the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies《翻译学的名与实》知识分享
Unit--Nature-and-Nurture新编大学英语第二第三册课文翻译
Unit 8 Nature and NurtureTwins, Genes, and EnvironmentHeredity or environment: which is stronger? The potentials which a person is born with determine in some way what he will do in life. Therefore heredity is fate, a kind of predestination. However, genes do not work in a vacuum; as soon as we begin considering the role that they play in the development of the individual, we see that there can be no development without the interacting environment. No characteristic is caused exclusively by either environment or genes.The relative effects of heredity and environment are most clearly observable in identical twins. Most identical twins are raised together and are remarkably alike in both appearance and behavior. These cases demonstrate that individuals with the same genes, when raised in the same environment, will respond to it in much the same way. They do not indicate what would happen if these identical individuals were raised separately.A number of studies have been made of identical twins raised apart. The twins who were the subjects of these studies lived in America, were raised in much the same physical environments, and experienced much the same nutritional histories. Therefore, as one might expect, they maintained the closest resemblance to each other in physical appearance, height, and weight. Exceptions occurred when one twin had developed a rather severe illness and the other had not; but on the whole everyone is impressed by the great psychological and physical likenesses that exist between identical twins, even those who have been separated from infancy.In a study of nineteen sets of twins who had been separated from birth, investigators found that in approximately two thirds of the sets there were no more significant differences than existed among unseparated pairs of twins. This strongly suggests the power of the genes and the limitation of the effect of environment. However, it must be remembered that, although the identical twins who were studied lived in different families far removed from each other, the environments in those families were not, on the whole, substantially different. Usually every effort would be made to put each child in a home with a background similar to that of its own family, and therefore it should not be surprising to find that the twins developed similarly. But in those cases in which there had been a greater difference in the environments of the separated twins, the differences between the twins were more substantial. The following case illustrates what happens to identical twins when they are brought up in contrasting environments.Gladys and Helen were born in a small Ohio town and were separated at about eighteen months of age. They did not meet again until they were twenty-eight years old. Helen had been adopted twice. Her first foster parents had proved to be unstable, and Helen had been returned to the orphanage after a couple of years; after several months she was again adopted, by a farmer and his wife who lived in southeastern Michigan. This was her home for the next twenty-five years. Her second foster-mother, though she had had few educational advantages herself, was determined that Helen should receive a good education; Helen eventually graduated from college, taught school for twelve years, married at twenty-six, and had a daughter.Gladys was adopted by a Canadian railroad conductor and his wife. When she was in the third grade, the family moved to a rather isolated part of the Canadian Rockies, where there were no schools, and Gladys' formal education came to an end, and was not resumed until the family moved to Ontario. She stayed at home and did housework until she was seventeen, and then went to work in a knitting mill. She went to Detroit at nineteen, got a job, and married when she was twenty-one.Helen had been healthier than Gladys, in childhood and adulthood, but other than that, their environments had been very similar except for their educations. Their weight, height, hair color, and teeth were very similar. The differences that distinguished them were obviously associated with the different social lives they had led.Helen was confident, graceful, made the most of her personal appearance, and showed considerable polish and ease in social relationships. Gladys was shy, self-conscious, quiet and without charming or graceful manners. A scientist who studied them remarked, "As an advertisement for a college education the contrast between these two twins should be quite effective."Considering the nature of their environmental experiences, the differences in Helen and Gladys are not surprising. Since psychological traits depend so much upon experience, it is to be expected that they will reflect it. On the other hand, traits that are not liable to be influenced by the environment are more likely to exhibit a high degree of similarity in identical twins. Important as they are, genes alone are never absolutely responsible for any trait. What we can do is set by the genes, but what we actually do is largely determined by the environment.基因、环境与双胞胎遗传与环境究竟哪一个影响更大呢？从某种程度上讲，一个人生来具有的潜力将决定他一生的作为。
Computerized Corpora and the Future of Translation Studies
COMPUTERIZED CORPORA AND THEFUTURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIESMARIA TYMOCZKOUniversity of Massachusetts, Amherst, USARésuméCet article traite de la «centralité» des études basées sur le corpus par rapport au domaine entier de la traductologie. L'auteur met le lecteur en garde contre la tentation de faire de la rigueur scientifique une fin en soi par des études quantitatives vides et inutiles.AbstractThis article provides a discussion of the centrality of corpus-based studies within the entire discipline of translation studies. The author warns against the possible danger of pursu-ing scientific rigour as an end in itself through empty and unnecessary quantitative investiga-tions.The information age has brought an explosion in the quantity and quality of information we are expected to master. This, along with the development of electronic modes for storing, retrieving, and manipulating that information, means that any disci-pline wishing to sustain itself in the twenty-first century must adapt its content and methods. Corpus translation studies is central to the way that Translation Studies as a discipline will remain vital and move forward. The essays collected in this volume show that corpus translation studies has the characteristics typical of contemporary emerging modes of knowing and investigating. Corpus translation studies enable us, for example, to encode in compact and efficient forms, to access and interrogate vast quantities of data — more data than any single human being could ever manage to gather or examine in a productive lifetime without electronic assistance. Moreover, the approach allows for and promotes the construction of information fields that suit a new international, multicultural intellectualism, providing for the inclusion of data from small and large populations, from minority as well as majority languages and cultures. Translation cor-pora make it possible for decentralized, multilocal investigations to proceed thanks to virtually instantaneous access to shared primary materials. Corpora in translation stud-ies lend themselves to joint intellectual endeavors unimpeded by time or space, facili-tated by intercommunication across the globe. They permit the reversibility of perspective, the decentering of power. And like large databases in the sciences, corpora will become a legacy of the present to the future, enabling future research to build upon that of the present. Thus, corpus translation studies change in a qualitative as well as a quantitative way both the content and the methods of the discipline of Translation Studies, in a way that fits with the modes of the information age.1Corpus translation studies (CTS) has emerged at a critical time in the discipline of Translation Studies. Growing out of corpus linguistics and thus inherently having an allegiance to linguistic approaches to translation, CTS at the same time marks a turn away from prescriptive approaches to translation toward descriptive approaches, approaches developed by scholars over the last thirty years, notably by polysystems the-Meta, XLIII, 4, 19982Meta, XLIII, 4, 1998 orists such as Itamar Even-Zohar, Gideon Toury, and André Lefevere. CTS focuses on both the process of translation and the product of translation (cf. Holmes 1988: 67; Bassnett 1991: 7), and takes into account the smallest details of the text chosen by the individual translator, as well as the largest cultural patterns both internal and external to the text. It builds upon the studies of scholars working in the descriptive approach to Translation Studies, and those of scholars who have worked with corpora themselves, albeit corpora that have been manually assembled, examined, and analyzed.2 The essays collected here illustrate that, although the materials of corpora are based upon the language medium of translations, interrogation of corpora can nonetheless serve to address not simply questions of language or linguistics, but also questions of culture, ideology, and literary criticism. Modes of interrogation — as well as care in the encod-ing of metatextual information about translations and texts — allow researchers to move from text-based questions to context-based questions. The flexibility and adapt-ability of corpora, as well as the openendedness of the construction of corpora underlie the strength of the approach.Inevitably, as is to be expected, the debates of Translation Studies as a whole are mirrored in CTS. For some CTS writers, the notion of "a tertium comparationis" is central, for others the concept has implicitly been superseded (cf. Snell-Hornby 1990). Some writers see norms as one of the most pressing factors to be investigated, while for others the question of norms plays little or no role. Equivalence — a concept that to Jacobson (1959: 233) was "the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics", but that more recently has fallen into discredit (Snell-Hornby 1988: 13; Van den Broeck 1978) — is still an important part of their discourse for some CTS scholars. The relationship of interpretation to Translation Studies, both theoretically and pragmatically, is addressed within CTS as it is elsewhere in the discipline. The types of literary questions addressed by the "manipulation" school of Translation Stud-ies (see Hermans 1985; cf. Snell-Hornby 1988: 22) motivate some CTS investigations, while literature as such is excluded from other corpora altogether and hence from research done with those corpora. For some CTS investigations, literary texts are seen as optimal, offering the most comprehensive information, while for others literary texts are seen as unrepresentative of natural language. The tendency toward segmentation of pedagogic, pragmatic, and theoretical studies is found in CTS, as it is in Translation Studies and intellectual endeavors altogether.One of the most important debates in intellectual domains has to do with the search for laws, both practical and theoretical. This debate is also conducted in Trans-lation Studies and mirrored in CTS. The interest in laws — promoted in Translation Studies by Even-Zohar and Toury, among others — follows the tradition of empirical research, behind which lies the presupposition of Western rationalism that science should be in the business of discovering natural laws and that "scientific" results have more value than others. In part a legacy of positivism, these predispositions are inti-mately connected with a tendency to polarize objectivity vs. subjectivity and privilege the former. A number of CTS scholars promote and justify corpus-based approaches on the grounds that such studies will uncover and establish universal laws of translation.By contrast, throughout the twentieth century the foundations of such objectivist research were repeatedly called into question. From the work of Einstein and Gödel and Heisenberg in physics and mathematics during the earliest decades of the twentieth century, to mid-century reconsiderations of objectivist premises about literature and history, to still later explorations of subjectivity in the social sciences, modern thought has increasingly come to understand the way that the perspective of the observer or the researcher is encoded in every investigation and impinges upon the object and theCOMPUTERIZED CORPORA AND THE FUTURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIES3 results of study. Such challenges to empiricist claims about objectivity and such asser-tions of subjectivity — and the large intellectual trajectory behind them — are echoed in some of the approaches represented in this collection and are germane to the devel-opment of CTS.In my view, the value of corpora in translation and of a CTS approach to transla-tion theory and practice does not rest on the claim to "objectivity" and the somewhat worn philosophical tradition claims of this type presuppose. Indeed, as a number of the authors here remind us, behind the establishment of corpora, as behind the design of any experiment or research program or survey, lie intuition and human judgement. Corpora in translation studies are products of human minds, of actual human beings, and, thus, inevitably reflect the views, presuppositions, and limitations of those human beings. Moreover, the scholars designing studies utilizing corpora are people operating in a particular time and place, working within a specific ideological and intellectual context. Thus, as with any scientific or humanistic area of research, the questions asked in CTS will inevitably determine the results obtained and the structure of the databases will determine what conclusions can be drawn. In that sense then, corpora are again to be seen as products of human sensibility, connected with human interests and self-interests.All the more reason, therefore, to consider the objects of study, the data gathered in the databases, and the parameters defining the corpora themselves very carefully. Central to this concern is the definition of translation, as Sandra Halverson argues. The nature and definition of the category "translation" have been notoriously contentious within the discourses of translation theory and practice. One man's translation is another man's adaptation. The favorite translations of one era are repudiated altogether by another. Like the category game discussed by Wittgenstein in his Philosophical Inves-tigations, there is no simple core identity for the cluster of objects identified as transla-tions by the many societies of human time and space. Rather, translations like games form a category linked by many partial and overlapping "family resemblances", as Wit-tgenstein called such commonalities. Ultimately the inability to define translation within bounded and finite characteristics and still include in the definition all the objects that human societies have identified as translations3 led Toury to define transla-tion in a pragmatic way as "any target language text which is presented or regarded as such within the target system itself, on whatever grounds" (Toury 1982: 27; cf. Toury 1980: 14, 37, 43-45). The family resemblances linking translations, like those linking games, have depended on the manifold factors of human culture, including, for exam-ple, characteristics of the culture's language, the conditions of "text" production, the role (if any) of literacy, the material culture, economics, social customs, social hierar-chies, values, and so forth. In the case of translation, moreover, the processes and prod-ucts of translation will be correlated not simply with the conditions of one culture, but with those of at least two cultures in interface. It is the very variety of human cultures that leads to the variety of translations and games, and it is that variety that prevents us both pragmatically and theoretically from drawing a neat line, as in classical set theory, around the category translation.4Although the theory of prototypes may ultimately offer some help in understand-ing how human beings learn and recognize and remember categories, including cluster concepts such as those of game and translation linked by loose family resemblances, prototypes do not necessarily offer a solution to the theoretical problem of constructing corpora that can be interrogated to reveal translation laws, should a scholar undertake such an exercise. Contrary to Halverson, I take the view that prototypes — including the proposed prototype of the professional translator5 — are themselves culturally4Meta, XLIII, 4, 1998 defined and culture bound, rather than universal. As Eleanor Rosch, the pioneer in prototype research, specifically stipulates, the theory of prototypes is intended to address issues in categorization that "have to do with explaining the categories found ina culture and coded by the language of that culture at a particular point in time" (1978:28); moreover, she acknowledges that "many categories may be culturally relative" (1975: 193). Thus, a prototype is hardly the point of departure for a search for general or universal laws of translation, for one would then immediately have to ask compro-mising questions about the results. For example, what language, what place, and what time were privileged in the selection of the prototype? Our own? If so, we consign our theoretical work to hopeless ethnocentrism and so doom it from the outset.To take as an analogue the well-discussed category chair, although we might dis-cover on the basis of research done with contemporary American subjects that the pro-totype of chair is a wooden, four-legged desk chair, the modern prototype is not necessarily a guide to the prototypical chair of other times and other cultures. In the case of chair, for example, there is good reason to believe that in the Renaissance and earlier, the prototypical chair would have been very different from the configuration of the modern prototype. In view of material evidence from the period, the prototype would perhaps have been a three-legged apurtenance, with a triangular seat and a rela-tively small back, chairs such as are common from the Renaissance period and earlier. Four-legged chairs are only practical if floors are level, whereas three-legged chairs, like three-legged stools, are more useful, more common, and, thus, presumably, more prototypical in cultures where floors are made of mud or uneven paving stones, as floors were in most houses in pre-modern conditions. Indeed such three-legged stools and chairs — if chairs and stools are used at all — continue to be the norm (and, hence, probably the prototype) in most peasant cultures today.The problems of beginning with a prototype in a search for general laws governing a cluster concept like translation are even more complex than those posed by implicit ethnocentrism. In the case of the would-be prototype of the professional translator sug-gested by Halverson, for example, we might go on to ask how one defines or picks out a professional translator now, leaving aside the question of the past or other cultures. Is a professional translator a translator trained in a translation school or program? (Even if that person never works as a translator or never is paid for translation?) At what point does the non-professional student translator make the transition to professional? (If a student translator publishes a translation, is that piece by a professional?) Or is a pro-fessional translator a translator whose work has been published or otherwise remuner-ated — hence an a posteriori determination which will include in many cases amateur translators who have "made good" or "become successful"? If one could resolve ques-tions such as these to the satisfaction of all, the question would still remain as to when the prototypical translator is translating prototypically, i.e. under what conditions pro-fessional translation is deemed to exist or to have taken place. Thus, are all translations of a professional translator prototypical, or only those produced in some stipulated professional context? Moreover, are all types of texts translated by a professional trans-lator prototypical, or only a limited subset? And so forth. The recursive nature of the stipulation required for defining a prototype in the case of the concept like translation illustrates the difficulty that follows from using prototypes as a foundation for the search for general laws of translation.Such issues can also be illustrated by questions related to Wittgenstein's category of game. What is the prototype of game in the modern period? The prototype of an abstract cluster concept like game is much harder to establish than that of a material category like chair.6 There may in fact not be any example of game that functions as aCOMPUTERIZED CORPORA AND THE FUTURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIES5 prototype for an entire culture as complex and differentiated as contemporary Western cultures are. It may be that there are several competing prototypes of game, each partic-ular to a specific subculture, for example, football, tennis, cards, video, and so forth. And again, as with categories like chair, a conceptual category like game or translation also changes through time. One might surmise, for example, on the basis of textual, artistic, and archaelogical evidence, that the prototypical game for many people in medieval France was dice gaming — a pastime that is currently unlikely to be prototyp-ical of game for very many people, if for anyone, in Europe or America. And once more the problem of establishing a prototype becomes recursive, for even if one could make allowances in research for multiple as well as ethnically decentered prototypes — say dice gaming as the medieval European prototype of game — what are the prototypes that are themselves in turn presupposed by the typical instance of game at any one cul-tural locus? In the case of the example under discussion, one should then ask, for instance, what is the prototype of dice. Almost invariably for a modern informant the term will suggest a pair of cubical objects (although other types of dice exist, as any player of Dungeons and Dragons can testify), while in medieval Europe oblong dice, made of bone and used in threes, were much more common and, thus, presumably more prototypical.These are some of the difficulties with basing the construction of translation cor-pora on a theory of prototypes. As Halverson proposes, translation corpora based on modern Western "prototypes" might be developed and interrogated so as to reveal gen-eral characteristics of contemporary translations done in circumstances and cultural settings congruent with the examples underlying the corpora. Such corpora will be enormously useful and valuable, but they will not yield general laws of translation applying to all times and all places and all languages. To discover general laws of trans-lation, if indeed such laws exist, a question that Wittgenstein's arguments about catego-ries should lead us to consider very seriously, at the very least what will be needed are corpora representing as many types of translations as are known from the whole of human history.7 It may be, however, that such a quest is a positivist chimera, the com-monalities so restricted for a category like translation that the effort is unlikely to pro-vide the field of Translation Studies with much information of lasting value or transferable worth and, therefore, would not be worth the effort.If the primary purpose of CTS is neither to be objective nor to uncover universal laws, what is the specific strength of descriptive studies of translation facilitated by computerized corpora that can be electronically searched and manipulated? Over and over again the essays collected in this volume speak to this question, offering many divergent and exciting new directions for Translation Studies. The multiple possibilities that can be foreseen even at this embryonic stage of CTS are welcome, suggesting that corpus translation studies will be an open rather than a convergent approach to the the-ory and practice of translation. One can project the construction of many different cor-pora for specialized, multifarious purposes, making room for the interests, inquiries, and perspectives of a diverse world.Comparison is always implicit or explicit in inquiries about translation, and there is often a tendency to focus on likeness rather than difference and to rest content with perceptions of similarity. Whether focused on linguistic or literary or cultural matters, comparative disciplines — among which Translation Studies takes its place (cf. Bassnett 1993) — all have a predilection for focusing on similarity or sameness, as Dwight Bolinger, writing about linguistic studies, observes (1977: 5):Always one's first impulse, on encountering two highly similar things, is to ignore their differences in order to get them into a system of relationships where they can be stored,6Meta, XLIII, 4, 1998 retrieved, and otherwise made manageable. The sin consists in stopping there. And also in creating an apparatus that depends on the signs of absolute equality and absolute inequality, and uses the latter only when the unlikeness that it represents is so gross that it bowls you over.This impulse, which partly drives the interest in laws of translation, could be a projection of the development of a narrow form of CTS, particularly at the beginning of the exploration of this approach to corpora of translations. Bolinger correctly sounds a cautionary note: like Translation Studies as a whole, CTS must find ways to move beyond systems of relationship that focus on likeness and to avoid being locked into a binary apparatus that acknowledges only perceptions of absolute equality and inequal-ity.One reason that CTS is likely to avoid the pitfall of fixation on similarity and remain open to difference, differentiation, and particularity, is the sheer variety in nat-ural languages themselves and the multiplicity of theoretical and practical conse-quences resulting from the manifold language pairings possible in translation. This "infinite variety", which CTS is more able to apprehend and include in its purview than traditional methods of Translation Studies, militates against universalist programs of research and universalist conclusions. From a positivist point of view, such variety and divergence might be seen in a negative light, but from most other perspectives, the potential of CTS to illuminate both similarity and difference and to investigate in a manageable form the particulars of language-specific phenomena of many different languages and cultures in translation constitutes the chief appeal of this new approach to Translation Studies. Particularly at this juncture of history, we need to know the spe-cifics of different languages in translation, the individual particularities of specific pair-ings of languages in translation exchanges, and the characteristics of translation as cultural interface at different times and places and under different cultural conditions. Such differences teach us as much as or more than commonalities of translation, and they contribute as much or more not only to our theoretical investigations of transla-tion phenomena but to the practical concerns of situating translation in a decentered, multicultural world.For a long time in the history of translation theory and practice, difference was perceived in a negative way, as a departure from fidelity, a sign of the loss inherent in the translation process. In very different ways, both Eugene Nida's school of "dynamic-equivalence" translation and more recent approaches to translation — from those of Philip Lewis (1985) to the feminist translation theorists (Bassnett 1992, 1993: ch. 7) to the Brazilian school promoting "cannibalism" (Vieira 1994) — have valorized differ-ence in translation. It is clear that CTS has the potential to be one means of challenging hegemonic, culture-bound views of texts, translations, and cultural transfer. It is a powerful tool for perceiving difference and for valorizing difference as well.What are the next steps in the development of corpus translation studies? As we have seen, there are many leading edges in this field, just as there are in the field of Translation Studies as a whole. Nonetheless, looking at the most exciting new work in Translation Studies, one notes certain common themes and common commitments. Thus, for example, there is an growing commitment to integrate linguistic approaches and cultural-studies approaches to translation, to explore their reciprocal relationship, thus turning away from the invidious competition and isolation that plagued these two branches of the discipline for some time (cf. Baker 1996). Second, the leading work in Translation Studies shows an ever more sophisticated awareness of the role of ideology as it affects text, context, and translation, and as it affects the theory, practice, and ped-agogy of translation as well. And, finally, as in other disciplines, the pioneering work inCOMPUTERIZED CORPORA AND THE FUTURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIES7 Translation Studies involves adapting modern technologies to the discipline's needs and purposes. The essays at hand illustrate that corpus translation studies is dead center on all of these developments, once again suggesting the leading role it will play in the discipline of Translation Studies in the coming decades.In building for the future, CTS must take care not to diminish itself, falling into the fetishistic search for quantification that plagues many "scientific studies" and makes them ridiculous, empty exercises. Researchers using CTS tools and methods must avoid the temptation to remain safe, exploiting corpora and powerful electronic capa-bilities merely to prove the obvious or give confirming quantification where none is really needed, in short, to engage in the type of exercise that after much expense of time and money ascertains what common sense knew anyway. As the dour Vermonter might put it, "Do bears sleep in the woods?" Researchers must take care to ask "the right questions": to pose questions and construct research programs that have as their goal substantive investigations that are worthy of the powerful means deployed by CTS.In building for the future, CTS must also recognize the imperatives and honour the claims of historicism. Within Translation Studies there have now been many case studies related to historical poetics, for example, amassing considerable data on the wide variation of the role of translation in culture and the range of the norms of transla-tion practice. The gains of such work must be incorporated into the design and con-struction of corpora. Researchers must of course avoid the obvious trap already discussed of being locked into the translation norms of the present, and of presuppos-ing such norms in the construction of corpora. But beyond that obvious weakness, ontological and epistemological commitments in the design of corpora must include dedication to the past and to other cultures as well.The development of corpora and CTS methods represents a long-term invest-ment for the field of Translation Studies. As we now set the foundation of a legacy that will come to fruition in the future, it is important to begin to envision the widest possi-ble range of corpora that can be established, the uses to which corpora can be put, of questions that can be asked solely of corpora, and of methods that can be utilized with corpora for both theoretical and practical results. From envisioning these things we must proceed to encourage their development and realization.Finally, CTS is once again an opportunity to reengage the theoretical and prag-matic branches of Translation Studies, branches which over and over again tend to dis-associate, developing slippage and even gulfs. One of the most encouraging aspects of the pioneering studies of CTS is the way that seemingly technical and theoretical inter-rogations come to have practical potential and immediate applicability, not only for the teaching of translation but for the work of the practising translator as well.Notes1. See T. Tymoczko (1979) for an example of the way that electronic capabilities change disciplines in a qualitative manner. The results of corpus translation studies may at times generate a scepticism similar to that which computer proofs initially raised among mathematicians.2. See for example the case studies in Even-Zohar (1990); Lefevere and Jackson (1982); and Hermans (1985). See also Brisset (1996).3. That is, to establish criteria that will individually be necessary and collectively be sufficient to pick out all translations and only translations.4. For a general discussion of the philosophical issues related to categories see Wittgenstein (1953); Rosch (1978); Gleitman, Armstrong, and Gleitman (1983); and Lakoff (1987).5. As a word of caution, one should note that a prototype is not defined by researchers a priori, but is derived from actual empirical research with actual subjects speaking a specific language. It is quite possible that research would show that a professional translator is not prototypical of the concept translator to most speakers of English.。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies《翻译学的名与实》
I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
其次，霍姆斯是一个同性恋诗人。
霍姆斯的诗作既有韵律诗又有自由体诗，绝大多数都是同性恋题材。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记
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00fH[ v^l g_洺0
00; The greatest historian that ever lived. ( geggO'YvS[) ! Thucydides ! war (Sparta Athens and Syracuse)
00200The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
00210The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (Wl_ g ^Jvh)
00220From 146 B.C. Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
最新《中国文化》英语教程复习题及答案资料
《中国文化》英语教程复习题及答案I. Chinese Cultural Terms : 1.绿茶green tea 2.红茶black tea 3.乌龙茶oolong tea 4.黑茶dark tea 5.花茶scented tea 6.茉莉花茶 jasmine tea7.八大菜系eight major schools of cuisine /8 Chinese Cuisines 8.茶道tea ceremony 9.茶具 tea set 10.紫砂壶 boccaro teapot 11.北京烤鸭Beijing roast duck 12.清蒸鱼steamed fish13.狗不理包子Goubili steamed buns 14. 佛跳墙Buddha Jumping the Wall 15.《论语》 The Analects 16.《诗经》The Book of Songs17.《道德经》 Classic of the Way and Virtue 18.道家 Daoism19.汉字Chinese character xx年画New Year pictures 34.剪纸paper cutting /papercuts 35.皮影戏shadow play 36.苏绣 Suhou Embroidery 37.造纸术paper making 38.印刷术printing 39.佛经Buddhist scripture40.行书 running script /semi-cursive script 41.草书 cursive script42.楷书 regular script/standard script43.隶书 official script/ clerical script 44.砚the ink slab/ the ink stone; 墨ink stick45.六艺：礼乐射御书数“six arts”: ritual,music,archery, carriage driving , calligraphy , and mathematics 46.毛笔the writing brush 47.宣纸xuan paper/ rice paper 48.中国书法Chinese calligraphy 49.简体字： simplified characters50. 繁体字complex characters/ traditional characters 51.中国结 Chinese knots 52.佛教 Buddhism 53.国徽 national emblem 54. 国旗 national flag 55. 国歌 national anthemII. Multiple choices1)Which of the following is irrelevant to the pictographic symbols of Chinese characters? ___A Aspiration. 吸 ? Imagination.想象 ? Creativity.创造力 ? Allusion.典故2) Which of the following statements is true of the name of Fudan University___DThe characters both stand for \这些字符都代表着“太阳在地平线上升起”The name is taken from a Chinese classical poem.这个名字取自中国古典诗歌The name encourages the students to get up earlyin the morning.这个名字鼓励学生早上早起The characters are intended to tell the studentsto make progress dayby day.这些字旨在让学生们一天天地进步3) Which of the following languages mostly consistsof language pictures? B___Mandarin Chinese. 普通话Hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt.古埃及的象形文字 ? Oracle-bone inscription. 甲骨文 ? Seal characters.篆书4) The symbol for “swimming” is closest to ___.Coracle-bone inscription甲骨文? Mandarin Chinese普通话 ? seal characters 篆书? none of the above没有选项5)The symbol for “athletics”contains theingredients of ___.Adancing and running跳舞、跑步 ? running and swinging 跑步和摆动 ? dancing and swinging 跳舞和摆动 ? triathlon and football铁人三项和足球6)All the following are the titles of Confucius except ___.Ban educator一个教育家 ? A biologist 一个生物学家 ? A scholar 有识之士A philosopher一个哲学家7)The expression “filial piety” most probably means being ___.DLoyal to the state忠于国家Obedient to sister(s) 听姐姐的话Responsible for the family 对家庭负责 Dutiful to parents孝顺父母8)Which of following can best describe Confucius’view on the relationship between man and nature ___.DBrothers兄弟Husband and wife 夫妇Doctor and patient 医生和病人 Mother and son母子 9)Through burial and ancestral worship rituals,people can learn that ___.BNature is lifeless so it will never die自然是没有生命的，所以它永远不会死。
the name and nature of translation holmesPPT课件
James S. Holmes 王敏 张潇潇 季慧莉
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詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯
• 詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯(James Stratton Holmes，1924— 1986)出生在美国依阿华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的 哈弗福德(Haverford)学院学习英语文学，1949年受 富布赖特项目(Fulbright Project)资助来到荷兰，他 从五十年代初即开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界， 此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作。他的翻译理论研 究工作则始于60年代末期。
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2. 翻译学学科建设的阻碍因素：
1) One of these impediments is the lack of appropriate channels of communication. 缺少恰当的交流渠道。
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2）the seemingly trivial matter of a name for this field of research.
(2) to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explaining to and predicted.（建立翻译总 原则）
• 霍尔姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等 方面都有突出成就 。
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霍尔姆斯的翻译理论
• the name and nature of translation studies
大学英语unit1课文翻译
大学英语综合教程4Unit 1Text A人在自然界|亚历山大·斯伯金Nature nurtures mankind unselfishly with its rich resources. Yet, man is so carried away in his transformation of nature that he is unaware that it also has limitations and needs constant care. Now worn by the excessive demands of mankind, nature is unable to maintain the ecological balance needed. Humanity is faced with the problem of how to stop, or at least to moderate, the destruction of Mother Nature.人类生活在大自然的王国里。
他们时刻被大自然所包围并与之相互影响。
人类呼吸的空气、喝下的水和摄入的食物，无一不令人类时刻感知到大自然的影响。
我们与大自然血肉相连，离开大自然，我们将无法生存。
Human beings live in the realm of nature. They are constantly surrounded by it and interact with it. Man is constantly aware of the influence of nature in the form of the air he breathes, the water he drinks, and the food he eats. We are connected with nature by "blood" ties and we cannot live outside nature.人类不仅生活在大自然之中，同时也在改变着大自然。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies翻译的名与实
翻译研究名与实
James S. Hher impediments
❖ Two other impediments to the development of a discipline Utopia (另外两个问题)
❖ The pure translation studies concerning themselves with these objectives can be designated descriptive translation studies(DTS) or translation description (TD),theoretical translation studies(ThTS) or translation theory(TTh)
Compressed into “translation theory”
it is restricted to its proper meaning, fall within the scope of theory formation.(限制了 研究范围，不仅仅是理论建设的范围)
2.2.2 the second term
possibly be a general history of translation.
3.1.1.2 Function-oriented DTS
❖ Function-oriented DTS is interested in the description of their function in the recipient social-cultural situation : a study of context.
The Name and Nature of Translation Studies 翻译学的名与实(课堂PPT)
翻译学科的命名
霍尔姆斯认为术语研究在学术研究中处于十分重要的地位，因此，阻碍学科 建设的一大障碍往往就是不恰当的学科命名，而在西方，对翻译学科的名称 一直颇有争议。他认为“翻译理论(theory of translation)”这个名称的最大 缺点在于对研究范围的限制; “翻译科学(science of translating)”也不可取, 因为翻译研究远远没有达到精确、定型的地步，尚未形成一个范式，不宜称 之为科学；而学科名称式的新词Translatology又过于学究气。因此，霍姆斯 建议把这门学科称为“翻译研究”,可以消除许多混乱和误解，因为在汉语 里“翻译研究”听起来不像是一门学科，所以我国普遍接受和使用的是“翻 译学”这个词。
描写翻译研究（翻译描写） 翻译功能研究：译作在目的语文化中所起的作用，这一方
面发展的目标是翻译社会学(或社会翻译学)；
理论翻译研究（翻译理论）
译者培训 翻译工具 翻译政策
翻译过程研究：翻译过程或翻译行为本身，其中涉及到译 者的所思所想对翻译所起到的影响，目标是翻译心理学。
翻译总论
特定媒介理论
特定区域理论
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主要内容
1 建立翻译学科的条件 2 翻译学科的命名 3 翻译研究的性质和目标 4 “翻译研究”的学科框架
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建立翻译学科的条件
霍尔姆斯在《名与实》一文中指出了翻译学科应具备的建立一门独立学科所 需要的重要条件及其必要性。在过去几百年中，人们对翻译学科的研究始终 十分混乱，直到第二次世界大战之后，很多原本致力于相近学科研究的学者 (如语言学家、哲学家、文学研究家等)以及专注于信息学、逻辑学和数学等 表面上并不相近学科的学者都转向了翻译领域，他们把原学科的范式、半范 式、模型及方法带入翻译研究。翻译学成为独立学科所需的条件随着这些新 鲜研究方法的加入而成熟。
英美文学背诵精华篇
Of Studies 论学习
John Milton 約翰.彌爾頓
Paradise Lost
失樂園
Satan, after being defeated in his rebel against God, tempts Adam and Eve to eat the apБайду номын сангаасles from the Forbidden Tree, and causes the Fall of Man
Name/CN Name
Writer's Features
Writings / CN Writings English Literature
Writing's Features
The Renaissance Period 1. age: 1500-1660 2. background: stimulated by the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek classic; England's Golden Age, especially in literature; the Church of England broke away from the Catholic Church 3. features: (1)New poetical forms introduced, e.g. blank verse and sonnet; (2) the English drama based itself on the models of Roman and Greek classics and the precedents from Italy and Spain (3)the universal tend of humanism in emphasizing man's dignity and his worldly happiness Edmund Spenser 1. The poet's poet; The Faerie Queen An allegory; "a historical poem" to present the 埃德蒙.斯賓賽 2. Perfect melody; a rare sense of beauty; a splendid 仙后 example of a perfect gentleman; a hero imagination; a lofty moral purity and seriousness; a (The Shepheades Calender 牧 represent one of the 12 virtues; fierce warres dedicated idealism 人日记;Epithalamion 新婚喜 and faithful loves 歌) Christopher 1. perfected blank verse and turned it into the principal Dr Fauctus 1. symbolic of a humanist in the Renaissance; Marlowe medium of English drama 浮士德博士 based on the German legend of a magician 克里斯扥夫.馬洛 2. created a series of images of the Renaissance hero for The Passionate Shepherd to aspiring for knowledge and finally meeting （Blank verse English drama His Love 多情的牧羊人致情 his tragic end as a result of selling his soul to University wit） 人 the Devil William The greatest playwright and the most popular sonnet Sonnets 1. 154 poems; English form Shakespeare writer; a creation of characters; skillful plot construction; 十四行詩 2. The traditional theme of the play is to 威廉.莎士比亞 irony; a good use of a language; skilled in various poetic The Merchant of Venice praise the friendship between Antonio and forms; of three quatrains and a couplet(三节四行诗加一 威尼斯商人 Bassanio, to idealize Portia as a heroine of 节偶句); national unity under a mighty and just sovereign Hamlet great beauty, wit and loyalty, and to expose is a necessity—“The King’s government must be carried 哈姆雷特 the insatiable greed and brutality of the Jew. on” (在一个强大英明的君主统治下的国家， 统一是非常 (Venus and Adonis 维纳斯和 Many people today tend to regard the play as 必要的) 安东尼斯; The Rape of a satire of the Christians' hypocrisy and their Lucrece 鲁克丽斯受辱 false standards of friendship and love, their (Each hero has his weekness of nature: Hamlet, the 记;romantic tragicomedies 浪 cunning ways of pursuing worldliness and melancholic scholar-prince, faces the dilemma between 漫悲喜剧;Romeo and Juliet; their unreasoning prejudice against Jews action and mind; Othello’s inner weakness is made use of Shakespeare's greatest (Shylock). by the outside evil force; the old king Lear who is tragedies are : Hamlet, 3. A man of contemplation rather than action; unwilling to totally give up his power makes himself suffer Othello, King Lear, and has the qualities of a “blood-and-thunder”
新世纪大学英语第二版课文翻译第4册
新世纪大学英语第二版课文翻译第4册Unit1 Man and Nature1.Due to the lack of an adequate labor force ,even women in this village were compelled to work in the coal mines .2.destruction since 60% of the forest there has been destroyed .3.output of private cars this year due to the improved working efficiency.4.Under severe attack from enemy aircraft ,the troops were forced to retreat from the front .5.Survival of the Fittest is a(n)eternal truth of nature .6.The military government refused to transfer power to a democratically elected civilian government.7.Deforesting and global warming threaten to ruin the current and future state of our environment .1.这个村子离边境很近，村民们一直担心会受到敌人的攻击。
The village is so close to the border that the villagers lived in constant fear of attacks from the enemy.2.这个国家仅用了20年的时间就发展了一个先进的工业强国。
In only 20 years the country was transformed into an advanced industrial power.3.鉴于目前的金融形势，美元进一步贬值（devalue）是不可避免的。
the-name-and-nature-of-translation-studies《翻译学的名与实》
I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
其次，霍姆斯是一个同性恋诗人。
霍姆斯的诗作既有韵律诗又有自由体诗，绝大多数都是同性恋题材。
Chapter 1 The Nature of Translation
幻灯片1Chapter 1The Nature of TranslationWhat is Translation?Translation means “to give the meaning of something said or written in another language. (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of Current English with Chinese Translation)幻灯片2Key words:source language (SL) /receptor language / target language (TL);reproduce;message / information;equivalence / correspondence幻灯片31. The Definition of TranslationTranslation is an art/operation/ interlingual communication or a science/craft/skill.幻灯片4五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同。
达其志，通其欲，东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄，北方曰译。
《礼记·王制》译即易，亦即换易语言使相解也。
幻灯片5翻译就是把已说出的或写出的话的意思用另一种语言表达出来的活动。
《中国大百科全书·语言文字》幻灯片6What is translation?Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.Peter NewmarkWDeDeHOME幻灯片7Translating consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalent of the source language message in the target language, firstly in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.Eugene A. Nida幻灯片8The Schools of Translation Studiesthe school of science :Eugene Nidathe school of art: Lin Yutang幻灯片91) My holiday afternoons were spent in ramble about the surrounding country. (Washington Irving)每逢假日的下午, 我总要漫游周围的乡村。
新时代研究生学术英语2-Man and Nature-译文
B2U1Man and NatureReading Text Two>Text TwoMan and Nature: A Powerful Connection, Now FracturedBlake SkylarCulture Notes1 I recently went on a hike in the Ned Brown Forest Preserve, in Elk Grove Village, Illinois. Justa half-hour bus ride outside of Chicago, it is the closest I can get to nature right now. I don’t have a car, and the full commute to this preserve is roughly two hours — two trains and a bus, to be specific. As someone who grew up with a deep appreciation for nature, wildlife, and conservation, it is important to me not only to maintain that sense of oneness with the Earth, but also to make it a permanent facet of my life. Where living in a city lays heaps of stress upon me, getting away into the woods — even for a day — lets it all drain away like water through a sieve.最近，我去了趟伊利诺伊州的埃尔克格罗夫村，到内德布朗森林保护区徒步旅行。
英语翻译课件PPT精品文档26页
已大难矣！顾信矣，不达，虽译犹 不译也，则达尚焉。(1898) 3.鲁迅：凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然是 求其易解，一则保存着原作的风姿。 4.傅雷：重神似，不重形似 5.钱钟书：化境 6.许渊冲：杨长避短，发挥译文语言优势。
• Bicultural Competence the differences and the like in history, geography, climate, lifestyles between target language and source language
• Encyclopedic Knowledge specialize in more than one field; the use of computers and software; knowledge of the Internet.
persons who represent the intended audience.
The Process of Translation
• The Basic Process of Translation 1) Accurate comprehension; 2) stylistic analysis 3) semantic analysis 4) pragmatic analysis 5) contextual analysis 6) logical analysis 2) Adequate representation; 3) Revision.
茅盾
The combination of art and science
The Definition of
英国文学选读课后答案解析
英国文学选读课后答案解析英国文学选读Poems:Hamlet (Act 3, Scene 1, lines 55-86) 生存或毁灭, 这是个必答之问题是否应默默的忍受坎苛命运之无情打击,还是应与深如大海之无涯苦难奋然为敌, 并将其克服。
死即睡眠, 它不过如此!倘若一眠能了结心灵之苦楚与肉体之百患, 那么, 此结局是可盼的! 死去, 睡去...但在睡眠中可能有梦, 啊, 这就是个阻碍: 当我们摆脱了此垂死之皮囊,在死之长眠中会有何梦来临? 它令我们踌躇, 使我们心甘情愿的承受长年之灾,否则谁肯容忍人间之百般折磨, 如暴君之政、骄者之傲失恋之痛、法章之慢贪官之侮、或庸民之辱假如他能简单的一刃了之? 还有谁会肯去做牛做马, 终生疲於操劳默默的忍受其苦其难, 而不远走高飞, 飘於渺茫之境倘若他不是因恐惧身後之事而使他犹豫不前?此境乃无人知晓之邦, 自古无返者进入我们无法知晓的地域所以,「理智」能使我们成为懦夫而「顾虑」能使我们本来辉煌之心志变得黯然无光, 像个病夫再之, 这些更能坏大事, 乱大谋, 使它们失去魄力。
Hamlet P81. Why is sleep so frightening, according to Hamlet, since it can “end” the heartache and the thousand natural shocks”?Nobody can predict what he will dream of after he falls asleep. Death means the end of life, you may go to or unknown world and you can’t comeback. If he dies, Hamlet’s can't realize his will. Though “sleep” can end the heartache and the thousand natural shocks, it is a state of mind. Hamlet didn’tknow at all. He is frightened by the possible suffering in the long “dream”. He can’t predict what will happen in the sleep, may be good may be evil.2. Why would people rather bear all the sufferings of the world instead of choosing death to get rid of them, according to Hamlet?Death is so mysterious that nobody knows what death will bring to us. Maybe bitter sufferings, great pains, heartbreaking stories…Because people hold the same idea "to grunt and sweat under a weary life, but that the dread of something after death-the undiscovered country, form whose bourn no traveler returns-puzzle the will, and make us rather bear those ills we have than fly to others that we know not of?”People also are frightened by the myths in another world after death.3. What, after all, makes people lose their determination to take action? Please explain in relation to the so-called hesitation of Hamlet.Conscience and over-considerations. He wants to revenge, but doesn’t know how. He wants to kill his uncle, but finds it too risky. He lives in despair and wants to commit suicide. However, he knows if he dies, nobody will comfort his father’s ghost. He is in face of great dilemma. They don’t know the result after their taking the action. Such as Ham let, he doesn’t know what would happen if he kills his uncle or kills himself. So Hamlet was hesitated.Sonnet 18 P15我怎么能够把你来比作夏天？你不独比它可爱也比它温婉：狂风把五月宠爱的嫩蕊作践，夏天出赁的期限又未免太短：天上的眼睛有时照得太酷烈，它那炳耀的金颜又常遭掩蔽：被机缘或无常的天道所摧折，没有芳艳不终于雕残或销毁。
翻译与跨文化交际workshop
Avoid saying „she is white / black‟ use „fair‟ or „dark‟ when referring to one‟s complexion.
TRANSLATE AND COMPARE
• • • • •
Heavy rain Heavy traffic Heavy heart Heavy responsibility Heavy food
鄙人、敝人、不肖、不才、 老子、某、依、仆、乃公、 人家、我等、 我辈、 我依、吾、吾们、吾济、 吾辈、吾曹、小生、小人、 小的、予、在下、洒家、 咱、朕、寡人、 孤、奴才、臣、 臣妾、妾身、俺、老娘、
22
We have established that each language is a way of seeing and reflecting the delicate nuances细微差别 of cultural perceptions认知, and it is the translator who not only reconstructs重现 the equivalencies of words across linguistic boundaries but also reflects and transplants the emotional vibrations共鸣 of another culture.
• • • • •
Prices fell John fell Sue fell in love Government fell He fell from grace
Grammatical-syntactical equivalence
the grammar of a language may reveal the way time and space are segmented and organized.
[英语作文]喊出自然的名字
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[英语作文]喊出自然的名字Title: Calling Out to Nature: A Vocabulary of the Natural WorldThe natural world is a vast tapestry of wonders, each thread intricately interwoven to form a complex and beautiful pattern. As we wander through forests, hike across mountains, or stroll along riverbanks, we are surrounded by a symphony of life—each element bearing its unique name, like a signature on an artist's masterpiece. Let us take a moment to call out these names, to acknowledge and honor the diversity and splendor of our planet's natural forms.Starting with the mighty trees that reach skyward, we have oaks with their sturdy branches, offering a home to countless creatures; maples, with their hand-like leaves that turn vibrant hues in autumn; and the ever-majestic redwoods, standing tall as silent sentinels of time.Beneath our feet lies a kingdom as rich as any above ground—the fungal realm. Mushrooms with their caps and stems, like little umbrellas dotting the forest floor, and the mycelium, an invisible web of life that connects soil, plants, and even our own digestive systems.Moving to the air above, we find birds—the avian choir that provides the soundtrack to our days. Eagles soar on thermals, their sharp eyes scanning for prey; songbirds trill from the safety of leafy canopies; and the humble pigeons, often underappreciated, who adapt to life in urban landscapes with surprising resilience.In the waterways, fish teem, each species adapted to its environment. The salmon, with its determination to overcome obstacles in its quest to return home; the graceful trout, dancing in the currents; and the elusive eel, slipping through waters with fluid ease.Further into the depths, we encounter marine life, where whales sing their melodies across oceanic expanses, dolphins leap in playful synchronicity, and coral reefs, those underwater cities, provide sanctuary to a kaleidoscope of sea creatures.On land, we are blessed with an array of wildlife. Mammals such as bears, with their powerful presence and keen intelligence; deer, with their graceful strides; and the elusive panther, prowling through wilderness with a quiet intensity.Insects, often unnoticed, play vital roles—bees buzzing from flower to flower, pollinating as they gather nectar; ants, building their complex colonies with remarkable cooperation; and fireflies, illuminating summer nights with their gentle glow.Even the smallest beings have their place in this grandeur, like the earthworms that aerate soil and improve its quality for plants, or the microorganisms that are essential to processes like decomposition and nutrient cycling.Each of these natural elements has a name, a word that encapsulates its essence and reminds usof its significance. By naming them, we acknowledge their existence and their importance to the web of life. It is through these names that we can connect more deeply with nature, understanding that every creature, plant, and microbe plays an integral part in the grand ecosystem that sustains us all.So let us continue to call out these names with respect and admiration, for in doing so, we not only celebrate the diversity of our planet but also commit to preserving it for generations to come. For in each name lies a story, each one a chapter in the greatest story ever told—the story of life on Earth.。
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I. 霍姆斯其人：1924-1986生平：霍姆斯出生在美国Iowa爱荷华州，后在宾夕法尼亚州的哈弗福德Haverford学院学习英语文学，1949年受富布莱特项目Fulbright Project资助来到荷兰，从此荷兰成为他的第二故乡。
他虽然一直保留美国国籍，但绝大部分时间是在荷兰度过的。
霍姆斯师从阿姆斯特丹大学荷兰文学系主任，接触了大量荷语文学作品。
他从五十年代处就开始将荷语文学介绍到英语世界，此间也没有间断自己的诗歌创作，他的翻译理论研究工作则始于60年代末期。
在他的老师改任阿姆斯特丹大学综合文学系主任后，霍姆斯被聘为该系教师，除教授文学翻译实践外，他还率先开设了翻译理论课程。
霍姆斯同时还在以培养翻译人才为目标的阿姆斯特丹翻译学院任教。
他极力促成将该学院并入阿姆斯特丹大学人文学院，但1982年二者正式合并并且成立翻译系以后，作为翻译领域最重要的学者，霍姆斯没有顺理成章地成为该系教授，原因之一是他没有博士学位，另一方面则是因为它的同性恋行为、反传统的着装及他在翻译方面的见解为该系一些教员所不容，而霍姆斯也无意为他人而改变自己的生活方式。
他于1985年辞去在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职，次年因艾滋病去世，时年62岁。
成就：霍姆斯在诗歌创作、诗歌翻译和翻译理论研究等方面都有突出成就。
首先，他是一个诗歌翻译家。
霍姆斯最大的贡献在于充当荷兰在英语世界中的文学大使，使世界认识到荷兰文学的存在。
他的第一部译作是1955年出版的《当代荷兰诗选》，在此后30多年的翻译生涯中，他介绍过荷语地区几乎所有重要诗人的作品。
早在1956年，霍姆斯获得象征荷兰文学翻译界最高荣誉的马丁内斯·那霍夫奖（Martinus Nijhoff Prize），成为第一位获此殊荣的外国人。
他还在晚年1984年获得弗兰芒地区首届荷兰语文学奖，是迄今为止唯一获得两个翻译奖项的人。
其次，霍姆斯是一个同性恋诗人。
霍姆斯的诗作既有韵律诗又有自由体诗，绝大多数都是同性恋题材。
之前他也翻译过一些有同性恋倾向的诗歌。
顾忌到作品中过于直露的描写会给自己带来麻烦，霍姆斯在多数作品中都采用笔名，晚年出版的内容相对含蓄才署了真名。
第三，霍姆斯是一个编辑。
作为“翻译研究系列丛书”的总主编，霍姆斯推出了一系列翻译理论著作，来扶植翻译界的同仁和后辈。
此外他还与人合办文学刊物。
最后，霍姆斯是个翻译理论家。
低地国家，特指荷兰、比利时和卢森堡。
因其海拔低而得名。
霍姆斯是上世纪七八十年代低地国家翻译理论界最有影响的人物，他在这方面著述不多，但在世界翻译理论史上却有深远影响。
在翻译理论方面霍姆斯没有长篇巨制，其观点散见于一系列论文中，大都曾在国际性学术会议上交流过。
the name and nature of translation studies《翻译学的名与实》（就是reader这本书上的这篇文章）是霍姆斯最重要的翻译理论文章。
在1972年哥本哈根召开的第三届国际应用语言学会议上首次发表。
这篇文章对翻译学的学科命名、性质、研究范围以及学科内的划分提出了详细的构想，是翻译研究领域具有里程碑意义的作品，是翻译学学科建设的奠基之作，被西方译学界认为是“翻译学学科的创建宣言”。
霍姆斯也因此被公认为翻译学的奠基人及最早对该学科作全景式描述的人。
下面我们着重介绍一下这篇文章。
II. 霍姆斯的翻译理论（这篇文章中霍姆斯提出了他的翻译学学科构想。
）1.建立翻译学学科的条件，学科发展现状翻译学之所以是一门独立的学科，是因为它有自己的研究对象和目标。
霍姆斯认为翻译作为一门独立的学科已经具备了建立的条件和必要性。
在过去几个世纪中，翻译研究处于随意、无序的状态，以第二次世界大战为转折点，许多原先从事相近学科研究的人由语言学、语言哲学和文学转向翻译领域，还有一些人来自表面上并不相近的学科如信息理论、逻辑学和数学等领域，这些研究者把原学科的模型及方法带入翻译研究。
霍姆斯认为，从表面上看翻译研究的局面是一片混乱，但实际上关于翻译研究的独立学科正在成型。
2.关于这一学科的命名霍姆斯十分重视术语在学术研究中的重要性，认为不适当的学科命名是学科建设的一大障碍。
他认为-ology这个后缀太过学究气，而且过于生僻，不能任意组合。
the theory of translating 或the theory of translation, translation theory 最大的缺点在于对研究范围的限制，翻译研究远远不止于理论建设的范围。
至于the science of translation, translation science之所以不可取是因为翻译研究远没到精确、定性的程度，尚未形成一个范式，不易被称为科学。
霍姆斯提出了在英语中常常用来命名新学科的另一个词—studies，这样可以消除许多混乱和误解。
3.关于翻译学的学科框架（翻译研究的范畴）：1995年，Toury 在Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond《描写翻译学及其他》一书中，把霍姆斯的译学构想描绘成图形，让人一目了然。
霍姆斯译学构想中最大的优点是对翻译学科中各分支的合理划分，这种合理划分可以显示不同的研究活动在整个学科机构中的位置及其之间的关系。
（Toury, 1995: 9-10）霍姆斯把翻译学分为纯翻译学和应用翻译学两大类。
其中纯翻译学又有两个分支：描写性翻译学descriptive translation studies DTS，也叫翻译描写translation description TD，和理论翻译学theoretical translation TTS，也叫翻译理论translation theory TTh描写性翻译学又包括三个方面：第一，产品导向研究product-oriented ，是对翻译成品进行研究，其出发点是译作文本，包括对同一原作的不同译本进行比较研究，译本比较可以是历时的diachronic（即不同时期的译本比较），也可以是共时的synchronic（即相同时期的译本比较）。
霍姆斯认为，产品导向研究的结果最终有可能成为一部大型的翻译通史。
第二，过程导向研究process-oriented，其关注对象是翻译过程或翻译行为本身，译者在翻译过程中，如何创造一个全新的，但又多多少少与原文吻合的译文。
在翻译过程中，译者头脑中的“小黑匣子”（little black box, 指认知能力）里都发生了什么，霍姆斯认为，对这一方面多加重视，有希望产生心理翻译学psycho-translation studies或翻译心理学translation psychology。
第三，功能导向研究function-oriented，该研究的兴趣并非在于对翻译作品本身的描写，而是对它们在目的语社会文化中的功能描写，其研究的重点是语境context而不是文本text。
其侧重点在于译作在目的语文化中所起的作用。
霍姆斯认为，该范围的研究与社会学有紧密联系，因此有可能促成社会翻译学socio-translation studies的产生。
理论翻译学或翻译理论的任务是利用描写性翻译学的研究成果，结合相关领域或学科的信息，制定出对翻译过程和翻译作品进行解释和预测的原则、理论和模式，包括翻译总论general translation theories和局部翻译理论partial theories。
局部翻译理论只涉及翻译理论的某一个或几个方面，霍姆斯将其分成六类。
1.翻译手段medium-restricted translation theories. 翻译手段可以进一步划分为人工翻译、机器翻译和机器辅助翻译，人工翻译又包括笔译和口译。
2.翻译范围area-restricted theories.翻译范围局限于特定的语言和文化，指任何两种或多种语言和文化之间的翻译。
3.翻译等级rank-restricted theories. 翻译等级实际上是我们通常所说的翻译单位。
传统上，词和词组被认为是翻译的基本单位，以描写语言学为基础的研究则以句子为单位。
4.文本类型text-type restricted theories.文本类型研究的是不同文本翻译中的特殊问题。
5.不同时期的翻译time-restricted theories.不同时期的翻译研究分为两种，一是研究当代的翻译，二是研究过去的翻译。
6.特殊问题problem-restricted theories.特殊问题研究是专门研究翻译理论总体框架内的一个或几个具体问题，可以是带有广泛意义的问题，如翻译对等的实质，也可以是非常具体的问题，如隐喻或专有名词的翻译。
应用翻译学包括四个部分：1.翻译教学teaching of translation2.翻译辅助手段translation aids3.翻译政策translation policy主要解释译者以及译本的角色和地位，研究某社会应该引进和翻译哪些作品，研究翻译在外语教学中的作用等。
4.翻译批评translation criticismToury 在他的译学图中删略了第3点，有学者认为他并非出于粗心而漏掉了这一点，而是他不认同霍姆斯把翻译政策方面的研究放在应用研究。
Toury 认为，译者和译作的地位是由某一社会的政治和文化状况决定的，而不是由研究者决定的。
三大分支之间的关系描写、理论和应用是翻译研究的三大分支，它们之间是辨证关系，任何一方都在为另两方提供资料，也都吸取和利用另两方的研究成果。
例如，翻译理论离不开描写翻译研究和应用翻译研究两大分支中所获得的全面而具体的数据资料，反过来，如果没有任何理论做前提，描写翻译研究和应用翻译研究也就无从开始。
因此，描写、理论和应用三大分支的关系是辨证的，平等的。
为了整个学科的发展和繁荣，任何一个方面都不可偏废。
霍姆斯理论的不足之处：霍姆斯的译学构想是开放性并有待完善的，正如他自己在文章后面所说，有一些重要的方面在他的译学构想中还没有适当的位置，例如翻译理论史研究和方法论（或叫元理论）研究。
他对应用翻译分支似乎也不够重视，只是列出了几个范围，没有提出进一步的论述。
霍姆斯虽然致力于建立综合型的普通翻译理论，但自己的研究却局限于文学翻译尤其是诗歌翻译。
他的译学框架完全排斥科技翻译和社科翻译。
III. 总结霍姆斯译学理论的影响及贡献霍姆斯译学构想对后来翻译研究学者的影响Gideon Toury沿着霍姆斯开创的翻译研究学派的基本路线，大大发展了描写翻译研究。
Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond这本书集中体现了他在这方面的研究成果。
Susan Bassnett 在霍姆斯思想影响下，将翻译置于与之相关的社会文化环境中来考察，逐步成为当代英国乃至整个西方翻译研究学派和翻译文化学派的重要代表之一。