语用学_目标_对象与方法
2009年第12期总第249期外语与外语教学F ore i gn Languages and The ir T eaching 2009,l 12Ser i a l l 249#版权所有 文责自负#*基金项目:本文为作者主持的国家社科基金项目/英汉社会用语的语用实证研究0(项目编号:07BYY005)阶段性成果之一。
作者简介:陈新仁,教授,博士,博士生导师,研究方向:普通语言学,语用学,修辞学收稿日期:2009-10-09(修改稿)批评语用学:目标、对象与方法*陈新仁(南京大学,江苏南京 210093)摘 要:批评语用学是语用学的一个重要分支领域,自诞生以来并没有引起足够的重视。
该领域主要考察社会语境中语言使用背后的意识形态、价值取向等问题,旨在弘扬合适的社会语用方式,批判语言使用背后的权力压制、社会偏见、政治或经济欺诈等。
从事批评语用学研究,既可以针对具有积极社会意义的话语开展语用-语言学讨论,又可以面向带有消极社会意义的用语进行语用-语言学分析,其根本目的就是为社会语用文明建设做出贡献。
关键词:语用学;批评语用学;社会语用学;语用文明C ritical Prag m atics:A im s,Objects and M ethodsCHEN X i n ren(N anjing U ni v ersity ,Nanji n g 210093)Abstrac t :A s an i m portan t area of prag m atic research ,critical prag m atics has fail ed to attract adequat e attenti on si n ce its b irt h .It s s t ud i es are con -cerned w it h i deo l og i cal orientati ons and value j udg m en ts refl ected by l anguage u s e i n its socio -cu lt u ral con text ,w it h a v i e w to advocati ng app ropriat e m anners of s oci a l discou rse and critici z i ng those s oci al prob l e m s e m bedded i n language use ,s uch as po w er i m position ,soci al d i scri m i n ati on,and poli ti calor econo m i c fraud .Itm ay have t w o opposite approach es :one m ay atte mp t pragma li ngu istic d i scuss i on s on d i scou rses w it h positi ve socialm ean i ngs ,or on e m ay conduct prag m ali ngu i sti c i nvesti gati on s i nto discou rses w it h n egati ve soci alm ean i ngs .Both approaches are m ean t to con tri bute to t h e constru cti on of s oci etal pragmati c civiliz ati on.K ey W ords :p rag m ati cs ;critical prag m atics ;s ocietal p rag m atics ;pragm ati c ci vilizati on中图分类号:H 0 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1004-6038(2009)12-0010-031.引言语用学自诞生以来,就从定义上将语言使用者纳入研究的视野,并在具体实践中专门研究不同的语言使用者如何在动态的语境中使用语言(包括话语表达和话语理解两个方面)。
英语语言学实用教程答案(陈新仁)(2)
Unit 9 The Use of English (II)[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Maxim of quantity requires one to provide as much information as possible.F2. In order to be polite, one needs to cooperate in all possible ways.F3. Every normal speaker needs to mind his own and others’ face.T4. Politeness is a matter of degree. T5. Cultures vary as far as politeness issues are concerned.T■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) How would you interpret “and” in eac h of the cases?In a, “and” is a pure conjunction that coordinates two parts. In b, “and” signals cause-effect relation. In c, “and” indicates the sequence of events, meaning “and then”.(2) Do you vote for the argument that “and” is polysemous, or the argument that “and” has justone basic meaning and the other “meanings” are implicaturesderived from the context? “and”has one basic meaning. Other interpretations are derived from this basic meaning plus contextual information by way of implicature.(3) It seems that “or” has two conflicting meanings. What are they? Do you think one meaning isbasic and the other is derivable in context by virtue of implicature?They are exclusive “or” and inclusive “or”. The inclusive “or” is more basic. The exclusive “or” is realized by way of implicature.2. ASK:(1) What does John want to say in actuality?The stepmother is no good.(2) Why does John answer that way, you suppose?He does not want to say directly that his stepmother is bad.(3) What does John imply in the second part of his reply?He did not mean to be late.(4) Why does John give that additional information?He wants to explain why he was late so that Jane would pardon him, if she minded.(5) What is the extra information in each of the cases?In the first picture, the additional information is that “there is ice falling”. In the second picture, the additional information is “Heart disease is the #1 killer of African Americans”. In the third picture, the additional information is “水是生命的源泉。
Pragmatics 语义学
Chapter 1: Invitations to Pragmatics
1.1 What is Pragmatics? 1.2 The Origin and Development of Pragmatics 1.3 The Scope of Pragmatic Study Discussion questions
rule-governed formal product static sentence meaning sense representation context-free
principle-governed functional process dynamic utterande meaning force interpretation context-bound
e. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. (Leech, 1983:X) f. Pragmatics is the science of language seen in relation to its users.(1993:5) g. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker(or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). (1996:3)
1.3 The Scope of Pragmatic Study
1.3.1
语用学Chapter 2 Deixis and reference陈新仁何自然何伟
II. Types and properties of deixis:
1. The study of deixis:
(1）the first area of study in linguistic pragmatics （2) In 1954, the Israeli philosopher Yehoshua Bar-Hillel(巴尔-希勒 尔)wrote an article entitled "Indexical Expressions". （3）one of the central topics in pragmatics.
8
2. The definition of deixis:
Deixis ( or deictic or indexical expressions) : Greek word meaning “pointing to” or “picking out”
They derive part of their meaning from their context of utterance. Their referents are identifiable only in the context concerned.
14
(4) The social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees is relative. （5 )The discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of an utterance.
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)配套题库-章节题库-第1~3章【圣才出品】
第二部分章节题库第1章导言Ⅰ. Fill in the following blanks:1. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and _____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.（大连外国语学院2008研）【答案】conventionality【解析】语言学习过程中学习者必须识记一些固定搭配或约定俗成的习语谚语等，因此使得语言学习比较费力。
2. In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is _____.（北二外2005研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
3. The term _____ originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.（中山大学2006研）【答案】phatic communion【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出。
4. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
(完整word)语用学试题
词组互译1.person deixis (人称指示)2.deixical items （指示词语)3.exophoric reference (文外照应)4.endophoric reference （文内照应）5.cohesion (粘连)名词解释1.Deixis: A technical term for one of the most basic things we do withutterances. It means “pointing" via language. It is a form of r eferring that is tied to the speaker’s context， with the most basic distinction being “near speaker” versus “away form speaker”。
2.Person deixis： person deixis is concerned with the identification of theinterlocutors or participant—roles in a speech event。
3.Time deixis: time deixis is concerned with the encoding of temporal pointsand spans relative to the time at which an utterance is produced in a speech event.4.Space deixis: space deixis is concerned with the specification of locationin space relative to that of the participants at CT in a speech event。
《英语语用学》2
2.1 The notion of deixis
• The relationship between language and context is most obviously reflected thought the phenomenon of deixis. • Deixis is a technical term(from Greek verb ‗deknum‘, meaning ―show, point , indicate .‖) which means ―pointing‖ via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‗pointing ‘ is called a deictic expression. • For example, when you notice a strange object and ask, ‗What is that? ‘, you are using a deictic expression(that) to indicate something in the immediate context.
2.1 The notion of deixis
• Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. • It is used to indicate the function or property that certain words, such as personal and demonstrative pronouns, place and time adverbs and others have in language. • The function of these words is always tied up with the role of participants , time , and place of the utterance seen in relation to the speaker .
语用学Chapter 3 Presupposition陈新仁何自然何伟
1.7 Temporal clauses and phrases (Frege, 1892 (1952): before, after, since While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics, the rest of social science was asleep. Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics. Did you get a good look at my face when I took your purse? I took your purse. (In the USA, an accused mugger chose to defend himself by putting this question to his victim. And he was sentenced to 10 years in prison.)
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1.11 Non-restrictive relative clauses Hillary, who climbed Everest in 1953, was the greatest explorer of our day. Hillary climbed Everest. 1.12 Counterfactual conditionals If you had sent me a Christmas card last year, I would have sent you one this year. You did not send me a Christmas card last year.
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2. “Constancy under negation test” (Levinson, 1983, p. 185) It is often claimed that presupposition can survive negation.
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(2) Spas concerns the encoding of spatial location relative to the location of the participants in the speech event.
• Pure deictic words (here, there) • Demonstrative (this, that) • Locations ( this room , this city )
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(4) Social deixis
Definition:
Social deixis concerns the use of deictic terms that indicate social status of the participants in the discourse and their relations.
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Another general understanding:
Some invisible social or mental factors, especially social distance, power relations, encyclopedic knowledge and expectations, that affect the production or comprehension of certain utterances • Tang ：do you know Nanjing well ? • Wang : I have never been to Jiangsu.
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(3) Deixis is characterized by egocentricity.
Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. These points are called deictic centers.
(1) Deictic expressions can be used gesturally.
e.g. Put the piano here, no, not here, but here.
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(2) Deictic expressions can be used symbolically. e.g. You can come with me if you like.
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I. The encoding of context
A general understanding：
Some physical environment or setting (mainly including temporalspatial dimensions) in which we produce or comprehend utterances e.g. 这个东西放在这儿，别放在那儿。
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(1) Person deixis
Person deixis, mainly realized by personal pronouns, relates to the role of participants in the speech event in which the utterance in question is delivered.
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2. The definition of deixis:
Deixis ( or deictic or indexical expressions) : Greek word meaning “pointing to” or “picking out”
They derive part of their meaning from their context of utterance. Their referents are identifiable only in the context concerned.
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All share a basic conception:
Context is something "external" in the sense that it is not an integral part of the language to be interpreted.
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II. Types and properties of deixis:
Classification
• Based on the participant role：
• 1st person : the speaker (I , we ) • 2st person: the hearer (you) • 3st person: the third party ( neither the speaker nor the hearer) （he ,she ,they)
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学生：A病了，不能去上课，
他让我帮他请个假。
教授：好了，我知道了，那
么你是谁？
学生：这是我的室友。
5. The types of deixis
(1) Person deixis （人称指示） (2) Spatial deixis （地点指示） (3) Temporal deixis （时间指示） (4) Social deixis （社会指示） (5) Discourse deixis （语篇指示）
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秉宽：二老太太吉祥，七爷吉祥， 王总管吉祥！
白文氏：秉宽，你跟着老七到这边 来了？ 选自《大宅门》第28集
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Features:
Languages differ considerably in the employment of social deixis.
For instance, French, German, and Chinese distinguish between deferent second -person pronouns (“Vous”, “Sie”, “您”) and familiar second person pronouns ( “tu”, “du”, “你”) Modern English, however, does not.
Contents
I. The encoding of context II. Types and properties of deixis III. Definition of reference
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Please notice those sentences
e.g. I’ll be here again in half an hour. e.g.保质期三个月。 e.g.这个东西放在这儿，别放在那儿。
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The third person
• Telephone, internet, etc • This is … （not used in Chinese) • In Chinese can you give us some examples of using the third person as the first and second one ?
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3. Deictic items
1. Pronouns 2. Demonstratives(指示形容词） 3. Time and place adverbs. 4. Some grammatical categories, such as tense.
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4. Properties of deixis
• A to B: we are going to the party tomorrow, do you want to go with us? (exclusive of addressee) • Teacher to students: can we be quiet? ( exclusive of addresser)
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• Let’s go to the cinema. ( us) • Let’s give you a hand. (me)
• 通俗口语中“我们”，“咱们” 在汉语中可表示单数。 • Please cite some examples.
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The second person
1.You (singular plural) 2.You vacuum the floor while you wash the dishes, and you clean the table. (different person) 3.In oral English you = one You never know what you can do till you try . You /one cannot lose what you /one never had.
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Deictic centers:
(1) The center person is the speaker.
(2) The center time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance. (3）The center place is the speaker’s location at utterance time.
• Based on the number of participant：
• Singular and plural
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The first person
• Teacher to students: we will have a break after the discussion. (inclusive addresser and addressee)
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(4) The social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees is relative. （5 )The discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of an utterance.