国家和公司的国际竞争力【外文翻译】
竞争策略-国际竞争力理论及其评价体系课件(PPT55页)
4.WEF体系下国际 竞争力国别分析
5.关于评价方法 的评价
1.国际竞争力的 概念及其发展
2.关于国际竞争 力的代表理论
3.关于国际竞争 力的评价体系
2.2.1“价值链”模型-一个例子：钢铁企业的价值链
4.WEF体系下国际 竞争力国别分析
5.关于评价方法 的评价
1.国际竞争力的 概念及其发展
2.关于国际竞争 力的代表理论
国际竞争力理论及其评价体系
陈胜辉 2014.11
1.国际竞争力的概念及其发展 2.关于国际竞争力的代表理论 3.关于国际竞争力的评价体系 4.WEF体系下国际竞争力的国别分析 5.关于目前国际竞争力评价方法的评价
1.国际竞争力的 概念及其发展
2.关于国际竞争 力的代表理论
3.关于国际竞争 力的评价体系
1.国际竞争力的 概念及其发展
2.关于国际竞争 力的代表理论
3.关于国际竞争 力的评价体系
2.3IMD国际竞争力理论
国际竞争力是指一国提供创造增加值和积累国民财富环境的能力。
·吸引国外商品和资本 ·对外输出商品和资本 ·净影响在很大程度上决 定着一国的国际竞争力 状况
·盎格鲁-萨克逊模式(Anglo-Saxon Model)，强调冒险精神、废除管 制、私有化和个人责任，追求社会 福利体系最小化。 ·欧洲大陆模式(European Model)， 强调社会凝聚力、一致性和平等主 义，追求广泛的社会福利体系。 ·难以评价其优劣，但近年来“A-S” 盛行而成为不少国家追求的目标模 式
参考资料： 1.IMD & WEF(1989-1995).The World Competitive Yearbook. 2.IMD(1996-2005).The World Competitive Yearbook.
中国汽车工业发展中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料外文翻译外文翻译The mercerized and internationalized backgroundAt present，under the mercerized and internationalized background，how to strengthen the independent development ability of our country’s auto industry has become the urgent problem to be solved．This article，by referring to the experience of developed countries of automobile industry in implementing the industrial policy and comparing the two regulations made in 1994 and 2OO4 about independent intellectual property right in the industrial policy，has put forward policy recommendations of supporting independent development of our country’s auto industry．A brand based on market is promises for a product's capability, quality and service. Up to now, well-known automobile brands are accounting for two percent of two hundred far famed brands in all country. Meanwhile, after going into WTO, a great set of foreign automobile enterprises possessing good quality, favorable capability, knight service will enter into our country and bring a fire-new idea of brand for our domestic consumers. No doubt, that will not only greatly impact on our domestic automobile enterprises, which don't have the capability of independent exploitation and the consciousness of brand cultivation, but also affect development of automobile industry. So, during the crucial period, our country needs urgently brands of great competitive power, which can drive and prompt development of automobile industry.The paper, starting with the analysis of brand and combining with the theory of strategy management, regarding carmakers as object, depicts development panorama of domestic automobile industry and provides some simple thoughts about breeding and developing automobile brand in our country, through studying studying problems relating to automobile brand. It is the primary studying intention that upgrades core competency Of domestic automobile enterprises and impels development of automobile industry, recurring to putting forward some related tactics of breeding and developing automobile brand in our country. The paper's meaning consists two points: the first, it makes enterprises attach importance to automobile brand in consciousness and know it afresh;the second, it advances some operational tactics by demonstration analysis, which can be used for reference by enterprises and industry.Research methods used in the paper are primarily demonstration analysis and comparison analysis. Anticipative research fruits of the paper involve: (1) seedtime and actuality analysis of automobile brand in our country; (2) mode-comparison of automobile brand in different countries;(America, German, Japan, Korea); (3) key factors of affecting our automobile brand development;(4) tactics and countermeasures of cultivating automobile brand. Innovations of the paper rest with: (1) research content, i.e. havinga all-around research of breeding automobile brand and coming into being strategy system;(2) research purpose, i.e studying how to forge competitive automobile brand can drive industry development; (3) research angle, i.e. knowing and analyzing automobile industry in virtue of brand.Referred to the main indexes about evaluating national competitive ability, which is the commonly used method in the international society, this thesis aims at analyzing and evaluating the international competitive ability of Chinese automobile industry in a scientific and objective way. Compared with those industries in some developed countries, domestic automobile industry is relatively frail and has a very long way to go. This thesis illustrates the history of Chinese automobile industry ever since the foundation of new China, analyzes in detail its important role in national economy, and the opportunities and threats it meets after china entrance WTO. This thesis draws a whole picture about domestic automobile industry from three aspects: products, corporations and industries. Considering the history and actuality of domestic automobile industry, this thesis collects and analyzes groups of data about automobile industry both from domestic and international. A lot of work was made in quantitative and qualitative analysis from all sides. Based on this, this thesis drew a conclusion about evaluating the international competitive ability of Chinese automobile industry, found out the advantages and disadvantages about this industry. In the end of this thesis, some ideas and advice are put forward.Welfare Evaluation of Trade Protection--The automobile industry of post world war 2 in JapanSocial welfare is one of the key standards in evaluating the effects of government policies for both economists and government. In this thesis, having compared and analyzed trade protectionists, i.e. quota, tariff and other non-tariff barriers in their effects on social welfare, specific evaluation and suggestion are given in the case of the autoindustry protection in post World War 2 Japan, so to shed light on the auto protection policies should be taken in China today. Here, consumer’ surplus and Ohyama Welfare Standard are selected in evaluating social welfare.The automobile industry in Post World War 2 in Japan is picked for two reasons. Firstly, the auto industry in China today is in a very similar situation as that of Japan used to be while Japan was a new member of GATT. Secondly, regarded as one of the most successfully developed industries under protection, the auto industry in Japan has some precious experiences worth studying.The article has four chapters. In chapter1,the definition of social welfare is given, and the necessary and sufficient condition for Pareto optimality, the Mashallian Consumer Surplus, Hicksian consumer surplus and Ohyama Social Welfare Standard are discussed in detail the auto industry. In Chapter 2, according the scale and protection on Japan from 1945-1979 is divided into four periods: government domination period, Quota Period and low-tariff Periods: government domination period, Quota Period, High-tariff Period and low-tariff Period, where the protect policies are evaluated respectively by their effects on social welfare. Chapter 3 explores the US-Japan trade friction in auto industry in 1980s and sheds light on the choice of various protectionists from the perspective of Political Economics. Chapter 4 concludes the whole thesis discussing some specific protection policies of Japan and drawing suggestion for China to effectively protect its own auto industry.Mini-car industry development in China is a successful example in the condition of Chinese market economy, it's always one of the important factor that propel the steady increase of auto market of China. Through about two decade development, the total amount of mini-car increased from 0.06% to 26.4% of total amount of auto all over the country now and the amount of produce and sale are up to 540,000 units. According to the challenge principle of "who is the best who is the winner" in the market, the number of the mini-car manufacturer decreased from early over one hundred to recent five.In this article，base on extensive data collecting and investigation, the mini-car developing and competing status of China, as well as the developing status (including enterprise, production ,market ,product, etc.) of Liuzhou Wuling Motors which is one of the five mini-car manufacturer are deeply analysed and studied .This article also discussed the competing environment that Liuzhou Wuling Motors faced, then provided the developing strategies.Since the later part of 1990, the economic benefits of CITIC Zhongyuan AutomobileCompany have been declining rapidly and the production management has also been on a sticky wicket, showing difference with an overall upward tendency to the corresponding period of the National Automobile Industry, which impelled this writer to make deeply careful researches on the strategy of development for the company.By reviewing the past of CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company, analyzing the influences on international & domestic external environments ever since China' s enter into WTO, analyzing the markets of the main products and the competitive opponents and analyzing the internal conditions such as the main problems faced by the company, this writer has separately made researches and probed into the strategies of development for CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company and the subordinate companies-Zhengzhou Nissan Automobile Co.，Ltd and Zhengzhou Light Truck Factory invested by CITIC Zhongyuan Automobile Company so as to try to find a feasible road which enables the cc叩any to break away from the disadvantageous situation and develop continuously as soon asPossible.With the entrance of 90th century, the international situation of automobile industry changed greatly. Due to the production surplus of international automobile industry, different countries competed fiercely to obtain the automobile market. Many companies adjust their developing strategy and speed the course of globalization to realize the scale-economy and get the new market. Merging and recombining become the symbol of automobile industry globalization.China, the biggest automobile consuming market in the world, has become the main field of many countries contesting. The Chinese automobile industry has developed for half century. Although china has get great achievements, as for scale or technique, China still drop behind. So how to improve the international situation and realize the modernization of China automobile industry is a basic mission.With the entrance of WTO, Chinese automobile industry faces three challenges: the first, after China entrances WTO, the government trade protection will be canceled. The second, with the economic development and standard of living improved, how to enlarge the consumer demanding? The third, with the automobile industry globalization, how to compete or cooperate with the MNC and build our effective developing strategy? And then we can develop our own auto industry and realize modernization. In the three challenges, the former two is normal and we can get many experiences from other countries. But the third is a real challenge. Other automobile developed countries have not faced this kind of situation. Expect for exactly estimation, we still need great innovation spirit.In the situation of entrance of WTO and globalization of automobile industrial competition, we try to analysis the Chinese automobile industry status quo, including the analysis of industrial structure, market analysis. Through the analysis we try to find out the questions in development strategy, government decision and enterprise management. Then we will analysis the questions and give the reasons. At the same time, we will the introduce the typical representatives of automobile developed countries and new developing countries about their developing strategy, including America, Japan, South Korea, and Mexico. We will conclude the advantages and experiences of above countries. On the base of that, we will combine the situation of Chinese automobile industry and the effecting analyzing of Chinese entrance of WTO. Then we will give out the advantages and potential advantages of Chinese automobile industry and bring forward the basic strategy of Chinese automobile industrial development. At last, we will give some advises about the developing strategy of Chinese automobile industry. These tactics include industrial policy improving, technique improving, competitive improving and cluster developing of Chinese automobile industry and technique innovation. This dissertation just discusses the Chinese automobile from a few tangles. It is not perfect, so I hope teachers can give me advice.Automobile industry is a traditional pillar industry in our country. Having developed 50 years, now the industry is still backward in products in comparison with that of western developed countries. Facing to economy globalization, someone has suggested that China should give up automobile industry and import the products from other countries directly, which can avoid wasting resources. This kind of viewpoint is lack of foresight. Automobile industry belongs to high and new-technology industries. Meanwhile, China has its large automobile market. Developing automobile industry will not only improve engineering level, but also drive other relevant industries. In addition, after China joining WTO (World Trade Organization), the automobile market will become a part of international market step by step. Basing on domestic market, we will develop our own intellectual property. At the same time, aiming at the demands of some developing countries, we will develop overseas markets. In this way, domestic automobile industry will be growing fast.In order to develop the automobile industry, we should find its disadvantages, get over influence of various disadvantages, seize every good chance, and exert our advantages. In this thesis, first, we stress on the impacts of economy globalization and WTO on Chinese automobile industry. Second, the thesis discusses many influence factors for developing Chinese automobile industry. Finally, the thesis analyzesopportunity, challenge and strategy of Chinese automobile industry.The course of the development of the automobile industry all over the world indicates that the automobile industry is very important to the national economy. The increasing proportion of distribution cost to sale price on the international automobile market shows that marketing plays an increasing role in raising the competitiveness of automakers. The trend of the international automobile market demonstrates thatAsia-especially china-will be the fastest growing market in the world. Although the national automobile industry has developed greatly in the past 50 years, it is still far behind the foreign competitors, especially in marketing after longtime ignoring marketing, domestic automarkers are lack of direct selling experience.In this thesis, the author analysed the 4P of marketing of the Chinese and foreign automarkers as well as the advantages and disadvantages of Chinese automobile industry and made some suggestions on how to improve the competitiveness of automobile enterprises after studied the management and administration of them.In order to convey the opinion systematically so that it may become more practicable, the construction of the thesis is arranged like this:Chapter One: Introduction. In this part, the author introduced the background, the focal point and the aim of writing the paper. The author also emphasized the importance of automobile industry to the national economy and the importance of marketing to automobile enterprises.Chapter Two: The author described the present automobile industry and the market all over the world through some examples. The influence on the national automobile industry after China joined WTO and the strategy for the development of the industry are given in this part as wellChapter Three: Close analysis and explanations of the strategy for price, products, patens and channels of distribution, and sales promotion are given after introduced the marketing strategy of automobile enterprises in both China and foreign countries.Chapter Four: The problems that exist in management and administration of national automobile industry are researched and the disparities in competitiveness between Chinese and foreign automobile industry are revealed. Reasons of these problems and disparities are also applied.Chapter Five: Conclusion proposals were put forward for improving the management and administration of automobile enterprises in China: adjust the concept of management, emphasize the importance of market segmentation and the study of consumer psychologyand consumer’s behavior, sensitiveness the reaction to market and extend the scope of service. Great importance is attached to the foundation and management of customer relationship.China's automotive industry has passed almost half a century and has evolved many basic circumstances and features of its own which will be the starting point or base for its further development. Full understanding of those circumstance and features is the prerequisite for us to analyze and study.In order to develop our automotive industry under new situation, we not only must roundly and objectively analyze the problems in us, but also must fully and correctly understand our actual and potential strengths. We should clearly recognize that although our automotive industry, which has experienced nearly fifty years of development including twenty years of reform and opening, has a long way to go comparing with the world level, it possesses many rare giant actual and potential strengths.After entering WTO our automotive industry has entered upon a new phase to cooperate and compete with multi-nationals under the background of globalization, and it will have to join the integration tide of global economy gradually. The trends of world automotive industry and the strategies of multi-nationals in China certainly will directly influence the strategic pattern of our automotive industry, and therefore they are the important part of the external environment of our automotive industry needed special attention. Great changes have taken place in the development conditions of our automotive industry since we entered WTO. At the end of protection interim period to automotive industry, the comprehensive effects of WTO including tariff concession, quota cancel, service trade opening and foreign capital policy regulation will display. The medium and high-class car and key components will come under obvious attack depends on not only the reduction of the protection degree, but also the increase of our international competitive power.Japan and Korea are all latecoming developed countries of automotive industry. After entering GATT, they persevered in adopting the vigorous policies to foster and train the self-developing capability and enhance the international competitive power. Then their automotive industry received unprecedented fast development and drove the whole national economy to be powerful and prosperous to a miracle. Although the international environment has been totally different and different countries differ greatly in their conditions, the experiences of Japan and Korea automotive industry during that period and driving effects of their automotive industry to their national economy will stillbe special historic significance to our automotive industry.Entering WTO let us enter upon a new e to cooperate and compete with multi-nationals featuring foreign companies but national treatment and domestic market but international competition. That is a severe challenge as well as a rare opportunity to our automotive industry. The great country and its big market are the most important strength of us. To take full advantage of the strength of great country and big market under the opening and competition environment should be the starting point for the development train of thought of our automotive industry under new economic background.Economic globalization droved by trade liberalization, investment liberalization and finance liberalization has been international background of our lives. Trade liberalization provides a more open and more liberal environment for the development of international trade. It is not only one of subject of modern international economic development, but also the trend of China's adjustment of her trade policy. Under economic globalization, advantage gained by a country depends on the magnitude of her international competitive power of industry. As China as concerned, the influence factors and basic status of her international competitive power of industry have their own characteristics.This paper analyses the international competitive power of China's industry under the background of trade liberalization. Firstly, it explains the historical and current background of the subject, presents the thinking way, the analysis methods, the frame and the innovation of this paper. Secondly, the theories about trade liberalization and international competitive power of industry are presented, the author simply describes the process and the achievements of trade liberalization and introduces something about trade liberalization in China, illustrates mainly the concept, the meaning, the correlative theoretical basis and the measure methods of the international competitive power of industry. Then, in the fourth chapter, Taking example for China's automobile industry, the paper analyses the international competitive power of automobile industry under the background of trade liberalization, It carries out some quantitative analysis by using some indexes based on the imports and exports data, assesses the economic benefits since 1992 by means of the model of the maximizing deviations method. Analyses the structure of automobile industry from the perspectives of industry concentration, etc. Lastly the author makes a conclusion that the international competitive power of auto-industry basically presents an increasing trend along with the trade。
国有企业的国际竞争力与行业地位
国有企业的国际竞争力与行业地位随着全球化的加深，国际竞争力成为一个企业成功与否的重要因素。
国有企业作为一个国家的重要经济支柱，其国际竞争力和行业地位显得尤为重要。
本文旨在探讨国有企业的国际竞争力以及其在行业中的地位，并提出提升国有企业竞争力的建议。
一、国有企业的国际竞争力国有企业作为国家的重要经济组织，其国际竞争力直接关系到国家整体的经济实力。
国有企业在国际市场上的竞争力主要表现在以下几个方面：1. 技术创新能力国有企业拥有雄厚的科研实力和技术储备，能够在关键领域取得创新突破。
技术创新能力是国际竞争的核心要素之一，对于国有企业来说尤为重要。
通过加大对技术创新的投入，国有企业能够提升产品质量和技术含量，增强竞争力。
2. 规模经济效应国有企业由于其庞大的规模，可以实现规模经济效应，进而降低生产成本。
规模经济效应可以提高企业的市场份额，并在国际市场上获得更大的竞争优势。
国有企业通过不断扩大生产规模，提高市场占有率，能够更好地应对国际竞争。
3. 品牌价值国有企业具有较高的品牌知名度和品牌价值。
国有企业的品牌形象代表着国家形象，其产品和服务在国际市场上享有一定的声誉和认可度。
通过加强品牌建设和国际营销，国有企业可以进一步提升其品牌价值和国际竞争力。
二、国有企业在行业中的地位国有企业在许多行业中都拥有垄断地位或领先地位。
其在行业中的地位主要通过以下几个方面体现：1. 技术实力国有企业通常在技术研发和创新方面具有较高的实力，能够引领行业发展方向。
国有企业通过大规模投入研发，积极引进和消化吸收先进技术，能够在行业中保持技术的领先优势。
2. 综合实力国有企业由于其庞大的规模和全面的资源配置能力，能够在行业中实现综合实力的优势。
综合实力包括资金、人力、技术以及供应链管理等多方面的综合能力，使得国有企业在行业中具备较强的竞争力。
3. 市场份额由于国有企业拥有庞大的市场份额，其在行业中的地位较为稳固。
国有企业通过其规模和资源的优势，能够在行业中占据较大的市场份额，并对市场进行有效的控制和引导。
公司的核心竞争力-外文翻译
公司的核心竞争力-外文翻译外文翻译原文The Core Competence of the CorporationMaterial Source:Harvard Business Review,May-June,1990 P79-93Author:C.K.Prahalad and Gary HamelC. K. Prahalad is professor of corporate strategy and international business at the University of Michigan. Gary Hamel is lecturer in business policy and management at the London Business School. Their most recent HBR article "Strategic Intent" (May June 1989), won the 1989 McKinsey Award for excellence. This article is based on research funded by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation.The Roots of Competitive AdvantageThe distinction we observed in the way NEC and GTE conceived of themselves a portfolio of competencies versus a portfolio of businesses was repeated across many industries. From 1980 to 1988, Canon grew by 264%, Honda by 200%. Compare that with Xerox and Chrysler. And if Western managers were once anxious about the low cost and high quality of Japanese imports, they are now overwhelmed by the pace at which Japanese rivals are inventing new markets, creating new products, and enhancing them. Canon has given us personal copiers; Honda has moved from motorcycles to four wheel off road buggies. Sony developed the 8mm camcorder, Yamaha, the digital piano. Komatsu developed an underwater remote controlled bulldozer, while Casio's latest gambit is a small screen color LCD television. Who would have anticipated the evolutionof these vanguard markets?In more established markets, the Japanese challenge has been just as disquieting. Japanese companies are generating a blizzard of features and functional enhancements that bring technological sophistication to everyday products. Japanese car producers have been pioneering four wheel steering, four valve-per cylinder engines, in car navigation systems, and sophisticated electronic engine management systems. On the strength of its product features, Canon is now a player in facsimile transmission machines, desktop laser printers, even semiconductor manufacturing equipment.In the short run, a company's competitiveness derives from the price/performance attributes of current products. But the survivors of the first wave of global competition, Western and Japanese alike, are all converging on similar and formidable standards for product cost and quality minimum hurdles for continued competition, but less and less important as sources of differential advantage. In the long run, competitiveness derives from an ability to build, at lower cost and more speedily than competitors, the core competencies that spawn unanticipated products. The real sources of advantage are to be found in management's ability to consolidate corporatewide technologies and production skills into competencies that empower individual businesses to adapt quickly to changing opportunities.Senior executives who claim that they cannot build core competencies either because they feel the autonomy of business units is sacrosanct or because their feet are held to the quarterly budget fire should think again. The problem in many Western companies is not that their senior executives are any less capable than those in Japan nor that Japanese companies possess greatertechnical capabilities. Instead, it is their adherence to a concept of the corporation that unnecessarily limits the ability of individual businesses to fully exploit the deep reservoir of technological capability that many American and European companies possess.The diversified corporation is a large tree. The trunk and major limbs are core products, the smaller branches are business units; the leaves, flowers, and fruit are end products. The root system that provides nourishment, sustenance, and stability is the core competence. You can miss the strength of competitors by looking only at their end products, in the same way you miss the strength of a tree if you look only at its leaves. (See the chart "Competencies: The Roots of Competitiveness.”) Core competencies are the collective learning in the organization, especially how to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies. Consider Sony's capacity to miniaturize or Philips's optical media expertise. The theoretical knowledge to put a radio on a chip does not in itself assure a company the skill to produce a miniature radio no bigger than a business card. To bring off this feat, Casio must harmonize know how in miniaturization, microprocessor design, material science, and ultrathin precision casing the same skills it applies in its miniature card calculators, pocket TVs, and digital watches.If core competence is about harmonizing streams of technology, it is also about the organization of work and the delivery of value. Among Sony's competencies is miniaturization. To bring miniaturization to its products, Sony must ensure that technologists, engineers, and marketers have a shared understanding of customer needs and of technological possibilities. The force of core competence is felt as decisively inservices as in manufacturing. Citicorp was ahead of others investing in an operating system that allowed it to participate in world markets 24 hours a day. Its competence in provided the company the means to differentiate itself from many financial service institutions.Core competence is communication, involvement, and a deep commitment to working across organizational boundaries. It involves many levels of people and all functions. World class research in, for example, lasers or ceramics can take place in corporate laboratories without having an impact on any of the businesses of the company. The skills that together constitute core competence must coalesce around individuals whose efforts are not so narrowly focused that they cannot recognize the opportunities for blending their functional expertise with those of others in new and interesting ways.Core competence does not diminish with use. Unlike physical assets, which do deteriorate over time, competencies are enhanced as they are applied and shared. But competencies still need to be nurtured and protected; knowledge fades if it is not used. Competencies are the glue that binds existing businesses. They are also the engine for new business development. Patterns of diversification and market entry may be guided by them, not just by the attractiveness of markets.Consider 3M's competence with sticky tape. in dreaming up businesses as diverse as "Post it" notes, magnetic tape, photographic film, pressure sensitive tapes, and coated abrasives, the company has brought to bear widely shared competencies in substrates, coatings, and adhesives and devised various ways to combine them. Indeed, 3M has invested consistently in them. What seems to be an extremely diversified portfolio ofbusinesses belies a few shared core competencies.In contrast, there are major companies that have had the potential to build core competencies but failed to do so because top management was unable to conceive of the company as anything other than a collection of discrete businesses. GE sold much of its consumer electronics business to Thomson of France, arguing that it was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain its competitiveness in this sector. That was undoubtedly so, but it is ironic that it sold several key businesses to competitors who were already competence leaders Black & Decker in small electrical motors, and Thomson, which was eager to build its competence in microelectronics and had learned from the Japanese that a position in consumer electronics was vital to thischallenge.Management trapped in the strategic business unit (SBU) mind set almost inevitably finds its individual businesses dependent on external sources for critical components, such as motors or compressors. But these are not just components. They are core products that contribute to the competitiveness of a wide range of end products. They are the physical embodiments of core competencies.How Not to Think of CompetenceSince companies are in a race to build the competencies that determine global leadership, successful companies have stopped imagining themselves as bundles of businesses making products. Canon, Honda, Casio, or NEC may seem to preside over portfolios of businesses unrelated in terms of customers, distribution channels, and merchandising strategy. Indeed, they have portfolios that may seem idiosyncratic at times: NEC is the only global company to be among leaders in computing,telecommunications, and semiconductors and to have a thriving consumer electronics business.But looks are deceiving. In NEC, digital technology, especially VLSI and systems integration skills, is fundamental. In the core competencies underlying them, disparate businesses become coherent. It is Honda's core competence in engines and power trains that gives it a distinctive advantage in car, motorcycle, lawn mower, and generator businesses. Canon's core competencies in optics, imaging, and microprocessor controls have enabled it to enter, even dominate, markets as seemingly diverse as copiers, laser printers, cameras, and image scanners. Philips worked for more than 15 years to perfect its optical media (laser disc) competence, as did JVC in building a leading position in video recording. Other examples of core competencies might include mechantronics (the ability to marry mechanical and electronic engineering), video displays, bioengineering, and microelectronics. In the early stages of its competence building, Philips could not have imagined all the products that would be spawned by its optical media competence, nor could JVC have anticipated miniature camcorders when it first began exploring videotape technologies.Unlike the battle for global brand dominance, which is visible in the world's broadcast and print media and is aimed at building global "share of mind,” the battle to build world class competencies is invisible to people who aren't deliberately looking for it. Top management often tracks the cost and quality of competitors' products, yet how many managers untangle the web of alliances their Japanesecompetitors have constructed to acquire competencies at low cost? In how many Western boardrooms is there an explicit,shared understanding of the competencies the company must build for world leadership? Indeed, how many senior executives discuss the crucial distinction between competitive strategy at the level of a business and competitive strategy at the level of an entire company?Let us be clear. Cultivating core competence does not mean outspending rivals on research and development. In 1983, when Canon surpassed Xerox in worldwide unit market share in the copier business, its R&D budget in reprographics was but a small fraction of Xerox's. Over the past 20 years, NEC has spent less on R&D as a percentage of sales than almost all of its American and European competitors.Nor does core competence mean shared costs, as when two or more SBUs use a common facility a plant, service facility, or sales force or share a common component. The gains of sharing may be substantial, but the search for shared costs is typically a post hoc effort to rationalize production across existing businesses, not a premeditated effort to build the competencies out of which the businesses themselves grow.Building core competencies is more ambitious and different than integrating vertically, moreover. Managers deciding whether to make or buy will start with end products and look upstream to the efficiencies of the supply chain and downstream toward distribution and customers. They do not take inventory of skills and look forward to applying them in nontraditional ways. (Of course, decisions about competencies do provide a logic for vertical integration. Canon is not particularly integrated in its copier business, except in those aspects of the vertical chain that Support the competencies it regards as critical.)译文公司的核心竞争力资料来源:《哈佛商业评论》1990，5-6，P79-93作者：普拉哈拉德和哈默尔编者按：普拉哈拉德是美国密歇根大学研究公司策略和国际商务的教授。
国家竞争优势【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文The Competitive Advantage of Nations Material Source:Harvard Business Preview Author：Michael E. PorterNation prosperity is created,not inherited. It does not grow out of a country's natural endowments, its labour pool, its interest rates, or its currency's value, as classical economics insists.A nation's competitiveness depends on the capacity of its industry to innovate and upgrade. Companies gain advantage against the world's best competitors because of pressure and challenge. They benefit from having strong domestic rivals, aggressive home-based suppliers, and demanding local customers.In a world of increasingly global competition,nations have become more,not less,important. As the basis of competition has shifted more and more to the creation and assimilation of knowledge, the role of the nation has grown. Competitive advantage is created and sustained through a highly localized process. Differences in national values,culture,economics structures,institutions,and histories all contribute to competitive success. There are striking differences in the patterns of competitiveness in every country; no nation can or will be competitive in every or even most industries because their home environment is the most forward-looking, dynamic,and challenging.These conclusions, the product of a four-year study of the patterns of competitive success in ten leading trading nations,contradict the conventional wisdom that guides the thinking of many companies and national governments and that is pervasive today in the United States. According to prevailing thinking, labour costs, interest rates, exchange rates, and economies of scale are the most potent determinants of competitiveness. In companies, the words of the day are merger, alliance, strategic partnerships, collaboration, and supranational globalization. Managers are pressing for more government support for particular industries. Among governments, there is a growing tendency to experiment with variouspolicies intended to promote national competitiveness from efforts to manage exchange rates to new measures to manage trade to policies to relax antitrust which usually end up only undermining it.These approaches, now much in favour in both companies and governments, are flawed. They fundamentally misperceive the true source of competitive advantage. Pursuing them, with all their short-term appeal, will virtually guarantee that the United States or any other advanced nation never achieves real and sustainable competitive advantage.We need a new perspective and new tools an approach to competitiveness that grows directly out of an analysis internationally successful industries, without regard for traditional ideology or current intellectual fashion. We need to know, very simply, what works and why. Then we need to apply it.Factor conditions. According to standard economic theory, factors of production-labour, land, natural resources, capital, infrastructure-will determine the flow of trade. A nation will export those goods that make most use of the factors with which it is relatively well endowed. This doctrine, whose origins date back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo and that is embedded in classical economics, is at best incomplete and at worst incorrect.In the sophisticated industries that form the backbone of any advanced economy, a nation does not inherit but instead creates the most important factors of production-such as skilled human resources or a scientific base. Moreover, the stock of factors that a nation enjoys at a particular time is less important than the rate and efficiency with which it creates, upgrades, and deploys them in particular industries.The most important factors of production are those that involve sustained and heavy investment and are specialized. Basic factors, such as a pool of labour or a local raw-material source, do not constitute an advantage in knowledge-intensive industries. Companies can access them easily through a global strategy or circumvent them.Contrary to conventional wisdom, simply having a general work force that is high school or even college educated represents no competition. To support competitive advantage, a factor must be highly specialized to an industry's particular needs-a scientific institute specialized in optics, a pool of venture capital to fund software companies. These factors are more scarce, more difficult for foreign competitor to imitate-and they require sustained investment to create.Nations succeed in industries where they are particularly good at factorcreation. Competitive advantage results from the presence of world-class institutions that first create specialized factors and then continually work to upgrade them. Denmark has two hospitals that concentrate in studying and treating diabetes-and a world-leading export position in insulin. Holland has premier research institutes in the cultivation, packing , and shipping of flowers, where it is the world's export leader.What is not so obvious, however, is that selective disadvantages in the more basic factors can prod a company to innovate and upgrade-a disadvantage in a static model of competition can become an advantage in a dynamic one. When there is an ample supply of cheap raw materials or abundant labour, companies can simply rest on these advantages and often deploy them inefficiently. But when companies face a selective disadvantage, like high land costs, labour shortages, or the lack of local raw materials. They must innovate and upgrade to compete.Implicit in the oft-repeated Japanese statement, "We ate an island nation with no natural resources," is the understanding that these deficiencies have only served to spur Japan's competitive innovation. Just-in-time production, for example, economized on prohibitively expensive space. Italian steel producers in the Brescia area faced a similar set of disadvantages: high capital costs, high energy costs, and no local raw materials. Located in Northern Lombardy, these privately owned companies faced staggering Logistics costs due to their distance from southern ports and the inefficiencies of the state-owned Italian transportation system. The result: they pioneered technologically advanced minimills that require only modest capital investment, use less energy, employ scrap metal as the feedstock, are eddicient at small scale, and permit producers to locate close to sources of scrap and end use customers. In other words, they converted factor disadvantage into competitive advantage.Disadvantages can become advantages only under certain conditions. First , they must send companies proper signals about circumstances that will spread to other nations, thereby equipping them to innovate in advance of foreign rivals. Switzerland, the nation that experienced the first labour shortages after World War II, is a case in point. Swiss companies responded to the disadvantage by upgrading labour productivity and seeking higher value, more sustainable market segments. Companies in most other parts of the world, where there were still ample workers, focused their attention on other issues, which resulted in slower upgrading.The second condition for transforming disadvantages into advantages isfavorable circumstances elsewhere in the diamond-a consideration that applies to almost all determinants. To innovate, companies must have access to people with appropriate skills and have home-demand conditions that send the right signals. They must also have active domestic rivals who create pressure to innovate. Another precondition is company goals that lead to sustained commitment to the industry. Without such a commitment and the presence of active rivalry, a company may take an easy way around a disadvantage rather than using it as a spur to innovation.For example, U.S. Consumer-electronic companies, faced with high relative labour costs, chose to leave the product and production process largely unchanged and move labour-intensive activities to Taiwan and other Asian countries. Instead of upgrading their sources of advantage, they settled for labour-cost parity. On the other land, Japanese rivals, confronted with intense domestic competition and a mature home market, chose to eliminate labour through automation. This led to lower assembly costs, to products with fewer components and improved quality and reliability. Soon Japanese companies were building assembly plants in the United States-the place U.S. Companies had fled.The Diamond of National AdvantageWhy are certain companies based in certain nations capable of consistent innovation? Why do they ruthlessly purse improvements, seeking an ever more sophisticated source of competitive advantage? Why are they able to overcome the substantial barriers to change and innovation that so often accompany success?The answer lies in four broad attributes of nation, attributes that individually and as a as system constitute the diamond of national advantage, the playing field that cach nation establishes and operates for its industries. These attributes are:1.Factor conditions. The nation's position in factor of production, such as skilled labour or infrastructure, necessary to compete in a given industry.2.Demand conditions. The nature of home-market demand for the industry's product or service.3.Related and supporting industries. The presence or absence in the nation of supplier industries and other related industries that are internationally competitive.4.Firm strategy, structure, and rivalry. The condition in the nation governing how companies are created, organized, and managed, as well as the nature of domestic rivalry.These determinants create the national environments in which companies are born and learn how to compete. Each point on the diamond and the diamond as asystem affects essential ingredients for achieving international competitive success: the availability of resources and skills necessary for competitive advantage in an industry ; the information that shapes the opportunities that companies perceive and directions in which they deploy their resources on companies; and most important, the pressures on companies to invest and innovate.When a national environment permits and supports the most rapid accumulation of specialized assets and skills sometimes simply because of greater effort and commitment companies gain a competitive advantage. When a national environment affords better ongoing information and insight into product and process needs, companies gain a competitive advantage. Finally, when the national environment pressures companies to innovate and invest, companies both gain a competitive advantage and upgrade those advantages over time.译文国家竞争优势资料来源:哈佛商业评论作者：迈克尔.波特一个国家的繁荣是由后天创造出来的，而不是天生的。
国有企业的国际竞争力与国内优势
国有企业的国际竞争力与国内优势作为国家经济体系中重要的一部分，国有企业在国际竞争中扮演着重要角色。
国有企业的国际竞争力与其在国内市场上的优势密切相关，然而，如何提升国有企业的国际竞争力并保持国内优势是一个复杂而又关键的问题。
本文将从多个方面来探讨这个问题。
首先，国有企业在国际竞争中的优势源自其在国内市场上的强势地位。
国有企业在国内市场具有资源优势和区域覆盖优势。
由于其背靠国家背景，国有企业可以更容易地获取政府资源和支持，在资金、土地、人才等方面具备一定的优势。
此外，国有企业在国内市场上的地域布局相对较广，可以更好地适应市场需求，提供本土化的产品和服务，使其在国际市场上具备一定的竞争优势。
其次，国有企业在国际竞争中的竞争力受到国家国际影响力的影响。
国家的国际影响力直接关系到国有企业在国际舞台上的竞争力。
国家的声誉和形象对国有企业的国际竞争力有着重要影响。
一国的大国地位、经济实力、政治稳定与发展前景都会影响到国有企业的国际竞争力。
例如，中国拥有世界第二大经济体的地位，其国有企业在国际竞争中享有一定的优势，而一些小国家的国有企业在国际市场上可能面临更多的挑战。
另外，国有企业要提升其国际竞争力，还需要加强创新能力和技术实力。
国际竞争中科技创新是取胜的关键因素之一。
国有企业应该加大创新投入，培养自主研发能力，形成具有自主知识产权的技术，提升产品和服务的附加值。
同时，国有企业还可以通过加强国际技术合作和引进国际先进技术来提升自身的技术实力。
不断创新和提高技术水平，有助于国有企业在国际市场上占据竞争优势。
此外，国有企业还可以通过加强品牌建设来提升其国际竞争力。
品牌是国际竞争的标志，也是提升企业附加值和市场竞争力的有效手段。
国有企业可以加大品牌推广力度，提升品牌的知名度和美誉度，通过品牌溢价来获取更多的市场份额。
同时，国有企业还可以通过品牌建设来提升产品和服务的质量，满足国际市场的需求，并与国际先进企业进行深度合作，从而进一步提升其国际竞争力。
国有企业的国际竞争力与合作机制
国有企业的国际竞争力与合作机制随着全球化的进一步加深，国际竞争力成为国有企业发展的重要指标。
在竞争激烈的国际市场中，国有企业如何提升竞争力，并有效利用合作机制，成为了一个关键问题。
本文将探讨国有企业的国际竞争力所面临的挑战，以及如何通过合作机制来应对这些挑战。
一、国有企业的国际竞争力挑战国有企业在国际市场上面临着许多挑战，这些挑战可能来自于市场环境、技术水平、管理水平等方面。
首先，市场环境的挑战。
国际市场的竞争激烈，来自各个国家和地区的企业都在争夺有限的市场份额。
国有企业需要面对来自私营企业和外资企业的竞争，他们通常具有更高的效率和灵活性，而国有企业往往受制于宏观政策和组织结构的限制，难以迅速适应市场需求。
其次，技术水平的挑战。
国际市场上，技术是企业竞争的核心。
私营企业和外资企业在技术研发和创新方面通常具有较大优势，而国有企业在这方面的投入相对较少，难以与他们竞争。
此外，技术更新换代的速度也给国有企业带来了很大的压力，他们需要更加积极主动地进行技术引进和创新，以提升自身的竞争力。
最后，管理水平的挑战。
国有企业由于历史原因，存在着一些管理体制上的弊端，如决策缓慢、反应迟钝等问题。
这些问题使得国有企业在市场竞争中处于劣势地位。
国有企业需要建立现代企业制度，加强内部管理，并推进改革，以提升管理水平，增强国际竞争力。
二、合作机制的重要性在国际市场上，合作机制对于国有企业来说至关重要。
通过与其他企业的合作，国有企业可以共享资源、优势互补，从而提升自身的竞争力。
首先，合作可以帮助国有企业共享资源。
合作可以带来优势互补，通过与其他企业的合作，国有企业可以获取到更多的资源，如技术、资金、市场渠道等。
这些资源对于提升企业的创新能力和市场竞争力至关重要。
其次，合作可以推动企业间的协同发展。
通过与其他企业的合作，国有企业可以实现资源共享，加强各个环节之间的协同配合，提高企业整体效率和综合竞争力。
此外，合作还可以帮助国有企业学习和借鉴其他企业的先进经验和管理模式，推动自身的改革和转型。
关于国家竞争力与企业国际竞争力的相关性分析与探讨
关 于 国家 竞争力与 企业 国际 竞争力的相 关性 分析与 探讨
姚 晓云 南安 普顿 大 学商 学院 （ 英国）
摘要 ： 文章阐述 了 企业国际竞争力与国家竞争力的关系。 剖析了 企 的 变 化 。波 特 认 为对 国家 竞 争 优 势 的 分 析 切 人 点 从 行 业 角 度 人 手 。因为 国 业国际竞争力的构成要素及内涵， 对企业如何形成并增强其 国际竞争 家 竞 争 优 势 归 根 到 底 是 若 干 行 业 的 竞 争 优 势 问 题 。 在 相 同 的 国 内 经济 环 境
国家就 是有竞争优 势的国家 。 企 业 在 世 界 市 场 的 竞 争 受 企 业 相 关 产 业 发
分析 企 业 国 际 竞 争 力 的 内 涵 ， 先 必 须认 识 国家 竞 争 力 。目前 对 国 家 竞 争 力 的 认 识 有 不 同 的理 解 如 人 们 可 以根 据 某 个 国 家 的 企 业 在世 界市 场 上 的 占有 率 和 利 润 率 等 指 标 来 界定 国家 竞 争力 ， 也可 以 用 增 长 潜 力 和 Ｒ＆Ｄ项 目的 重 要 程 度 等 较 为 定 性 的 指 标 来 定 义 国 家 竞 争力 。 尽 管 有 不 同 的 观 察 视
动， 和 高 质 量 的信 息 环 境 。 同时， 企业 行为说 到底是人 的行为 ， 企 业 所 采
取 的跨国经营方针， 不可避免地受到国家体制、 传 统 和 价 值 观 念 的影 响 。
这 种 影 响 主 要体 现 在 三 个 方面 ： 人才流向， 组 织 形 式 和 企 业 经 营 战 略 的 选
销售产品 、 服务的 能力， 这 些 产 品 和 服 务 能 够 在 国际 市 场 上 竞 争 ， 同 时 增
跨国公司与国家竞争力
跨国公司与国家竞争力随着全球化的不断深入，越来越多的跨国公司开始涉足不同国家的市场，他们通过自身丰富的资源和先进的管理经验，促进了全球经济的发展。
然而，这些跨国公司的进入，无疑会对各国的竞争力产生一定的影响，甚至可能引发一些争议。
本文将就跨国公司与国家竞争力这一议题展开探讨。
一、跨国公司对经济的促进在全球化的进程中，跨国公司扮演着越来越重要的角色，他们跨越国界，将先进的科技、管理经验和生产工艺带入不同国家，从而促进了经济的发展。
这些公司往往拥有较强的资源配置能力和创新能力，他们的进入，不仅会影响当地的企业和市场，还会对国家整体的产业和经济体系产生深远的影响。
举例来说，苹果公司作为全球知名的跨国公司，其产品在全球市场上占据着很大的份额，这与其在技术创新和营销策略上的优势密不可分。
苹果公司应用了全球性的供应链和生产网络，不断创新并推出新品牌，极大地促进了全球经济的发展。
二、跨国公司与国家的关系然而，跨国公司所带来的经济效益，也并非完全正面。
在跨国公司进入一个国家的过程中，也可能会对当地的经济结构产生一定的冲击，引起本地企业的竞争压力，进而影响当地人民的生计和社会稳定。
除此之外，跨国公司的进入还可能对当地的政治和文化产生不同程度上的影响。
一些大型跨国公司在业务拓展中往往会占据大量的市场份额，进而可能对当地政治产生一定的影响。
此外，跨国公司通常有一套独特的企业文化和管理模式，进入新市场时也可能引发文化冲突。
因此，在跨国公司和国家之间的关系中，需要对双方的利益进行平衡，保障本地市场的竞争力和国家整体的经济发展。
针对这一问题，国家可以通过加强监管和规范跨国公司的行为，确保他们遵守当地法律法规和操守，同时在经济结构和文化与跨国公司合作进行深入的洽谈与协商。
三、跨国公司应对国家竞争力提升的方法在保障国家整体竞争力的同时，跨国公司也需要寻求自身发展的方法。
对于那些跨越边境进行经营的公司来说，了解并尊重国家的法规和特殊文化，往往是成功的基础。
公司的核心竞争力【外文翻译】
本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译题目会计师事务所核心竞争力探究专业会计学外文题目The Core Competence of the Corporation 外文出处Harvard Business Review May-June 1990 外文作者普拉哈拉德原文：The Core Competence of the CorporationThe most powerful way to prevail in global competition is still invisible to many companies. During the 1980s, top executives were judged on their ability to restructure, declutter, and delayer their corporations. In the 1990s, they'll be judged on their ability to identify, cultivate, and exploit the core competencies that make growth possible indeed, they'll have to rethink the concept of the corporation itself.Consider the last ten years of GTE and NEC. In the early 1980s, GTE was well positioned to become a major player in the evolving information technology industry. It was active in telecommunications. Its operations spanned a variety of businesses including telephones, switching and transmission systems, digital PABX, semiconductors, packet switching, satellites, defense systems, and lighting products. And GTE's Entertainment Products Group, which produced Sylvania color TVs, had a position in related display technologies. In 1980, GTE's sales were $9.98 billion, and net cash flow was $1.73 billion. NEC, in contrast, was much smaller, at $3.8 billion in sales. It had a comparable technological base and computer businesses, but it had no experience as an operating telecommunications company.Yet look at the positions of GTE and NEC in 1988. GTE's 1988 sales were $16.46 billion, and NEC’s sales were considerably higher at $21.89 billion. GTE has, in effect, become a telephone operating company with a position in defense and lighting products. GTE's other businesses are small in global terms. GTE has divested Sylvania TV and Telenet, put switching, transmission, and digital PABX into joint ventures, and closed down semiconductors. As a result, the international position of GTE has eroded. Non U.S. revenue as a percent of total revenue dropped from 20% to 15% between 1980 and 1988.NEC has emerged as the world leader in semiconductors and as a first tier player in telecommunications products and computers. It has consolidated its position in mainframe computers. It has moved beyond public switching and transmission to include such lifestyle products as mobile telephones, facsimile machines, and laptopcomputers bridging the gap between telecommunications and office automation. NEC is the only company in the world to be in the top five in revenue in telecommunications, semiconductors, and mainframes. Why did these two companies, starting with comparable business portfolios, perform so differently? Largely because NEC conceived of itself in terms of "core competencies," and GTE did not. Rethinking the CorporationOnce, the diversified corporation could simply point its business units at particular end product markets and admonish them to become world leaders. But with market boundaries changing ever more quickly, targets are elusive and capture is at best temporary. A few companies have proven themselves adept at inventing new markets, quickly entering emerging markets, and dramatically shifting patterns of customer choice in established markets. These are the ones to emulate. The critical task for management is to create an organization capable of infusing products with irresistible functionality or, better yet, creating products that customers need but have not yet even imagined)This is a deceptively difficult task. Ultimately, it requires radical change in the management of major companies. It means, first of all, that top managements of Western companies must assume responsibility for competitive decline. Everyone knows about high interest rates, Japanese protectionism, outdated antitrust laws, obstreperous unions, and impatient investors. What is harder to see, or harder to acknowledge, is how little added momentum companies actually get from political or macroeconomic "relief." Both the theory and practice of Western management have created a drag on our forward motion. It is the principles of management that are in need of reform.NEC versus GTE, again, is instructive and only one of many such comparative cases we analyzed to understand the changing basis for global leadership. Early in the 1970s, NEC articulated a strategic intent to exploit the convergence of computing and communications, what it called "C&C" Success, top management reckoned, would hinge on acquiring competencies, particularly in semiconductors. Management adopted an appropriate "strategic architecture," summarized by C&C, and thencommunicated its intent to the whole organization and the outside world during the mid 1970s.NEC constituted a "C&C Committee" of top managers to oversee the development of core products and core competencies. NEC put in place coordination groups and committees that cut across the interests of individual businesses. Consistent with its strategic architecture, NEC shifted enormous resources to strengthen its position in components and central processors. By using collaborative arrangements to multiply internal resources, NEC was able to accumulate a broad array of core competencies.NEC carefully identified three interrelated streams of technological and market evolution. Top management determined that computing would evolve from large mainframes to distributed processing, components from simple ICs to VLSI, and communications from mechanical cross bar exchange to complex digital systems we now call ISDN. As things evolved further, NEC reasoned, the computing, communications, and components businesses would so overlap that it would be very hard to distinguish among them, and that there would be enormous opportunities for any company that had built the competencies needed to serve all three markets.NEC top management determined that semiconductors would be the company's most important "core product." It entered into myriad strategic alliances over 100 as of 1987 aimed at building competencies rapidly and at low cost. In mainframe computers, its most noted relationship was with Honeywell and Bull. Almost all the collaborative arrangements in the semiconductor component field were oriented toward technology access. As they entered collaborative arrangements, NEC’s operating managers understood the rationale for these alliances and the goal of internalizing partner skills. NEC's director of research summed up its competence acquisition during the 1970s and 1980s this way: "From an investment standpoint, it was much quicker and cheaper to use foreign technology. There wasn't a need for us to develop new ideas.”No such clarity of strategic intent and strategic architecture appeared to exist at GTE. Although senior executives discussed the implications of the evolvinginformation technology industry, no commonly accepted view of which competencies would be required to compete in that industry were communicated widely. While significant staff work was done to identify key technologies, senior line managers continued to act as if they were managing independent business units. Decentralization made it difficult to focus on core competencies. Instead, individual businesses became increasingly dependent on outsiders for critical skills, and collaboration became a route to staged exits. Today, with a new management team in place, GTE has repositioned itself to apply its competencies to emerging markets in telecommunications services.The Roots of Competitive AdvantageThe distinction we observed in the way NEC and GTE conceived of themselves a portfolio of competencies versus a portfolio of businesses was repeated across many industries. From 1980 to 1988, Canon grew by 264%, Honda by 200%. Compare that with Xerox and Chrysler. And if Western managers were once anxious about the low cost and high quality of Japanese imports, they are now over;whelmed by the pace at which Japanese rivals are inventing new markets, creating new products, and enhancing them. Canon has given us personal copiers; Honda has moved from motorcycles to four wheel off road buggies. Sony developed the 8mm camcorder, Yamaha, the digital piano. Komatsu developed an underwater remote controlled bulldozer, while Casio's latest gambit is a small screen color LCD television. Who would have anticipated the evolution of these vanguard markets?In more established markets, the Japanese challenge has been just as disquieting. Japanese companies are generating a blizzard of features and functional enhancements that bring technological sophistication to everyday products. Japanese car producers have been pioneering four wheel steering, four valve-per cylinder engines, in car navigation systems, and sophisticated electronic engine management systems. On the strength of its product features, Canon is now a player in facsimile transmission machines, desktop laser printers, even semiconductor manufacturing equipment.In the short run, a company's competitiveness derives from the price/performance attributes of current products. But the survivors of the first wave ofglobal competition, Western and Japanese alike, are all converging on similar and formidable standards for product cost and quality minimum hurdles for continued competition, but less and less important as sources of differential advantage. In the long run, competitiveness derives from an ability to build, at lower cost and more speedily than competitors, the core competencies that spawn unanticipated products. The real sources of advantage are to be found in management's ability to consolidate corporatewide technologies and production skills into competencies that empower individual businesses to adapt quickly to changing opportunities.Senior executives who claim that they cannot build core competencies either because they feel the autonomy of business units is sacrosanct or because their feet are held to the quarterly budget fire should think again. The problem in many Western companies is not that their senior executives are any less capable than those in Japan nor that Japanese companies possess greater technical capabilities. Instead, it is their adherence to a concept of the corporation that unnecessarily limits the ability of individual businesses to fully exploit the deep reservoir of technological capability that many American and European companies possess.The diversified corporation is a large tree. The trunk and major limbs are core products, the smaller branches are business units; the leaves, flowers, and fruit are end products. The root system that provides nourishment, sustenance, and stability is the core competence. You can miss the strength of competitors by looking only at their end products, in the same way you miss the strength of a tree if you look only at its leaves. (See the chart "Competencies: T he Roots of Competitiveness.”) Core competencies are the collective learning in the organization, especially how to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies. Consider Sony's capacity to miniaturize or Philips's optical media expertise. The theoretical knowledge to put a radio on a chip does not in itself assure a company the skill to produce a miniature radio no bigger than a business card. To bring off this feat, Casio must harmonize know how in miniaturization, microprocessor design, material science, and ultrathin precision casing the same skills it applies in its miniature card calculators, pocket TVs, and digital watches.If core competence is about harmonizing streams of technology, it is also about the organization of work and the delivery of value. Among Sony's competencies is miniaturization. To bring miniaturization to its products, Sony must ensure that technologists, engineers, and marketers have a shared understanding of customer needs and of technological possibilities. The force of core competence is felt as decisively in services as in manufacturing. Citicorp was ahead of others investing in an operating system that allowed it to participate in world markets 24 hours a day. Its competence in provided the company the means to differentiate itself from many financial service institutions.Core competence is communication, involvement, and a deep commitment to working across organizational boundaries. It involves many levels of people and all functions. World class research in, for example, lasers or ceramics can take place in corporate laboratories without having an impact on any of the businesses of the company. The skills that together constitute core competence must coalesce around individuals whose efforts are not so narrowly focused that they cannot recognize the opportunities for blending their functional expertise with those of others in new and interesting ways.Core competence does not diminish with use. Unlike physical assets, which do deteriorate over time, competencies are enhanced as they are applied and shared. But competencies still need to be nurtured and protected; knowledge fades if it is not used. Competencies are the glue that binds existing businesses. They are also the engine for new business development. Patterns of diversification and market entry may be guided by them, not just by the attractiveness of markets.Consider 3M's competence with sticky tape. in dreaming up businesses as diverse as "Post it" notes, magnetic tape, photographic film, pressure sensitive tapes, and coated abrasives, the company has brought to bear widely shared competencies in substrates, coatings, and adhesives and devised various ways to combine them. Indeed, 3M has invested consistently in them. What seems to be an extremely diversified portfolio of businesses belies a few shared core competencies.In contrast, there are major companies that have had the potential to build corecompetencies but failed to do so because top management was unable to conceive of the company as anything other than a collection of discrete businesses. GE sold much of its consumer electronics business to Thomson of France, arguing that it was becoming increasingly difficult to maintain its competitiveness in this sector. That was undoubtedly so, but it is ironic that it sold several key businesses to competitors who were already competence leaders Black & Decker in small electrical motors, and Thomson, which was eager to build its competence in microelectronics and had learned from the Japanese that a position in consumer electronics was vital to this challenge.Management trapped in the strategic business unit (SBU) mind set almost inevitably finds its individual businesses dependent on external sources for critical components, such as motors or compressors. But these are not just components. They are core products that contribute to the competitiveness of a wide range of end products. They are the physical embodiments of core competencies.Source:Harved Business Review May-June 1990译文：公司的核心竞争力很多公司仍在苦苦寻找在全球竞争中克敌制胜的最有效方式。
企业国际竞争力和对外直接投资
案例 中国太阳能参与国际竞争 随着世界范围内能源紧缺的状况不断恶化，世界各国也都在史无前例调整着对于开 发太阳能、风能等可再生能源的步伐，继2004年，太阳雨将中国的真空管太阳能产 品第一次带出国门，到2008年上半年出口近80个国家、销量继续以两倍速增长，力 诺瑞特、桑乐、皇明等中国太阳能光热行业的龙头企业们也纷纷进军国际市场。 但是，那些“走出国门”的中国太阳能光热企业却并没有真正的扛起中国自主品牌 的旗帜，而都毫无例外的和其他传统行业一样，选择了OEM（贴牌生产）方式。当 然，在贴牌生产的过程中，那些中国企业在参与国际竞争的具体方式上也是充分发 挥自身优势，各显其能。 太阳雨在韩国设立独资公司，在西班牙则成立了合资公司，并不惜花费，进行产 品认证，目前已经获得了欧盟、韩国、德国、西班牙、美国、澳大利亚、加拿大等 近20个国家认证；力诺瑞特则发挥集团和合作伙伴的优势，强力开拓国际市场；皇 明也在近几年，纷纷参加多个国际展会，展现其规模化和品牌的影响力；诸多的还 有例如浙江神太等一大批中小企业，则完全把自己的精力集中在国际市场上，有些 是从企业开办之初就没打算做国内市场，有的却是先做国内市场又放弃国内市场而 专门开拓国际市场。
3、企业竞争力是核心，这可以从产业竞争力与企业 竞争力的相互关系中看出某个产业具有国际竞争力， 说到底是因为这个产业中有若干企业已经有了国际竞 争力。
对企业国际竞争力现有概念的评价
目前存在的一些企业竞争力或企业国际竞争力概念，基 本上都没有考虑投资或对外投资问题，所下定义仅仅顾及了 贸易或对外贸易方面。在当今国与国之间经济交往方式日趋 多样化，国际直接投资和跨国公司所发挥的作用越来越大的 情况下，这样定义是不全面的。 因此，需要将企业国际竞争力划分为国际贸易竞争力和 国际投资竞争力。 国际贸易竞争力主要表现为销售产品和服务并获利的 能力，侧重于产品、价格、质量、服务、营销和品牌等方面 的竞争。 国际投资竞争力主要表现为创办海外投资企业并使之 生存发展下去的能力，侧重于项目投资融资、技术、管理和 品牌竞争力等方面。
国家的国际竞争力对国家竞争政策的影响本科毕业论文外文翻译
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目：The Influence of National Competition Policy on the International Competitiveness of Nations出处：Physica-V erlag A Springer Company作者：Andreas Mitschke原文：The Influence of National Competition Policy on the International Competitiveness of Nations3. The International Competitiveness of NationsThe question about the international economic competitiveness of nations has received a lot of attention in recent years, not only in academic literature. In times of economic globalization, open economies are concerned about a possible loss of international competitiveness. 302 Furthermore, international organizations and fora like the WTO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the UNCTAD, and the World Economic Forum are interested in the international competitiveness of nations and their industries and financial markets, too. 303 They try to assess national economies in order to prevent fundamental problems for the growth and stability of world economy, to support the integration of developing countries into global trade and to forecast future developments on global markets.This multitude of publications about the international competitiveness of nations contrasts with the uncertainty about its exact meaning and the lack of its theoretical foundation, so that the aim to strengthen a nation´s international competitiveness could be misused as a justification for diverse political and legislative aims and projects. Despite these theoretical and practical problems, the concept of international competitiveness shall be taken as a theoretical basis of this investigation. Therefore, inorder to be able to analyze the role of national competition policy for the international competitiveness of nations in Chap. 4, it is necessary to get clear about the concept of international competitiveness.3.1 The Historical DevelopmentThe subsequent short history of economic thoughts on trade, welfare and competitiveness describes some approaches which have passed the way to the present competitiveness debate although these historical concepts are generally too simple and too unbalanced to explain the complexity of international competitiveness in modern industries. This is because the focus of these historical ideas was set on the structure and the benefits of international trade as a main factor of national welfare, not on the explanation of international competitiveness of nations.3.1.2 The Theory of Absolute AdvantagesIn opposition to the export-orientated trade policy of the so-called mercantilists, Adam Smith presented his classical thought s about absolute advantages in his ‘Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’ in 1776: ‘If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own industry employed in a way in which we have some advantage.’ This means that if one country is able to produce a certain product with less cost and to sell it more cheaply than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. An absolute advantage can be the result of a better production technology or a better factor endowment. According to Smith, a greater division of labour would lead to productivity gains and technological improvements. Furthermore, every nation should specialize itself on products with an absolute advantage and export these goods so that all countries can profit from these absolute advantages and increase their national wealth. Accordingly, Smith´trade theory of absolute advantages does not adhere to the mercantilist idea that international trade results in a zero sum game, but in economic growth and a positive sum game. It is remarkable that Smith did not title his work ‘… the wealth of the nation’, but ‘… the wealth ofnations’. He underlined that all countries could profit fro m international specialization and free trade. This specialization and greater international division of labour increases the productivity so that the absolute advantages even grow.The theory of absolute advantages is an approach to the concept of international competitiveness. A nation is competitive if it possesses an absolute advantage so that it can produce certain products less costly compared to other countries. Absolute advantages still play an important role for the structure of international trade and for the international competitiveness of firms. Some even suggest that ‘competitive advantage is a synonym for absolute advantage: some natural or policy-induced superiority (such as lower taxes or greater labour-market flexibility) which reduces cost s for all home sectors’. Nevertheless, there are deficiencies with regard to the present competitiveness debate. The concept of absolute advantages is too simple and too static to explain the modern debate on international competitiveness. Although Smith also considered the division of labour and the national technology, Smith mainly started from the assumption that absolute advantages are primarily natural advantages, that they result from the natural factor endowment of a country: ‘The natural advantages which one country has over another in producing particular commodities are sometimes so great, that it is acknowledged by all the world to be in vain to struggle with them.’ This concept of natural advantages reveals at least two deficiencies.Firstly, long-term natural advantages cannot explain intra-industry-trade and the international competitiveness in modern industries. The competitiveness of firms and countries increasingly depends on temporary and dynamic factors like superior technology, modern design, product differentiation, services, infrastructure, economies of scales, effective sales and marketing practices etc. These factors permanently generate new competitive advantages which cannot be guaranteed for a long-term period so that it is not in vain for firms to compete with the present owner of absolute advantages. By focusing on the so-called natural advantages, Smith under-estimated the influence of good governance and especially the active role of good management for improving the international competitiveness of the nation or its firms.Secondly, the concept of natural advantages focuses on the production costs as the determinant of absolute advantages.This approach seems to be too unbalanced because phenomena like intra-industry-trade make it doubtful that the international competitiveness of countries or firms mainly depends on cost functions. Furthermore, Smith´model would not work in case that trading countries or their firms have the same cost function so that no country has an absolute advantage. Moreover, the theory of absolute advantages would stop trade between two countries in case that one of the trading countries has no absolute advantage at all.Thirdly, as regards the role of government, Smith holds an ambivalent and partly contradictory position. On the one hand, he criticized governmental interventions during the period of mercantilism (import restrictions, national monopolies, export subsidies, wage regulation etc.). While the mercantilists strived for national self-sufficiency, Smith thought that free trade and competition would lead to international specialization and economic growth so that governmental (protectionist) interventions become unnecessary and should be reduced to a minimum, for example to erect and maintain certain public works and institutions which would never be erected by individuals.On the one hand, certain additional governmental activities could be advantageous for economic growth, international welfare, and international competitiveness. Furthermore, a farreaching specialization of nations as intended by Smith only could be realized by strict governmental interventions and regulation and this would be incompatible with the aim to protect international competition3.1.3 The Theory of Comparative AdvantagesThe theory of comparative advantages is an extension of the theory of absolute advantages. It was first described by Robert Torrens in 1815 and by David Ricardo in 1817. This theory explains in a simple model with two countries, two goods, and only labour as input, why it is beneficial for these two countries to start foreign trade even though one of the trading partners is able to produce the two traded goods with less absolute production costs than the other.Whereas the theory of absolute advantages compares the absolute productioncosts of two countries, the theory of comparative advantages compares the domestic opportunity costs. These opportunity costs can be defined as the value or the benefits that could be received from producing the other good. More generally speaking, in a model with more than two goods, the opportunity costs would be determined by the next best opportunity to use the production factors for generating welfare. According to Ricardo´s model, every economy should produce and export the one product which causes lower opportunity costs compared to the other country.This means that the two trading countries specialize on the production of the one good where they give up less of the other product compared to the foreign country.Furthermore, the welfare in both trading countries would increase if adequate terms of trade lead to intense free trade.The most important result with respect to the competitiveness debate is that every country is internationally competitive, because every country has a comparative advantage in at least one industry. If the first country has a comparative advantage in producing one good, then the second country must have a comparative advantage in the other good. No country can lose its comparative advantage in everything if the other country achieves technological progress. Simultaneously, no country can possess a comparative advantage in all its industries, even if it generates more technological advances in all its industries compared to other country. This theory of comparative advantages is still important in foreign trade theory to justify international trade as an instrument to increase overall welfare, but it does not provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing the entire competitiveness phenomenon. Quite the reverse, the theory of comparative advantages rather stops the discussion about the international competitiveness of nations because of its simple answer that every country is internationally competitive. Furthermore, Ricardo´s model includes several deficiencies making it inapplicable on modern industries and open and free markets.Firstly, the model cannot explain why there are different comparative advantages between modern industrialized countries. Similar to Adam Smith, Torrens and Ricardo had used a model in which comparative advantages result from the natural factor endowment of a country and from a different (factor) productivity. In his Principles, Ricardo explicitly mentions the capitalist who makes the discovery of amachine or who first usually applies it to get an additional advantage.Even developing countriesthat are lacking behind in productivity and technology have a comparative advantage.Assuming an international immobility of production factors, the national production conditions result in long-term comparative advantages.In contrast to this model, natural and long-term production conditions are not the decisive factor in the majority of modern dynamic industries which are confronted with international competition and intraindustry-trade.Furthermore, Ricardo´s model does not work in case that both countries have the same opportunity costs in producing a certain good so that no country has a comparative advantage. This is not an unlikely scenario, because modern industries are increasingly characterized by intra-industry-trade and a fast transmission of new technologies and know-how. Moreover, an international convergence and harmonization of technological standards, human capital, wages, capital costs, standard of living, laws etc. could make it more likely that countries´opportunity costs converge, too. But although this process of convergence and harmonization could level opportunity costs, it is likely that countries would still possess a more or less different degree of international competitiveness because the international competitiveness does not only depend on different opportunity costs.Thirdly, the theory of comparative advantages would necessitate an international governmental coordination of trade and production in order to achieve a far-reaching international specialization. This would lead to a globally planned economy, asupremacy of the state over the economy. For instance, if one of the trading countries has absolute advantages in both industries, then the government would have to determine that the one of these internationally competitive industries which does not have the comparative advantage would have to give up its business and start producing the other product. The government would have to carry through a strict specialization on the one product where the economy possesses a comparative advantage. Such governmental interventions are not compatible with nowadays dynamic industries and international competition.3.1.4 The Heckscher-Ohlin-ModelSmith and Ricardo did not provide a thorough explanation why a country has an absolute or a comparative advantage. The Heckscher-Ohlin-Model324 intends to offer a solution for this problem by focusing on the relative factor endowments of countries. The neoclassical model starts from Ricardo´s theory of comparative advantages, but it rejects Ricardo´s basic assumptions and introduces some new assumptions. Firstly, the Heckscher-Ohlin-Model introduces a second factor (capital) so that it includes two production factors (labour and capital). Secondly, the model assumes that there are no international factor movements and that all countries use the same technology so that differences in productivity only arise from differences in factor endowments and from the resulting different combinations of labour and capital. In contrast to this, Ricardo´s one-input-model explains the generation of comparative advantages and different labour productivities with the existence of different technologies in the trading countries. By means of these alterations compared to Ricardo´s theory, the Heckscher-Ohlin-Model highlights the role of different factor endowments for differences in national productivity and for the resulting international division of labour. According to Heckscher and Ohlin, every trading country focuses on the production of those goods where it possesses a relative abundance of the needed inputs because this relative abundance causes low production costs and by this the comparative advantage (so-called factor proportions theorem). Consequently, patterns of trade can be predicted by analyzing the relative factor endowment of all trading nations.As regards the discussion about the international competitiveness of nations, the Heckscher-Ohlin-Model has made an important contribution by turning the attention to a special factor of competitiveness. The international competitiveness of a nation is considered to depend on its relative factor endowment. It is still undisputed that the factor endowment is an important factor of international competitiveness, but it cannot explain the whole problem. The Heckscher-Ohlin-Model is too simple and one-sidedto explains the different competitive advantages between countries. Severaldeficiencies of the model have to be mentioned.原文：国家的国际竞争力对国家竞争政策的影响3.国家的国际竞争力近年来关于国家经济的国际竞争力问题，不仅在学术方面受到关注在其他方面也受到很多关注。
国际竞争力的含义名词解释
国际竞争力的含义名词解释国际竞争力是指一个国家、地区或者企业在国际市场上与其他竞争对手相比较的能力。
它包括了多个方面的因素，如经济实力、科技创新、人才素质、产业结构、国际影响力等。
国际竞争力的强弱直接影响着一个国家或地区的经济发展和国际地位，也决定了一个企业在全球市场上的生存和发展空间。
首先，经济实力是国际竞争力的重要组成部分。
一个国家或地区的经济总量、人均收入、财政收入等指标都能反映出其经济实力的强弱。
经济实力强大的国家或地区能够在国际市场上以更有竞争力的价格和质量提供产品和服务，从而获得更多的市场份额。
同时，强大的经济实力也能够支撑国家或地区在国际事务中发挥更大的影响力，参与全球经济治理和国际规则制定。
其次，科技创新是国际竞争力的关键因素之一。
随着全球化的加速和科技进步的不断推进，科技创新已经成为国际竞争的核心。
拥有先进的科技创新能力的国家或地区能够在全球市场上推出更具竞争力的产品和服务，实现技术领先、品质优良和创新性强的目标。
同时，科技创新也能够为企业提供更多的发展机会，提高企业的核心竞争力，推动企业走向国际市场。
第三，人才素质是国际竞争力的重要保障。
优秀的人才是任何国家或企业发展的核心资源，也是国际竞争力的重要组成部分。
拥有高素质的人才能够为国家或企业带来更多的创新和竞争优势，推动经济的高质量发展。
因此，国家或地区应该加大对人才培养和引进的力度，不断提高人才素质，为国际竞争力的提升提供有力支撑。
此外，产业结构也是国际竞争力的重要组成部分。
一个国家或地区的产业结构是否合理、是否具备竞争力，直接影响着其在国际市场上的地位。
发达的制造业、先进的服务业和创新的科技产业都能够为国家或地区带来更多的竞争优势，提高其在国际市场上的地位。
最后，国际影响力也是国际竞争力的重要体现。
一个国家或地区在国际事务中的影响力越大，其国际竞争力也越强。
国际影响力可以通过多种途径实现，如国际合作、国际援助、国际形象塑造等。
《公司的核心竞争力》TheCoreCompetenceoftheCorporation中文
普拉哈拉德公司的核心竞争力1990年普拉哈拉德（C。
K.Prahalad）和哈默尔（G。
Hamel）在哈佛商业评论上发表《企业核心竞争力》(TheCoreCompetenceoftheCorporation）很多公司仍在苦苦寻找在全球竞争中克敌制胜的最有效方式。
20世纪80年代,人们评价某个高管有没有才能,主要看这个人能否重组公司、拨乱反正和精简层级.然而，进入20世纪90年代后,人们评价高管时，将看他们有没有能力识别、培育和利用公司的核心竞争力(corecompetence，也称核心能力)，为公司的成长找到新的途径。
看来，高管们该重新思考一下公司这个概念本身了.让我们首先以美国的GTE＊和日本的NEC＊＊两家公司为例，探讨十年来它们各自的发展轨迹.20世纪80年代初期,信息技术已初显欣欣向荣的景象，GTE凭借自己的地位，极有希望成为该行业的主力军。
这家公司在电信业非常活跃,其业务横跨多个领域，包括电话、交换与传输系统、数字化专用自动小交换机（PABX)、半导体、分组交换、卫星、国防系统以及照明产品等等.此外,GTE旗下的娱乐产品集团（EntertainmentProductsGroup），也就是喜万年（Sylvania)彩电的制造者，在相关的显示器技术领域也占有一席之地.1980年，GTE 的销售额为99．8亿美元，净现金流17．3亿美元。
与之相比，NEC当时还只是一个小字辈,销售收入仅为38亿美元。
尽管拥有与GTE不相上下的技术基础和计算机业务，但NEC 在电信领域尚无任何经验。
然而，到了1988年，NEC却后来者居上,销售额达到218．9亿美元，远远高于GTE公司的164．6亿美元。
这时，GTE实际上已经沦为一家以经营电话业务为主的公司，尽管它在国防和照明产品方面仍占有一席之地.这家公司的其他业务从全球的角度看已经变得很小.在过去的几年中，GTE公司已经把喜万年电视机和Telenet业务剥离了出去，把交换机、传输设备和数字PABX等产品转交给合资公司生产,而半导体业务则已关张大吉.在这个过程中,GTE公司的国际地位一路下滑.1980到1988年间GTE在美国以外地区的销售收入从过去占总收入的20％降到了15％.相比之下，NEC却一跃成为世界半导体工业的领导者,并且在电信产品和计算机领域也跻身一流企业.它巩固了自己在大型计算机方面的领先地位，还跨出了公用交换和传输领域，把触角伸到了手机、传真机和手提电脑等所谓的生活时尚产品(1ifestyleproducts)领域,在电信和办公自动化之间架起了桥梁.NEC成为惟一一家在电信、半导体、大型计算机三个领域的全球销售收入均名列前五位的公司.为什么这两家在起步时业务组合基本相近的公司，在几年后的表现却如此悬殊？主要是因为NEC能够从“核心竞争力"的角度考虑企业问题，而GTEZ却没有。
国际竞争力
03
国际竞争力的实证研究
国际竞争力指数的构建与测算
• 国际竞争力指数的构建主要包括国家层面、企业层面和产业层面的指数。 • 国家层面：主要包括GDP、国际贸易额、外汇储备等指标的指数构建。 • 企业层面：主要包括市场份额、品牌知名度、产品质量等指标的指数构建。 • 产业层面：主要包括产业技术水平、产业规模、产业附加值等指标的指数构建。
• 产业技术水平：产业的 技术水平对产业发展和技术进步的影 响，提高产业技术水平有利于推动产业发展和技术进步，从而 提高国际竞争力。
• 产业规模：产业的规模对生产成本和市场地位的影响，扩大产 业规模有利于实现规模经济，降低生产成本，提高市场地位。
• 产业附加值：产业的附加值对产业竞争力和国际贸易的影响， 提高产业附加值有利于提高产业竞争力，从而提高国际竞争力。
02
国际竞争力的影响因素分析
国家经济环境对国际竞争力的 影响
• 国家经济环境对国际竞争力的影响主要体现在经济体制、市场规 模、基础设施、人力资源等方面。
• 经济体制：国家的经济体制对资源配置、产业发展、科技创新 和政策支持等方面的影响，从而影响国际竞争力。
• 市场规模：国家的市场规模对产业发展的影响，市场规模大的 国家更容易实现规模经济，降低生产成本，提高国际竞争力。
CREATE TOGETHER
DOCS SMART CREATE
国际竞争力：理论与实践 DOCS
国01际竞争力的基本概念与理论 框架
国际竞争力的定义与内涵
• 国际竞争力是指一个国家或地区在全球经济体系中，通过自身的资源配置、产业发展、科技创新和政策支持等方 面，实现更高附加值和更强市场地位的能力。
国际竞争力实证研究 的政策启示
• 国际竞争力实证研究的政策启示主要包括政策支持、创新驱动和 产业升级等方面。
外文翻译原文--旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例
外文翻译原文--旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力：罗马尼亚的案例外文翻译原文--旅游服务贸易的国际竞争力:罗马尼亚的案例Chapter 12The International Competitiveness of Tradein Tourism Services Evidence from RomaniaAna Bobirca and Cristiana Cristureanu121 IntroductionTourism is the only service activity that can potentially provide trading opportunitiesfor all nations regardless of their level of development However it is also a sectorwhere there is clearly an uneven distribution of benets that is largely dependant oncountries ability to strengthen their performance in the global economy which inturn requires improving their competitivenessSince the beginning of the 1990s Romania has experienced major changesin its tourism exports volume growth rate and structure These disparate uc-tuations have all inuenced the relative competitive position of Romania onthe international tourism market and have been associated with changes in itstourism trade balance In the same time the new and more heterogeneous Euro-pean architecture has induced signicant changes inRomanias regional tourismcompetitivenessAgainst this background the paper attempts to suggest a frameworkfor assessingthe international competitiveness of Romanias tourism services trade by focusingon the relationship between competitiveness and tourism trade performanceTo this end the rst part starts by introducing the concept of internationalcompetitiveness and by presenting evaluating and systematizing key issues of thecomplex analysis on international competitiveness The paper subsequently consid-ers the relationship between export performance and international competitivenessas well as its relevance for international tourism The second part includes a macrooverview of the tourism sector focusing specically on its importance to the econ-omy The third part of the paper sets out in detail the framework for calculating theproposed measures of competitiveness and shows the importance of the method-ological approach in interpreting the information provided by these indicators Italso illustrates the recent performance of Romanian tourism based on an integratedA Bobirca BFaculty of International Business and Economics Academy of Economic StudiesBucharest Romaniae-mail AnaBobircacomá Matias et al eds Advances i n Tourism Economics189DOI 101007978-3-7908-2124-6_12 C Physica-Verlag Heidelberg 2009 190 A Bobirca and C Cristureanumeasure of international trade competitiveness The paper concludes by explainingthe competitive position of Romania on the European tourism market and byidentifying research issues that require further study122 Perspectives on International Competitiveness – TheRelationship Between Export Performanceand International Competitivenessand its Relevance for International TourismThe concept of international competitiveness although controversial and elusivehas gained acceptance and continues to attract the attention of both academics andpolicymakers worldwideMost measures of international competitiveness that have so far been consideredwere undertaken at the economy-wide level Garelli 2003 and generally refer to theability of a country to produce goods and services that meet thetest of internationalmarkets while simultaneously maintaining and expanding the real income of itscitizens European Commission 2007Because competitiveness ultimately depends upon rms in a country competingsuccessfully on the domestic and international markets attention has focused oncompetitiveness at the rm level Porter 1990 where it is generally understood torefer to the ability of the rm to retain and better still enlargeits global marketshare increase its prots and expand Clark and Guy 1998 OECD 1993 According to traditional economic theory a rm can gain competitive advan-tage through comparative cost of production by for example reducing labor costHowever recent research suggests that non-price factors are equally important deter-minants of competitiveness The range of non-price factors is diverse and includeshuman resource endowment such as skills technical factors such as research anddevelopment capabilities and the ability to innovate managerial and organizationalfactors both internal to the rm and externally organizedthrough relationshipswith other bodies customers suppliers public and private research institutes andother rms Clark and Guy 1998 Fagerberg 1986 Together these factors deter-mine the ability of the rm to compete successfully in international markets on thebackground of changing technological economic and social environments Exportperformance and the ability of the rm to maintain its market share remain theultimate indicators of international competitivenessConsequently although widely proclaimed the theoretical bases of internationalcompetitiveness as it relates to national economies and their international trade havebeen less analyzed in academic literature Thus the nature benets and constraintson a nation of being internationally competitive remain ambiguous Coldwell 2000Krugman 1994 1996International competitiveness within the context of trade in goods and servicesrefers to a nation securing and maintaining a trade advantage vis-à-vis the rest ofthe world12 Evidence from Romania191International competitiveness is advanced whenever the economic welfare of anation is enhanced through an increase in the ow of trade or through an alteration inthe conditions of trade starting from a presumed initial equilibrium Coldwell 2000Trade theory asserts that economic welfare is dependent on the production ofgoods and services that a country has comparative advantage in This in effectmeans that international competitiveness is secured when production is in line with acountrys comparative advantage situation If countries perform well internationallyand compete successfully for export markets this could be a sign of their soundinternational competitivenessTherefore at the international level competitiveness can be dened as the abilityof an economy to attract the demand for its exports and the investment to supplythat demand all within social norms that result in an improved standard of livingfor its citizens This in turn depends on the macro and microeconomic policiesregulations and institutions that affect the productivity of the economys factors ofproduction and the costs of doing businessA review of available literature and empirical evidences supportsthe notion thatinternational competitiveness can be explained to some extent by a countrys abil-ity to export Dollar and Wolff 1993 Fagerberg et al 2004 There is in fact aself-recurring relationship between export performance and international compet-itiveness Exports are the rst level of international competitiveness afrmationThe improvement in export performance leads to an increase in a countrys com-petitiveness This effect is a result of enterprises skills knowledge propensity toinnovate and use new technology ability to exploit technological opportunities in asuccessfully commercial way etcOn the other hand in striving to achieve successful exports inhighly competi-tive global markets a country is forced to improve its competitiveness The morecompetitive a country is the more economically powerful it is Consequently it ismore capable to compete on the global market to attract people with higher level ofknowledge skills to buy new technologies etc and to improve its export perfor-mance as well as to achieve better export results This can in turn favor additionalinnovations and trigger an improvement in its competitivenessConsequently export performance and competitiveness should not be consideredin isolation since they are mutually interdependentHowever competitiveness should not be equated only with a countrys ability toexport The evolution of export market shares is also an important element of tradecompetitiveness while the latter is just a component of a nations competitivenessdened by the European Declaration of Lisbon as the capacity to improve and raisethe standard of living of its habitants by providing more and higher quality employ-ment and a greater social cohesion The gains or losses of world marketshares byindividual countries are often considered as an index of their trade competitivenessHowever market share growth depends also on structural factors Due to changesin demand a countrys geographical and sectoral specialization at the beginningof a period is an important factor shaping future market share growth Similarlythe countrys ability to adapt its exports to such changes will also affect the naloutcome192 A Bobirca and C CristureanuFurthermore the concept of international competitiveness in tourism servicesalso encompasses qualitative factors that are difcult to quantify the quality ofservices involved the degree of specialization the capacity for technological inno-vation the quality of human resources Rubalcaba and Cuadrado 2001 are factorsthat may inuence a countrys tourism trade performance favorably Likewise highrates of productivity growth are often sought as a way of strengthening competi-tiveness But it is not necessarily the case that favorable structural factors of thissort will give rise to increased sales on foreign markets They may instead showup as improving terms of trade brought about through exchange-rate appreciationwhile leaving export performance broadly unchanged It is for this reason as wellas because these factors are hard to measure in quantitative terms that considerationhere is conned to a more specic and integrated method for determining Romaniasrelative competitive position in international tourism123 An Overview of Romanias InternationalTrade in Tourism Servicescom Key FactsRomanias Travel and Tourism Economy1 currently shows a return to positive terri-tory following negative results posted during the early years of economic transitionwith an optimistic outlook for growth over the next ten years much stronger thanthat of the EUWith a 48 contribution of tourism to GDP Romania ranks the 162nd among174 countries being currently among the lower-tiertourism-intensive countries ofthe region and the world However Romanias prospects for tourism sector growthare better than for most of its neighbours and competitors withinthe regional andworld ranking ie 67 contribution to GDP over the next 10 years and12thposition respectively World Travel and Tourism Council 2007Romanias Travel and Tourism Industry2 contributed 19 to GDP in 2006 ris-ing to 25 of total GDP by 2016 while in the European Union theTravel andTourism Industry posted a GDP contribution of 39 in 2006 WorldTravel andTourism Council 2007While the Travel and Tourism Economy accounts for 87 of global employ-ment Romanias Travel and Tourism Economy employment was estimated at485000 jobs in 2006 representing 58 of total employment or one in every 174jobs The current 265000 Travel and Tourism Industry jobs account for 31 oftotal employment as compared with 42 of total employment in the EuropeanUnion 86 million jobs World Travel and Tourism Council 20071Broad concept developed by the World Tourism and Travel Council and used in Tourism SatelliteAccounting referring to both the direct and indirect economicimpacts of tourism2Narrower concept developed by the World Tourism and Travel Council and used in TourismSatellite Accounting referring only to the direct economic impact of tourism12 Evidence from Romania193Travel and Tourism represented in the European Union 130 of total exports in2006 In Romania exports make up a very important share of Travel and Tourismscontribution to GDP Out of the total Romanian exports Travel and Tourism repre-sented 52 12 billion Euros in 2004 with a prospect to increase in nominalterms to 18 billion Euros 46 of total by 2016 World Travel and TourismCouncil 2007The vast majority of international arrivals in Romania are from Europe Since2000 some 95 of visitors every year have been intra-regional Out of these agrowing number – 75 according to 2004 gures –represent arrivals from theve countries with which Romania shares a border Ukraine Moldavia BulgariaHungary Serbia and Montenegrocom Major FindingsThe analysis shows that while still lagging behind the developed economies thetrend towards a service-oriented society is observable for Romania This is alsoreected by the increasing proportion of GDP attributable to tourism services andthe growing share of employment in the tourism services sectorAlthough the overall tourism balance of Romania is positive EU represents anet exporter of tourism services to Romania the tourism balance is negative with aworsening decit from 2005 to 2006 still the propensity to trade with EU partnersis stronger in this eld reecting a higher degree of integration into the EU tourismservices market EUROSTAT 2003 2004 2005 2006– While Romanias Travel and Tourism is growing in terms of international visitorsthe countrys tourism receipts have been lagging considerably behind neighboringcountries In 2004 Romania registered some 38 of those registered by Bulgariaapproximately 12 of those registered by Hungary and the Czech Republic anda mere 7 of Croatias receipts This reects the fact that many of Romaniasvisitors do not stay overnight or spend anything while they are in the country animportant weakness to address for any tourism plan going forward EUROSTAT2003 2004 20058 2006– Within EU-15 countries Romanias largest markets are Germany Italy FranceAustria and the UK Worryingly arrivals from all of the EU-15 countries showednegative growth in 2004 This can be attributed in part to the accession of ten newcountries to the EU and related incentives for visitors to these countries such aslow-cost airlines– Growth in 2004 was driven by Hungary which showed a 69 increase inarrivals in Romania Outside Europe Romanias main international markets arethe USA which has shown steady growth since 2000 to 111000 arrivals in2004 as American tourists have started to be aware ofthe fact that Romaniais more than a Dracula destination and Israel although the Israeli markethas remained stagnant in recent years Tourists from China are also expected toincrease in the future as Romania received approved destination status in June2004 EUROSTAT 2003 2004 2005 2006194 A Bobirca and C Cristureanu– Analysis of accommodation gures shows that a large number of these visitors donot stay in registered facilities and either reside with friends or relatives or do notovernight in Romania Thus it is difcult to quantify their impact on the economy– The majority of international arrivals to Romania are by road again mirroringthe large proportion of the countrys visitors from bordering countries Howeverarrivals by air have also seen a healthy rise over the past ve years with increasedfrequency of scheduled services and some charters operating in regional airportsAs Romania is forced to liberalize its aviation industry as a consequence of EUaccession air transport is set to rise dramatically in the near future Arrivals byrail are decreasing at almost the same rate that air arrivals are increasing as airtravel becomes cheaper and more accessible124 Methods for Assessing the International Competitivenessof Trade in Tourism Servicescom The Research MethodFor the specic assessment of the international competitiveness of trade in tourismservices the underlying methodological approach undertaken in this study is basedon the idea that the economy with an improving degree of competitiveness in tourismservices is the one able to enhance the size of its tourism services exports to a certainmarket Similarly the economy with a declining degree of competitiveness is the onethat increases the size of its tourism services imports coming from other countriesThe greater or smaller degree of competitiveness a country or sector has showsthe nature and degree of participation it has – through its exports – in the importscarried out by the analyzed market ie a country improves its competitiveness inthe way that the other country increases its imports coming from the former oneMandeng 1991In addition the process of inserting a country in the international economy isrelated not only to its exporting progresses but also to the behavior and actions ofother competitors The model is adapted from De la Guardia Molero and ValadezDe la Guardia et al 2004 that introduced the aspect of the dynamic nature ofmarkets and implemented through their work an expost assessment of servicescompetitiveness by providing a descriptive reference on the changes produced inthe competitiveness level and specialization degree in international tradeThe commercial advantage is revealed through the evolution of tourism exports –which reects improvements in competitiveness and through the evolution oftourism imports that reects a worsening of the commercial advantage Based on the aforesaid the changes in the international tourism services tradecompetitiveness are measured through the analysis of different variables1 the rst variable is the market share or participation in the market and measuresthe portion of the market that is supplied by a certain country or the tourismsector of this country12 Evidence from Romania1952 the second variable used is the export structure of the analyzed country Thisvariable reects the relative weight of the tourism sector in thetotal exports ofthat country3 nally by means of the import structure of the market the degree ofdynamism that the tourism sector has in the analyzed import market can bedeterminedThrough the combination of the aforementioned variables threetourism com-petitiveness matrices see Table 121 are constructed that allow for the descriptionof Romanias international tourism trade development proleThe Market Share Competitiveness Matrix illustrates the fact that a countrystourism exports can be classied according to their international competitivenessstarting from the behavior of the countrys market share in tourism exports and theevolution of the world tourism services imports over timeIn effect the world market share held by each country in tourism servicesexports can increase or diminish throughout time such modications take placein the same time with the increase or decline that tourism imports register ininternational tradeThis allows for the classication of a countrys tourism exports as performingmissed opportunities declining and retreatingTourism services are performing when a country enhances its market share intourism in circumstances in which this activity has an increasing importance inworld-wide tradeTourism services are missed opportunities when a country is losing market sharewhile international trade in the sector is enhancingDeclining are those tourism services in which the exporting country increases itsmarket share while the international market is shrinkingFinally we dene the situation of tourism services as retreating when this eco-nomic activity besides losing market share registers a decline of dynamism ininternational tradeThe competitiveness matrix of the export structure is obtained relating the behav-ior of a countrys tourism services export structure with the tourism services importdynamism of the international marketThis matrix shows how the adjustments of the export structure can take place inthe same direction or in the opposite direction with respect to the changes in worldimports structureTable 121 The tourism competitiveness matrixMarket share Declining PerformingExport structure Retreating Missed opportunitySpecialization indexImport market structureSource adapted from De la Guardia et al 2004196 A Bobirca and C CristureanuThe different segments of services exports including tourism can be classiedfrom the point of view of their international competitiveness through the changesthat take place in the services export structure of the country and the world servicesimports structure throughout timeCombining these two variables tourism as a services exporting sector can beclassied as performing missed opportunity declining and retreating with theequivalent meaning mentioned beforeFinally tourism exports can also be classied from the point of view of theirinternational competitiveness throughout time when the degree of trade special-ization of each country and the evolution of the world imports are simultaneouslyanalyzedThe specialization index is dened as the relative participation that an exportingsector of a country has in world trade3Similarly tourism as an exporting sector can be classied as performing missedopportunity declining and retreating with an identicalinterpretation to the onespreviously indicatedOur aim here is to adapt and apply the modeldeveloped by De la GuardiaMolero and Valadez in order to assess the international competitiveness of tourismservices using information related to the current situation of the EU-25 countriesand to that of Romania based on the statistical information availableBalance of payments transactions for tourism services are less easy to link toactual tourism services provision than is the case for goods some tourism activ-ities may be difcult to disentangle from goods or capital transactions Countrieshave developed unique national methods for assembling the data some have tendedto rely more on statistical surveys and others have relied more on central banksadministrative systems Even so there has been and still remains considerable vari-ation in data collection methods To compound the picture methods of collectionhave changed considerably over timeDespite these troubles we believe that the forthcoming descriptive analysis couldbring some highlights on international competitiveness and the factors determiningthe commercial position in tourism services tradeThe sample data is drawn from UNCTAD-IMF-BOP Statistics on Trade in Ser-vices by sector and country OECD 2003 2004 2005 2006 UNCTAD 2003 20042005 2006 a data-set which covers exports credits and imports debits of threemain services categories transportation tourism and travel and other commercialservices according to the concepts and denitions of the IMF Balance of PaymentsManual with a focus on tourism services Data-set comprises the 25 EU countriesRomania and the world 178 countries and covers a yearly time period comprising2003 2004 2005 and 20063The specialization index is dened as the ratio of a services category exports to total servicesexports of a country with respect to the same ratio to the world economy The index measuresthe countrys revealed comparative advantage in exports according to the Balassa formula Valuesabove 1 indicate that the country is specialized in the sector under review12 Evidence from Romania197com The Research Resultscom1 The IndicatorsThe evolution of the market share shows the penetration ability of tourism as aservices exporting sector of each country in the international economyThe data reveal that for the analyzed period the EU-25 economies were amongthe main world suppliers of tourism services since they maintainedan overallparticipation next to 45 of the world supply in tourism exportsAltogether the group constituted by these countries slightly diminished the heldproportions of the world quota in tourism services –068 growth rate From the perspective of individual countries the economies that registered anincrease of their quotas in the world market of tourism services were in order thoseof Poland Estonia Lithuania UK and LuxemburgBy contrast especially signicant are the resultsregistered by countries likeHungary Finland and Spain which decreased their market share in tourismRomanias market share in tourism services exports declined at both world levelRomania – world and in relation to EU-25 countries Romania –EU-25 but thedecrease in the latter case was more severe 2085 as opposed to 465 Alsothe reduction in Romanias market share on the EU-25 market was much higher thenthe overall European market retreatThrough the analysis of the export structure we can appreciate the importancethat export of services has as currency provider for the EU-25 economies andRomaniaData show that in relation to the examined services sectors the exports oftourism services represent about 27 of the overall services exports in the EU-25 countries and about 28 at world level meaning that compared to the worldexport structure the EU-25 countries exhibit a similar pattern with a slight negativedeviation for tourism servicesIn the analyzed period most of the countries registered minor decreases in theircurrency entry through exports of tourism services The countries that opposed thistrend were Poland Estonia Malta Germany UKIn Romania tourism services represent about 14 of the overall services exportswhich is below the world and European average 27–28 The evolution is similarwith that signaled above meaning that the structure of Romanias exports is alteredin the detriment of tourism services that are decreasing both in relation to the worldand to the EU-25 countries but with a much higher amplitude in the latter case2785 as compared to 614Finally through the analysis of the import structure we can illustrate the changesthat have taken place in the world imports of tourism servicesThe rst relevant fact reected by the data is that EU-25 tourism import activitiesevolved in the same direction as compared to the world but with a different growthrate 098 increase in tourism imports for EU-25 countries as compared to 231at world level With respect to the services import structure itself it is similar atEU-25 level and world level with tourism services representing about 26–28 ofservices imports198 A Bobirca and C CristureanuThe highest increase in the contribution of tourism imports to the overall importswas felt in Poland Lithuania Spain and The NederlandsThe structure is different in Romania with tourism services accounting foronly 16 of the overall services imports In relation to the EU-25 countries thepercentage is slightly higher ie 182While at the world level and the EU-25 countries level the greater relative weightof the imports increase corresponded to the activity of tourism these services aredecreasing their contribution to services imports in Romania the corresponding rateis much higher at world level 1419 than in relation to EU-25 countries 495com2 The Tourism Competitiveness MatricesAs it has already been indicated a rst assessment procedure of a countrys compet-itiveness in tourism services consists of analyzing simultaneously the market sharethat an economy holds with respect to tourism services exports and the changes thatare taking place in the world tourism trade imports throughout time The results of the analysis are reected in Table 122 where countries examinedin accordance with these criteria have been orderedA second tourism competitiveness assessment procedure consists of simultane-ously analyzing the behavior that the export structure of the economy has throughouttime and the changes that take place in the structure of world trade with emphasison tourism services see Table 123A third and most complex tourism competitiveness assessment procedure con-。
国际商务学 -6 国际竞争力分析
三、价值链和国际竞争
一、国际市场竞争战略研究 迈克尔· 波特
• 迈克尔· 波特被誉为“现代竞争战略之父”， 是现代最伟大的商业思想家之一。他的四 部著作不仅为他奠定了商界泰山北斗的地 位，更是企业的高层在制定战略的指路灯。 1980年出版的《竞争战略》 • 1985年出版的《竞争优势》 • 1990年出版的《国家竞争优势》 • 1998年出版的《竞争论》
• 2、现有竞争对手的竞争 • 六个方面 • 3、买方的侃价能力
– 买方的集中程度；买方数量；买方转换成 本；买方信息；后向整合的能力替代品； 克服危机的能力； – 后向整合——收购，兼并上游的供应企业 – 前向整合——收购，兼并下游的批发，零 售商；
• 4、供货商的议价能力
– 投入的差异；产业中供方和企业的转换成 本；替代品投入的现状；供方的集中程度； 批量大小对供方的重要性；与产业总购买 量的成本；前向整合相对于后向整合的威 胁；
• 5、替代品的压力
• 1、进入威胁 • ①规模经济 • ②产品歧异（品牌忠诚）：企业形象或品牌忠 诚 • ③资本需求（资金要求）：即投资要求 • ④分销渠道：销售网络的控制 • ⑤政府限制 • ⑥其它限制：如：专有技术、原材料来源优势、 地理位置优势、经验曲线效益（即在一种产品 的生产过程中，产品的单位成本随着公司积累 的经验增加而下降）
资料-国家竞争优势理论
2.1 国家竞争优势理论国家竞争优势理论(The Theory of Competitive Advantage of Nations) 是由迈克尔·波特(Michel E·Porter )在他的《国家竞争优势》一书中提出，该理论从企业参与国际竞争这个微观角度来解释国际贸易现象，正好弥补了比较优势理论的不足，在赫克歇尔-俄林理论与产品生命周期理论的基础上，波特试图赋予国家的作用以新的生命力，提出了国家具有“竞争优势”的观点。
第二次世界大战后，世界经济中出现的产业全球化和企业国际化的现象，导致一些人认为企业的国际竞争已不具有国家的意义，跨国企业已成为超越国家的组织。
但波特并不同意这种观点，他认为经济发展的事实是：几十年来，在某些特定的产业或行业中，竞争优胜者一直集中在少数国家并保持至今。
不能离开国家谈论产业竞争力的原因在于：竞争优势通过高度的当地化过程是可以创造出来并保持下去的，国民经济结构的差别、价值观念、文化传统、制度安排、历史遗产等种种差别都对竞争力有深刻的影响。
竞争全球化并没有改变产业母国的重要作用，国家仍然是支撑企业和产业进行国际竞争的基础。
80年代美国的一些传统支柱产业，如汽车制造业的竞争力被日本和西欧国家所超过，一些新兴产业也受到这些国家的强大竞争压力。
如何提高国际竞争力是当时美国学术界、企业界和政府有关部门急需解决的一个问题。
同时，随着经济全球化进程的加快，使国际竞争日趋激烈，获取企业、产业乃至国家的竞争优势已成为一个现实的迫切需求。
波特的国家竞争优势理论内容十分丰富，既有国家获取整体竞争优势的因素分析，也有产业参与国际竞争的阶段分析，以及企业具有的创新机制分析，波特的理论对于国际贸易有重要影响，下面就波特的主要理论进行说明。
一、“钻石”理论波特认为，财富是由生产率支配的，或者它取决于由每天的工作、每一美元的所投资本以及每一单位所投入的一国物质资源所创造的价值。
国际竞争力的概念
国际竞争力的概念不同的机构对国际竞争力作出定义的有:美国总统产业竞争力委员会在1985年的总统经济报告中将国际竞争力定义为:国际竞争力是在自由良好的市场条件下，能够在国际市场上提供好的产品、好的服务的同时又能提高本国人民生活水平的能力。
‘经合组织在1986年出版的《科学、技术和竞争力》一书提出:“国家经济的竞争能力是建立在国内从事外贸的企业竞争能力之上的，但又远非国内企业竞争能力的简单累加或平均的结果。
”1994年，经合组织将国际竟争力的概念定义为一种创新能力。
1998年，经合组织将国际竞争力的概念定义为生产要素取得持续的高收益和高使用率的能力。
世界经济论坛(WEF)在1985年将国际竟争力定义为:企业主目前和未来在各自的环境中比他们国内和国外的竞争者更有吸引力的价格和质量来进行设计生产并销售货物以及提供服务的能力和机会。
不同的学者对国际竞争力作出定义的有:亚当·斯密、大卫·李嘉图、H一O、邓宁等从国际贸易角度出发将国际竞争力定义为一种比较优势，认为一个国家或一个企业之所以比其他国家或企业有竞争优势，主要是因为其在生产率、生产要素或所有权方面有比较优势。
按照Krugman的新贸易理论的解释，竞争力是某种技术优势、规模优势的反映。
SMarkusen在1992年将国际竞争力定义为在一个国家通过贸易使实际收入的增长高于其贸易伙伴，则说明其有竞争力。
Cohen和Zyman在1989年认为，国际经济竞争实质上是企业之间的竞争，国际竞争力最核心的是企业的国际竞争力，而一个企业有竞争力是指这个企业能够在建立和保持市场地位的同时获得利润的能力。
尽管国际竞争力得到了广泛的研究，但迄今为止仍是一个难以统一定义的复杂概念。
借鉴国内外有关国际竞争力研究的成果，可以认为，国际竞争力只有在国际比较中才有意义，是一个相对的概念，它实际有两方面的含义:其一是指国家增加国民收入和财富的能力，其二是指国家在进出口贸易中所表现出的竞争力。
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外文翻译International competitiveness of nations and companies Material Source:Research into International Competitiveness in 2000–2008, ISSN 1392-2785 Engineering Economics. 2008. No 4 (59) The Economic Conditions of Enterprise Functioning www.minfolit.lt/arch/14501/14521.pdf Author:Vytautas SnieškaAbstractInternational competitiveness of nations and companies is discussed .It was found that competition intensity can be described by these main factors: market shares distribution, market rate of growth, market profitability. The first factor–market shares distribution–is analyzed by using mathematical-statistical methods, Stackelberg market classification and graphics market shares interpretation. The second factor – market rate of growth – can be explained in such way: when market rate of growth higher, then market capacity is bigger, and competition is not so high, and vice versa. Another way for the evaluation of the second factor can be the concept of demand for product life cycle. The third factor – market profitability –can be explained in such way: when market profitability is higher, then sellers can get higher profit and this means that competition of this market becomes higher.Maksvytienė, I. and Urbana’s, J. (2001) in the article “Structure and Powers of a Competitive Ability Model of an Enterprise” write that a conception of competition is estimated and the conclusion is made that it does not correspond to the content of present economy. The analysis showed that there are two conceptions of the phenomenon, which explain competition both as a process and as a corresponding structure of market powers. The authors of the article maintain that the economic reality is rather a synthesis of these two models. A competitive ability model where the forces, that form it, are grouped into a system has been presented by the authors.Kvainauskaitė, V, Snieška, V. (2002). In the article “Forecaster Evaluation of the Influence of Lithuania’s Business Structure Development Tendencies to RegionalEconomic Growth.” Analyzed the main aspects of regional economic growth theories, the compatibility of the regularities of modern regional growth with Lithuania’s business structure development.The regularities of regional development described in theoretical works were expected to appear in Lithuania as well. One of the subjects of economic growth analysis should be the evaluation of Lithuania’s business structure development tendencies. However, the characteristics of the Lithuania’s business structure focusing on the model of development have never been analyzed. Forecasted evaluation of the i nfluence of Lithuania’s business structure development tendencies on regional economic growth showed that unfavorable social and economic conditions hinder the effective growth and development of business structures in the peripheral regions, which limits the participation of small and medium–sized businesses in promoting characteristic features of economic development, that are described in modern models of development in Lithuania.Snieška, V., Činčikaitė, J., Neverauskas, B. (the article “Clusters: A Key to Regional Competitiveness”, 2002) found that cluster based economic development is the key to regional competitiveness. An industrial cluster is a geographic concentration of competitive firms or establishments in the same industry that either have close buy sell relationships with other industries in the region, use common technologies or share a specialized labor pool that provides firms with a competitive advantage over the same industry in other places. The cluster framework can be a valuable tool for an effective economic change because it is market driven, inclusive, collaborative, and strategic and value creating. Cluster Based Regional CompetitivenessDevelopment Model has five stages: mobilization, cluster development, diagnosis, collaborative strategy and implementation. The cluster based approach can increase regional competitiveness and speed up economic development.The principles of market demand estimation formulated in the available economic research publications have mainly to do with different managerial aspects focusing on the peculiarities of various methods used for market investigation as well as their implementation possibilities, and pointing out traditional factors that have influence upon demand investigation of a definite market, leaving out, however, any deep analysis of systematic principles of market demand estimation in the competitive market. Market demand forecasts worked out exceptionally by statistical methods often ignore the influence of qualitative factors of both macroenvironment and industry environment upon the competitive market demand.The chief goal of this research was to create a model of competitive market demand forecasting which would include market demand estimation with emphasis on the influence of both macro environment and industry environment on the one hand, and forecasting based on the analysis of quantitative data sequences on the other; in other words, a model that would ensure the reliability of market demand in competitive market.The authors proposed the basic structure of a competitive market demand estimation and forecasting model which includes such stages as formulation of aims and objectives, estimation of competitive market environment and its influencing factors, determination of essential factors of competitive market forecasting environment, choice of forecasting method, quantitative and qualitative forecasting, forecasting accuracy estimation and market demand forecast development.Maksv ytienė, I., Urbana’s, J. (the article “Forming Features and Stages of International Economic Competitiveness”, 2003) have paid great attention to a theoretical and practical problems of international competition in the East and Central European countries and Lithuania.International competition in macro level is explained by the advantages of national economy and its essence and reasons are interpreted in a very different and contradictory way. Such points of view are distinguished in economic literature: international competitiveness is macroeconomic phenomenon in a state and it is formed by course of exchange, norms of interests, balance of foreign trade; international competitiveness of a state is predetermined by the existence of a cheap high-qualified manpower that allows to make production for export using lower expenses and to sell it in different markets of the world for lower prices; international competitiveness of a country depends upon abundance of existing natural recourses and utilization expenses; international competitiveness of a state is predetermined by the nature of its foreign economics policy: purposeful programs of economic relations, stimulation of export and hindering of import, application of quota policy, subsidies and other means of policy of protectionism; international competitiveness of a state is quarantined by the existence of direct regulation fulfilled by the organs of power and government in the sphere of economic structure and dynamics, various branches of production and many enterprises, existence of state sector of economics.The opinion of the authors is that there are no special reasons of internationalcompetitiveness that could define the essence of competition and its contents. Economic literature speaks more about the influence of special conditions and factors on the level of international competitiveness. How well could we evaluate macroeconomic level of international economic relations? In fact we must say that international competitiveness is being formed in the level of the main subjects of economic system that is in the level of relations of international producer and international consumer. In all cases the direct and primarySubject of international competitiveness is the enterprise of business, and the object of competitiveness is goods produced by that enterprise; these goods are offered to the world consumer directly or with the help of a mediator.A major course of industry structural change is technological innovations of various types and origins. Innovation in product is an important type. Product innovation can widen the market and hence promote industry growth or it can enhance product differentiation. Innovations may require new marketing, distribution or manufacturing methods that change economics of scale or other mobility barriers. Other feature is that factors of production and their use conditions take place in equalization between countries. National and international enterprises look for resources and sell their goods in all markets of the world. Internationalization of economic relations and globalization of international competitiveness strategies take place. The evolution of international competition is peculiar to national economic competitiveness stages. The authors consider, national international competitiveness to have four stages: factors of production and costs; fast growth investment and effectiveness; new innovations and new technologies; processes of world economy internationalization. General analysis of international competitiveness of nations and companies was followed by deeper analysis of Competition environment and international trade features in specific industries and markets.国家和公司的国际竞争力资料来源：国家和公司的国际竞争力，1392-2785工程经济学；2008年ISSN；4号(59)经济条件的企业运作www.minfolit.lt/arch/14501/14521.pdf 作者：维陶塔斯摘要在对国家和企业的国际竞争力探讨研究发现,竞争的激烈可以描述为以下这些主要因素:市场份额分布，市场的速度发展,市场利润。