Water – The Universal Solvent - ednetnsca：水–万能溶剂ednetnsca

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超纯水学习教材PPT课件

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1.
Why do we need High Purity Water for cleaning and rinsing?
பைடு நூலகம்
为什么要用超纯水作清洗和冲洗？
• In its pure state, water is one of the most aggressive solvents ( aqueous solution ) known .
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Content 目錄
6. More about RO.
更多了解RO。 7. More about CDI/EDI. 更多了解CDI/EDI。 8. More about UV Lamp. 更多了解紫外光灯。 9. Piping for DI water. DI 水管道系统。 10.DI / RO System for A6 為A6設計的DI/RO純水系统
• 水被称为 “万能溶剂”, 事实上任何物质放入水中,都可以溶解到某一特定的程度。
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2. What is DI water? 什么是DI水？
DI water is short form of “Deionized water”
DI 水是“去除离子的水”的简称
Deionization is an ion exchange processes. It uses certain types of synthetic resins in the proper state and arrangements to remove most or all of the total dissolved solids (TDS), in the form of ions, from water. Water with ions taken out by ion exchange is deionized water, or ion free water.

Urban water cycle processes and interactions

INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME_____________________________________________________________ Urban water cycle processes and interactionsByJ. Marsalek, B.E. Jiménez-Cisneros, P.-A. Malmquist,M. Karamouz, J. Goldenfum and B. ChocatIHP-VI~Technical Documents in Hydrology ~ No. 78UNESCO, Paris, 2006Published in 2006 by the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, FranceIHP-VI Technical Document in Hydrology N°78UNESCO Working Series SC-2006/WS/7UNESCO/IHP 2006The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for education or nonprofit use, without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. As a courtesy the authors should be informed of any use made of their work. No use of this publication may be made for commercial purposes.Publications in the series of IHP Technical Documents in Hydrology are available from:IHP Secretariat | UNESCO | Division of Water Sciences1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, FranceTel: +33 (0)1 45 68 40 01 | Fax: +33 (0)1 45 68 58 11E-mail: ihp@/water/ihpTable of Contents Foreword (vii)Acknowledgements (viii)CHAPTER 1 Urban Water Cycle1.1 Introduction (1)1.2 Urban Water Cycle Concept (2)1.3 Total Management of the Urban Water Cycle (5)CHAPTER 2 Urban Water Cycle Hydrologic Components2.1 Water Sources (8)2.1.1 Municipal water supply (8)2.1.2 Precipitation (8)2.1.2.1 Climatic aspects (8)2.1.2.2 Urban precipitation (9)2.2 Hydrologic Abstractions (10)2.2.1 Interception (10)2.2.2 Depression storage (10)2.2.3 Evaporation and evapotranspiration (11)2.2.4 Infiltration (11)2.2.5 Lumped hydrologic abstractions (12)2.3 Water Storage (12)2.3.1 Soil moisture (12)2.3.2 Urban groundwater (12)2.4 Stormwater Runoff (12)2.5 Interflow and Groundwater Flow (14)2.6 Natural Drainage: Urban Streams, Rivers and Lakes (14)2.7 Needs for Urban Water Infrastructure (14)CHAPTER 3 Urban Water Infrastructure3.1 Demands on Water Services in Urban Areas (17)3.2 Water Supply (19)3.2.1 Historical development (20)3.2.2 Water demand (20)3.2.2.1 Water supply standards: quantity (22)3.2.2.2 Water supply standards: quality (23)3.2.3 Water supply sources (23)3.2.3.1 Conjunctive use of sources and artificial recharge (24)3.2.3.2. Supplementary sources of water (25)3.2.3.3 Water shortage (26)3.2.4 Drinking water treatment (27)3.2.4.1 Emerging technologies (27)3.2.4.2 Desalination (28)3.2.4.3 Disinfection (29)3.2.5 Water distribution systems (29)3.2.6 Drinking water supply in developing countries (30)3.3 Urban Drainage (30)3.3.1 Flooding in urban areas (31)3.3.2 Stormwater (32)3.3.2.1 Stormwater characterisation (34)3.3.2.2 Stormwater management (35)3.3.2.3 Special considerations for drainage in cold climate (35)3.3.3 Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) (36)3.3.3.1 CSO characterisation (36)3.3.3.2 CSO control and treatment (36)3.4 Wastewater and Sanitation (37)3.4.1 Problem definition (38)3.4.2 Technological development (38)3.4.3 Ecological sanitation (39)3.4.4 Basic demands on wastewater management systems (40)3.4.5. Wastewater characterisation (41)3.4.6 Wastewater systems without separation of wastewaters at the source (41)3.4.6.1 Centralised systems (41)3.4.6.2 Distributed (local) systems (42)3.4.7 Systems with separation of wastewaters at the source (43)3.4.8 Water and wastewater reuse (44)3.4.8.1 NEWater in Singapore (45)3.4 8.2 Shinjuku water recycling centre, Tokyo, Japan (45)3.4.8.3 Wetlands with fish production in Calcutta, India (45)3.4.8.4 Reuse of (untreated) sewage for agricultural irrigation in the Mezquital Valley (Mexico City sewage disposal) (45)3.4.8.5 Reuse of stormwater and greywater in Sydney, Australia (46)CHAPTER 4 Impacts of Urbanisation on the Environment4.1 Overview (47)4.2 General Characterisation of Urbanisation Effects (48)4.2.1 Increased ground imperviousness (48)4.2.2 Changes in runoff conveyance networks (49)4.2.2.1 Construction of runoff conveyance networks (49)4.2.2.2 Canalisation of urban streams and rivers (49)4.2.2.3 Interfering transport infrastructures (50)4.2.3 Increased water consumption (50)4.2.4 Time scales of urbanisation effects (51)4.2.5 Spatial scales and types of receiving waters (51)4.3 Urbanisation Effects on the Atmosphere (52)4.3.1 Thermal effects (urban heat island phenomenon) (53)4.3.2 Urban air pollution (53)4.3.3 Combined impacts (54)4.4 Urbanisation Effects on Surface Waters (54)4.4.1 Physical effects (54)4.4.1.1 Urbanisation effects on flows (54)4.4.1.2 Urbanisation effects on sediment regime: erosion and siltation (55)4.4.1.3 Modification of the thermal regime of receiving waters (55)4.4.1.4 Density stratification of receiving water bodies (56)4.4.1.5 Combined physical effects (56)4.4.2 Chemical effects (57)4.4.2.1 Dissolved oxygen (DO) reduction (57)4.4.2.2 Nutrient enrichment and eutrophication (57)4.4.2.3 Toxicity (58)4.4.3 Microbiological effects (59)4.4.3.1 Waterborne pathogens (59)4.4.3.2 Indicators of microbiological pollution (62)4.4.4 Combined effects on surface waters (62)4.4.5 Examples of urbanisation effects on specific types of receiving waters (63)4.4.5.1 Rivers (63)4.4.5.2 Lakes and reservoirs (65)4.5 Urbanisation Effects on Wetlands (67)4.6 Urbanisation Effects on Soils (69)4.6.1 Erosion (69)4.6.2 Transport of pollutants in soils (70)4.6.3 Changes in water quality during percolation through soils (71)4.6.4 Effects of sludge disposal on soils (71)4.6.4.1 Sludge production (72)4.6.4.2 Sludge quality (72)4.6.4.3 Biosolids (sludge) application on land (72)4.6.4.4 Sludge disposal (73)4.6.4.5 New chemicals of concern in sludge (73)4.7 Urban Impacts on Groundwater (73)4.7.1 Unintentional discharges into groundwater aquifers (74)4.7.2 Intentional discharges into groundwater aquifers (75)4.7.3 Impacts on aquifers (76)4.8 Urban Impacts on Biota – Loss of Biodiversity (76)4.8.1 General structure of water bodies and their biota (76)4.8.2 Properties of the water bodies affecting flora and fauna (77)4.8.3 Effects of alterations of urban water bodies on biota (77)4.8.3.1 Rivers (77)4.8.3.2 Lakes and reservoirs (78)References (81)FOREWORDContinuing urbanisation leads to ever increasing concentrations of population in urban areas. General statistics indicate that of the current (2005) world population of about 6.5 billion people, more than 54% live in urban areas, and in some countries this proportion reaches 90% or more. The process of urbanisation is particularly fast in developing countries, which account for a disproportionately high number of megacities with many millions of inhabitants. Consequently, the issue of urban environmental sustainability is becoming critical, because urbanisation and its associated environmental impacts are occurring at an unprecedented rate and scope.These concerns have long been recognised by UNESCO in their International Hydrological Program (IHP), which has addressed the role of water in urban areas, effects of urbanisation on the hydrological cycle and water quality, and many aspects of integrated water management in urban areas. The current phase of IHP (IHP 6) is seeking solutions to water resource problems in urban areas by examining the means of implementation of integrated water management in urban areas. Towards this end, UNESCO held in 2001 a Symposium on Frontiers in Urban Water Management and the resulting publication (Maksimovic and Tejada-Guibert, 2001) proposed the way forward in this challenging field. At a subsequent meeting at UNESCO Headquarters, a program comprising eight mutually related studies on urban water management was initiated by UNESCO.This report presents results of one of those studies; its main focus is on the assessment of anthropogenic impacts on the urban hydrological cycle and the urban environment, including processes and interactions in the urban water cycle. The need for this study follows from the fact that effective management of urban waters should be based on a scientific understanding of anthropogenic impacts on the urban hydrological cycle and the environment. Such impacts vary broadly in time and space, and need to be quantified with respect to the local climate, urban development, cultural, environmental and religious practices, and other socio-economic factors. The final product of this activity should be a guidance manual on anthropogenic alterations of the urban water cycle and the environment, with reference to various climatic zones and potential climate changes.To address the broad range of conditions in urban water management, UNESCO established a working group for this study with representatives of various professional backgrounds and experience from various climatic regions. The Working Group for the study of the urban water cycle processes and interactions comprised the following members:Mr. Gamal Abdo, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, SudanMr. Bernard Chocat, INSA Lyon, Lyon, FranceMr. Joel Goldenfum, IPH/UFRGS, Porto Allegre, BrazilMr. K.V. ayakumar, Water and Environment Division, Regional Engineering College, Warangal, IndiaMs. Blanca J iménez-Cisneros, Environmental Engineering Department, Institute of Engineering, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, MexicoMr. Mohammad Karamouz, School of Civil Engineering, Amirkabir University (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, IranMr. Per-Arne Malmquist, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, SwedenMr. Jiri Marsalek, National Water Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario, Canada.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSMany colleagues have contributed to the preparation of this report and their contributions are gratefully acknowledged. In particular, the work of the following is acknowledged:UNESCO Secretariat: Mr. J.A. Tejada-Guibert, officer in charge of Urban Water activities of the International Hydrological Programme VI (IHP-VI) and Deputy Secretary of IHP, Mr. C. Maksimovic, adviser for the IHP Urban Water component, Ms. B. Radojevic, consultant, and Mr. W. H. Gilbrich, consultant. Mr. W.E. Watt, Emeritus Professor, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, who served as an external editor of the final report.Mr. Q. Rochfort, Ms. J. Dziuba and Mr. P. McColl, National Water Research Institute, Burlington, Ontario, Canada, for producing the print-ready version of the report.All the members of the Working Group for this project, and in particular, those who provided written materials:Prof. B. Chocat – contributed to Chapter 4Prof. J. Goldenfum – contributed to Chapters 2 and 3Prof. B.E. Jiménez-Cisneros – contributed to Chapters 3 and 4Prof. M. Karamouz– contributed to Chapters 2 and 3Dr. P.-A. Malmquist – contributed to Chapter 3Dr. J. Marsalek – contributed to Chapters 1-4 and provided report integration and editing.Chapter 1Urban Water Cycle1.1 INTRODUCTIONAn urban population demands high quantities of energy and raw materials, and removalof waste, some of which turns into environmental pollution. Indeed, all key activities of modern cities: transportation, electricity supply, water supply, waste disposal, heating, supply of services, manufacturing, etc., are characterised by the aforementioned problems. Thus, concentration of people in urban areas dramatically alters material and energy fluxes in the affected areas, with concomitant changes in landscape; altered fluxes of water, sediment, chemicals, and microorganisms; and, increased release of waste heat. These changes then impact on urban ecosystems, including urban watersand their aquatic ecosystems, and result in their degradation. Such circumstances make provision of water services to urban populations highly challenging, particularly in megacities, which are defined as the cities with 10 million or more inhabitants. Yet, the number of these megacities keeps growing, particularly in the developing countries, andthis further exacerbates both human health and environmental problems. The growth ofthe number of megacities is illustrated in Table 1.1, listing megacities in 1975 and 2003,and predictions for 2015.Table 1.1 Megacities with more than 10 million people (after Marshall, 2005)Megacities with more than 10 million people1975 2003 2015Tokyo, Japan (26.6) Tokyo, Japan (35.0) Tokyo, Japan (36.2)New York, USA (15.9) Mexico City, Mexico (18.7) Mumbai, India (22.6)Shanghai, China (11.4) New York, USA (18.3) Delhi, India (20.9)Mexico City, Mexico (10.7) Sao Paulo, Brazil (17.9) Mexico City, Mexico (20.6)Mumbai, India (17.4) Sao Paulo, Brazil (20.0)Delhi, India (14.1) New York, USA (19.7)Calcutta, India (13.8) Dhaka, Bangladesh (17.9)Buenos Aires, Argentina (13.0) Jakarta, Indonesia (17.5)Shanghai, China (12.8) Lagos, Nigeria (17.0)Jakarta, Indonesia (12.3) Calcutta, India (16.8)Los Angeles, USA (12.0) Karachi, Pakistan (16.2)Dhaka, Bangladesh (11.6) Buenos Aires, Argentina (14.6)Osaka-Kobe, Japan (11.2) Cairo, Egypt (13.1)Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (11.2) Los Angeles, USA (12.9)Karachi, Pakistan (11.1) Shanghai, China (12.7)Beijing, China (10.8) Metro Manila, Philippines (12.6)Cairo, Egypt (10.8) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (12.4)Moscow, Russian Federation (10.5) Osaka-Kobe, Japan (11.4)Metro Manila, Philippines (10.5) Istanbul, Turkey (11.3)Lagos, Nigeria (10.1) Beijing, China (11.1)Russian Federation (10.9)Moscow,Paris, France (10.0)Conflicting demands on resources necessitate integrated management of the urbanisation process, which is a most challenging task. Within this complex setting, this report focuses on the management urban waters, recognising that effective management of urban waters should be based on a scientific understanding of anthropogenic impacts on the urban hydrological cycle and the environment, and the means of mitigation of such impacts, and full recognition of the socio-economic system. Urbanisation impacts vary broadly in time and space, and need to be quantified with respect to the local climate, urban development, engineering and environmental practices, cultural religious practices, and other socio-economic factors.Analysis of urban water management should be based on the urban water cycle, which provides a unifying concept for addressing climatic, hydrologic, land use, engineering, and ecological issues in urban areas. Furthermore, it was felt that the analysis of the urban water cycle would be conducive to a later examination of modern approaches to water management in urban areas, including total urban water cycle management. In this approach based on water conservation, integrated management measures are implemented, including integrated management and reuse of stormwater, groundwater, and wastewater.The report that follows represents the first step of a comprehensive project and aims to develop a schematic representation of the urban water cycle (UWC), including the environmental components, and identify the major fluxes of water, sediment, chemicals, microorganisms, and heat, with reference to urban waters. Such a scheme may be presented in many variations reflecting various climatic conditions, both the current and the future ones (i.e., considering climate change). In the subsequent study phases, it is expected that these fluxes will be quantified and described by water balance/quality models approximating such processes. Connection between urban development and these fluxes will be established, and principles for low impact developments and restoration of the existing areas will be established. Some of the intermediate steps/results in the overall study include: (a) identification of the components of the urban water cycle and the effects of urbanisation on water resources, (b) quantification of the imprint of human activities on the urban hydrological cycle and its interaction with the environment under the present and future development scenarios, (c) understanding of the processes at the urban water and soil interface, including the water and soil interaction, with particular reference to soil erosion, soil pollution and land subsidence, (d) hydrological, ecological, biological and chemical processes in the urban water environment of sustainable cities of the future, (e) assessment of the impact of urban development, land use and socio-economic changes on the availability of water supplies, aquatic chemistry, (anthropogenic) pollution, soil erosion and sedimentation and natural habitat integrity and diversity, and, (f) assessment of the preventive and mitigation measures available for dealing with urban water problems.The final product of this activity should be a guidance manual on anthropogenic alterations of the UWC and the environment, with reference to various climatic zones and potential climate changes. This manual should advance (a) the understanding of processes that take place in the urban environment, and of the interactions of natural suburban, rural and urban environments for the successful analysis, planning, development and management of urban water systems, (b) development of innovative analytical tools for addressing the problems of spatial and temporal variability, and (c) assessment of the potential effects of climate variations and changes on urban water systems.1.2 URBAN WATER CYCLE CONCEPTOne of the most fundamental concepts in hydrology and indeed in the water resource management is the hydrologic cycle (also referred to as the water cycle), which has been speculated on since ancient times (Maidment, 1993). There is some diversity of definitions of the hydrological cycle, but generally it is defined as a conceptual model describing the storage and circulation of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. Water can be stored in the atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater aquifers. Circulation ofwater among these storage compartments is caused by such processes as evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, percolation, snowmelt and runoff, which are also referred to as the water cycle components.Combined effects of urbanisation, industrialisation, and population growth affect natural landscapes and hydrological response of watersheds. Although many elements of the natural environment are affected by anthropogenic factors with respect to pathways and hydrologic abstractions (or sources of water), the principal structure of the hydrological cycle remains intact in urban areas. However, the hydrologic cycle is greatly modified by urbanisation impacts on the environment and the need to provide water services to the urban population, including water supply, drainage, wastewater collection and management, and beneficial uses of receiving waters. Thus, it was noted that the hydrological cycle becomes more complex in urban areas, because of many anthropogenic influences and interventions (McPherson, 1973; McPherson and Schneider, 1974); the resulting “urban” hydrological cycle is then called urban water cycle (UWC). The urban water cycle is shown pictorially in some detail in Fig. 1.1 and schematically in Fig. 1.2, which displays just the major components and pathways.The urban water cycle provides a good conceptual and unifying basis for studying the water balance (also called the water budget) and conducting water inventories of urban areas. In such studies, the above listed major components of the hydrological cycle are assessed for certain time periods, with durations exceeding the time constants of the system to filter out short-term variability. Water balances are generally conducted on seasonal, annual, or multi-year bases (van de Ven, 1988), and in planning studies, such balances are projected to future planning horizons. This approach is particularly important for urban planning (i.e., providing water services to growing populations) and for coping with extreme weather and climatic variations and potential climate change. In fact, an understanding of water balances is essential for integrated management of urban water, which strives to remediate anthropogenic pressures and impacts by intervention (management) measures, which are applied in the so-called total management of the urban water cycle (Lawrence et al., 1999).Fig. 1.1 Urban water cycleFig. 1.2 Urban water cycle – main components and pathwaysThus, water, sediment and chemical balance studies help establish and quantify the urban water cycle, by addressing such issues as verification of pathways in the cycle; quantifying flows and fluxes of sediment and chemicals along the pathways; assessing component variations; and, assessing impacts of climatic, population and physiographic changes on the urban water cycle (UWC). Examples of urban water balances were offered by Hogland and Niemczynowicz (1980) and van de Ven (1988). A brief description of principal components of the urban water cycle follows.Two main sources of water are recognised in the UWC, municipal water supply and precipitation. Municipal water is often imported from outside the urban area or even from another catchment in widely varying quantities reflecting local water demands and their management. Municipal water may bypass some pathways in the UWC; it is brought into the urban area, distributed within the area, some fraction is lost to urban groundwater, and the rest is used by the population, converted into municipal wastewater, and eventually returned to surface waters. The second source, precipitation, generally follows a longer route through the water cycle. It falls in various forms over urban areas, is subject to hydrologic abstractions (including interception, depression storage, and evapotranspiration), partly infiltrates into the ground (contributing to soil moisture and recharge of groundwater) and is partly converted into surface runoff, which may be conveyed to receiving waters by natural or constructed conveyance systems. With various success and accuracy, flow components were quantified for urban areas in studies of urban water balances (Hogland and Niemczynowicz, 1980). Besides these clearly established (intentional) linkages among the various water conveyance and storage elements, others (unintentional) may also develop (e.g., water main leaks, sewer exfiltration) and have to be addressed in water management.In addition to flow components of the urban water cycle, attention needs to be paid to the fluxes of materials and energy conveyed by air, water or anthropogenic activities. In general, these processes are less well known and quantified than those dealing with water only, and their description in urban areas is complicated by numerous remote and local sources and high variability in time and space. With respect to atmospheric pollutants conveyed in wet form with precipitation and dry form as gases and particulates, Novotny and Olem (1994) identified the major pollutants as acidity (originating from nitrogen and sulfur oxides emitted from fossil-fuel combustion), trace metals, mercury and agricultural chemicals (particularly pesticides and herbicides). These chemicals may fall directly into receiving waters, or be deposited on catchment surfaces and subject to scouring and transport into receiving waters during wet weather. Other pollution sources include land use activities and poor housekeeping, including transportation, construction activities, use of building materials, road maintenance, attrition or elution or corrosion of hard surfaces, soil erosion, urban wildlife(particularly birds) and pets, deficient solid waste collection, and others. Besides direct deposition into urban waters (generally of secondary importance because of small water surface areas), these materials may be washed off and transported by urban runoff as dissolved or suspended pollutant loads, or as a bedload. During the transport, depending on hydraulic conditions, settling and re-suspension takes place on the catchment surface and in pipes, as well as biological and chemical reactions. These processes are often considered to be more intense in the initial phase of the storm (first flush effect); however, due to temporal and spatial variability of rainfall and runoff flow, first flush effects are more pronounced in conveyance systems with pipes rather than on overland flow surfaces.While past studies of urbanisation and water management, particularly in developed countries, focused on science and engineering, there is growing recognition of the importance of the social conditions and links between the socio-economic system and the water and the environment (Lundqvist et al., 2001). Furthermore it is recognised that sustainable solutions to water related problems must reflect the cultural (emotional, intellectual, and moral) dimensions of people’s interactions with water. Culture is a powerful aspect of water resources management. Water is known as a valuable blessing in most of the arid or semiarid countries and most religions. There are two cultural aspects that cause direct impacts on water resources management in urban areas: urban architecture and people’s life style.Traditional architecture in urban areas often reflects the climate characteristics of the area. However, the traditional architecture in many large cities is being replaced by modern “western” architecture because of population increase and globalisation, with concomitant changes in urban hydrology. The density of the population and buildings, rainwater collection systems, material used in construction, and wastewater collection systems are major factors among others that cause changes in the urban hydrologic cycle.Life style in urban areas affects the hydrologic cycle through the changes in domestic water demands. Domestic water use per capita and water use in public areas such as parks and green areas are the main characteristics that define the lifestyle in large cities. Even though the economic factors are important for determining these characteristics, the pattern of water use, tradition and culture have more significant effects on the life style in urban areas.1.3 TOTAL MANAGEMENT OF THE URBAN WATER CYCLEThe concept of the urban water cycle demonstrates the connectivity and inter-dependence of urban water resources and human activities, and the need for integrated management. Towards this end, the concept of total urban water cycle management was introduced in Australia and further elaborated on by Lawrence et al. (1999). The basic water management categories encompassed in this approach include: x reuse of treated wastewater, as a basis for disposing potential pollutants, or a substitute for other sources of water supply for sub-potable uses;x integrated stormwater, groundwater, water supply and wastewater based management, as the basis for: economic and reliable water supply; environmental flow management (deferment of infrastructure expansion, return of water to streams); urban water-scape/landscape provision; substitute sub-potable sources of water (wastewater and stormwater reuse); and, protection of downstream waters from pollution; and,x water conservation (demand management) based approaches, including: more efficient use of water (water saving devices, irrigation practices); substitute landscape forms (reduced water demand); and, substitute industrial processes (reduced demand, water recycling).While many of these measures have been practiced in the past, what has been missing was the understanding of the linkages among the various components, and the implication of the practices for long-term quality of groundwater, soils, and environmental flows.。

第2章水0202

食盐水溶液
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由于离子带有完整的电荷，由于离子带有完整的电荷，与水分子之间的极性作用比水分子之间的氢键作用强，极性作用比水分子之间的氢键作用强，导致原先水分子之间缔合关系的破坏，分子之间缔合关系的破坏，使一部分水固定在了离子的表面. 子的表面
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与具有H BOND能力极性基团的相互作用 2）与具有H-BOND能力极性基团的相互作用 Interaction of water with neutral groups possessing hydrogen-bonding capabilities
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2.3 食品中水的存在状态 2.3.1 水与溶质的相互作用 Water –solute interactions
1.水与溶质的相互作用 1.水与溶质的相互作用
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2.3 食品中水的存在状态
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1）与离子或离子基团的相互作用
Interaction of water with Ionic groups
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球状蛋白质的疏水相互作用疏水相互作用是蛋白疏水相互作用是蛋白质折叠的主要驱动力的主要驱动力。质折叠的主要驱动力。同时也是维持蛋白质三同时也是维持蛋白质三级结构的重要因素的重要因素。级结构的重要因素。
○是疏水基团，是疏水基团，圆球周围的“ －圆球周围的“L－形”物质是疏水表面定向的水分子，表面定向的水分子， ●代表与极性基团缔合的水分子 37
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3）与非极性物质的相互作用水对非极性物质结构影响结果: 水对非极性物质结构影响结果:
能和水形成笼形水合物蛋白质分子产生的疏水相互作用
笼形水合物(Clathrate hydrates)：笼形水合物(Clathrate hydrates)：是象冰一样

YSI ISC40G (S) 引导导致电导性传感器和配件说明书

Model ISC40G (S)Inductive Conductivity sensor and fittingsThe model ISC40 sensors are designed for use with our 2-wireanalyzers and 4-wire analyzers. This combination exceeds allexpectations for conductivity measurement in terms of: reliability,accuracy, rangeability and price performance.The accuracy is 0.5% of reading plus 0.5 uS/cm for anyconductivity value: whether measured in rinse water or inconcentrated acids. The materials of construction guarantee along life under harsh industrial conditions:- T he erosion/abrasion resistant PEEK (Poly Ether Ether Ketone),which also features excellent chemical resistance in all solutionsexcept fluoric acid or oxidizing concentrated acids.- T he ultimate material in terms of chemical resistance: PFA forapplications in hydrofluoric acid and oxidizing concentratedacids (nitric, sulfuric, oleum).The sensor is provided with a rugged Stainless Steel mountingthread, nut and gasket combination for ultimate flexibility ininstallation using bulk head installation technique. There is also awide range of holders and options available for reliable in-line oroff-line installation with double O-ring seals for long service life ofthe sensor. Additional models are available for use in Ball-ValveInsertion applications and in Sanitary Flange installations.The ISC40G and ISC40S are available in PEEK (sensor type GG)for general use. In applications where sample is aggressive toPeek we offer the sensor in PFA (sensor type TG).Both sensors have a large bore for optimal resistance to foulingprocesses and when properly installed, the flow will keep thesensor clean preventing measuring errors.GeneralSpecificationsFeatures and Applications• I nductive Conductivity technique for elimination of fouling andpolarization errors.• Wide bore sensors for long term stability.• I nstallation flexibility by wide range of holders and by the use ofuniversal bulkhead construction.• W ide rangeability in terms of conductivity (1 µS/cm to 2 S/cm)and temperature (-20 to 130ºC).• A ll ranges except the (ultra) pure water applications.• A ll slurry applications where conventional systems suffer fromplugging or erosion.• Standard quality inspection certificate with delivery of sensor.21th Edition2GENERAL SPECIFICATIONSThe ISC40 inductive conductivity sensor is suitable for use with the Yokogawa inductive conductivity analyzers.Measuring elements: T oroïds with high permeabilitymagnetic materialPt1000 or 30k temperature element MaterialsWetted parts sensorBody ISC40*-G* : 30% glass filled PEEK, FDA approved Body ISC40*-T* : P FA, FDA apprNon-wetted parts sensorSealing gasket : VitonThread part : AISI 316 SSOptions for sensorAll options except /TFD :A ISI 316 SS and O-ring material aswetted part/TFD : A ISI 316 SS as non-wetted partTFM and Kalrez as wetted partFunctional specifications (at 25°C)Temperature element : P t1000 to IEC 75130k NTCInstallation factor : 1.88 cm-1 nominal for PEEK sensor3.00 cm-1 nominal for PFA sensorActual installation can change thisfactor.If there is less than 25mm spacingbetween sensor and holder, in-situcalibration is necessary to meet thespecified accuracies (see fig. 1)Fig 1: A ctual installation factor as function of spacingaround the sensorNote: T he ISC40 temperature sensor is designed for cell compensation and for indication.It is NOT designed for process temperature control.Dynamic specificationsResponse time : t90 < 5 min. for PEEK sensorconductivity t90 < 10 min. for PFA sensor Operating rangeConductivity : 0 – 2000 mS/cm at actual processtemperature.Note: T he sensor has an error (0.5 µS/cm for PEEK model, 1.0 µS/cm for PFA model) that must be considered whenapplication is chosen.Temperature : -20°C to 130°C (-4°F to 266°F) forPEEK sensor-20°C to 130°C (-4°F to 266°F) forPFA sensorPressure : 0 to 20 bar (0 to 290 PSIG) for PEEKsensor0 to 15 bar (0 to 217 PSIG) for PFAsensor.Note: A t maximum process temperature the maximum pressure for the PFA sensor is 5 bar (72 PSIG).Cable length : m ax 50 meter, in combination withWF10 extension cable and BA10junction boxRegulatory standardsCE : Decision 768/2008/EC- ATEX : D irective 94/9/EC, as amended byRegulation (EC) no. 1882/2003 Certificate no.II 1 G Ex ia IIC T4…T6 Ga Electrical dataconnected cable) connected to acertified intrinsically safe circuit withthe following maximum values: Ui =19.1 V; Ii = 170 mA; Pi = 0.8 W; Ci = 0nF; Li = 0 mHorc ertified intrinsically safe YokogawaInductive Conductivity transmittermodel FLXA21 series, model ISC202Sseries or model IC200S seriesNote:T he effective internal capacitance Ci and the effective internal inductance Li of the sensor are depending only upon theproperties and the length of the connected cable.Special conditions (X) : T6 for Tamb. -30°C to 40°CT5 for Tamb. -30°C to 95°CT4 for Tamb. -30°C to 130°C,depending on sensor body material: T he sensor must be installed andused so, that dangers of ignition dueto hazardous electrostatic chargescannot occur, especially in the casethat the process medium is non-conductive.- Pressure : D irective 97/23/EC, as amended byRegulation (EC) no. 1882/2003 Applying article : 3.3 (Sound Engineering Practice)IECExApplying standards : I EC 60079-0 : 2007IEC 60079-11 : 2006IEC 60079-26: 2006Certificate no. : I ECEx DEK 11.0028XEx ia IIC T4…T6 GaGS 12D08J02-E-E3GS 12D08J02-E-ECSACertificate no.: 2447837 IS, Class I Div. 1, GP A, B, C, D T4…T6Master Contract no 182892Electrical data : S ensor output circuits (permanentlyconnected cable) connected to a certified intrinsically safe circuit with the following maximum values: Uo = 19.1 V; Io = 170 mA;Po = 0.8 W; Co≥ Ci + Ccable; Lo≥ Li + Lcable orcertified intrinsically safe Yokogawa Inductive Conductivity transmitter model FLXA21 series, model ISC202S series or model IC200S seriesAmbient : T6 for Tamb. -30°C to 40°C temperature range T 5 for Tamb. -30°C to 95°CT4 for Tamb. -30°C to 130°C, depending on sensor body materialNote: I ntrinsically safe when connected as per Control DrawingFF1-K1244QY (see fig. 2)FMCertificate no.: 3046320 IS, Class I, Div. 1, Groups A, B, C, D T4…T6Electrical data : S ensor output circuits (permanentlyconnected cable) connected to a FM approved intrinsically safe apparatus meeting the entity parameters of the ISC40S:Uo≤ 19.1 V; Io≤ 170 mA; Po≤ 0.8 W;Co≥ Ci + Ccable; Lo≥ Li + Lcable orcertified intrinsically safe Yokogawa Inductive Conductivity transmitter model FLXA21 series, model ISC202S series or model IC200S seriesAmbient : T6 for Tamb. -30°C to 40°C temperature range T 5 for Tamb. -30°C to 85°CT4 for Tamb. -30°C to 85°C,depending on sensor body materialNote: I ntrinsically safe when connected as per Control DrawingFF1-K1244QX (see fig. 3)ISC40- - - Cable length in meters any number between 1 and 50 meters Temperature Element T1 PT1000 T3 30k thermistor Plastic and adaption code GG Glass filled PEEK, general model GR Glass filled PEEK, retractable model GS Glass filled PEEK, shaft model TG PFA, general modelISC40- - -Cable length in meters any number between 1 and 50 meters Temperature Element T1 PT1000 T3 30k thermistor Plastic and adaption code GG Glass filled PEEK, general model GR Glass filled PEEK, retractable model GS Glass filled PEEK, shaft model TG PFA, general model4GS 12D08J02-E-EControl Drawing CSAThe ISC40S sensor shall be installed with one of the Yokogawa transmitters model:• ISC202S • IC200S • FLXA21with following parameters: ISC202S IC200SFLXA21Uo 14.4 V 19.1 V 11.76 V Io 88 mA 162 mA 60.6 mA Po 317 mW 178 mW Lo 4.5 mH 800µH 8 mH Co 600 nF 254nF100 nForTo a CSA approved intrinsically safe apparatus meeting the entity parameters of the ISC40S: U o ≤ 19.1VIo ≤ 170mA Po ≤ 0.8WCo ≥ Ci + C(cable) Lo ≥ Li + L(cable)The effective inductive capacitance Ci and the effective induced inductance Li of the sensor depends only upon the properties and the length of the connected cable (max 50m).When installing this equipment, follow the manufacturer’s control drawing. Installing should be in accordance with Canadian Electrical Code Part 1 or CEC Part1.Warning: To prevent ignition of flammable or combustible atmospheres, disconnect power before servicing or read,understand and adhere to the manufacturer’s live maintenance procedures.Control Drawing FMThe ISC40S sensor shall be installed with one of the Yokogawa transmitters model: • ISC202S • IC200S • FLXA21with following parameters: ISC202S IC200S FLXA21Uo 14.4 V 19.1 V 11.76 V Io 88 mA 162 mA 60.6 mA Po 317 mW 178 mW Lo 4.5 mH 800µH 8 mH Co 600 nF 254nF 100 nForTo a FM approved intrinsically safe apparatus meeting the entity parameters of the ISC40S: U o ≤ 19.1VIo ≤ 170mA Po ≤ 0.8WCo ≥ Ci + C(cable) Lo ≥ Li + L(cable)The effective inductive capacitance Ci and the effective induced inductance Li of the sensor depends only upon the properties and the length of the connected cable (max 50m).When installing this equipment, follow the manufacturer’s control drawing. Installing should be in accordance with ANSI/ISA RP 12.06.01 “Installation of Intrisically Safe Systems for Hazardous (Classified) Locations” and the National Electrical Code (ANSI/NFPA 70).Warning: To prevent ignition of flammable or combustible atmo- spheres, disconnect power before servicing or read, understand and adhere to the manufacturer’s live maintenance procedures.Shipping details Package size (LxWxH) I SC40*-**-*-03 (05): 350 x 270 x 50 mm (13.8 x10.6 x 2.0 inch)ISC40*-**-*-10 (15, 20) : 320 x 240 x110 mm(12.6 x 9.5 x 4.3 inch)Package weight (app.) ISC40*-**-*-03 : 1.0 kg (2.2 lbs) ISC40*-**-*-05 : 1.3 kg (2.9 lbs) ISC40*-**-*-10 : 1.6 kg (3.5 lbs) ISC40*-**-*-15 : 2.1 kg (4.6 lbs) ISC40*-**-*-20 : 2.5 kg (5.5 lbs)Environmental conditionsStorage temperature : -30°C to 50°C (-22°F to 122°F) Water proof : I P67 (conform IEC 60529), alsoin combination with the preferred Yokogawa process connections Process connections P rocess connections are made in combination with a varietyof adapters and fittings, which are available in AISI 316 SS, PVC or PVDF (see relevant sections in this manual).5GS 12D08J02-E-EDIMENSIONS mm (inches)d D1 D2 Material /SFA Ø 19 (0.75) 121 (4.75) 152 (6.0) SS /SFD Ø 18 (0.71) 125 (5.00) 165 (6.5) SSISC40G(S)-GG ModelModelSuffixOption DescriptionISC40GG eneral purpose inductive conductivity sensorSensor -GG G lass filled PEEK, general model type -GR G lass filled PEEK, retractable model -GS Glass filled PEEK, shaft model -TG PFA, general model Temperature -T1 Pt1000sensor -T3 30k thermistor, for IC200 select only T3Cable length -03 03 meter -05 05 meter -10 10 meter -15 15 meter -20 20 meter Options for Sensor Material Proc.Connection Flange adapters -GG, -TG /SFA AISI 316 SS 2” ANSI 150 lbs /SFD AISI 316 SS DN50-PN16 /TFD TFM, AISI 316 SS DN65-PN10 /TFN TFM For DN65-PN10Flange adapters for -GS /SFT AISI 316 SS Sanitary Tuchenhagen /STC1 AISI 316 SS Sanitary 2” tri clamp /STC2 AISI 316 SS Tri-clamp complete Protection Hose for -TF /PH 03m /05m /10m /15m /20m Same length as the cable Certificates /M Material certificate Not for -GR6Fittings for ISC40G(S)-GGInductive Conductivity SensorsFor liquid analysis, the sensors are frequently mounted in either a flow or an immersion fitting. Yokogawa suppllies for the model ISC40 inductive conductivity sensors a full range of fittings with particular emphasis on designs that reduce installation and maintenance time and consequently save operation costs.A wide choice of construction materials gives the user theoptimal solution for any process considering chemical resistance, pressure and temperature specifications.The flow fittings are used for installation of the sensors in sample by-pass lines. This makes maintenance easy without having to interrupt the main process stream. The subassemblies simplifies mounting of the sensors direct into process lines or vessels.This is particularly important where sample lines give problems, for instance with settling slurries.Features• W ide choice of construction materials.• B uilt in drain on stainless steel flow fitting.• Q uick disconnect direct insertion sub assemblies.• H igh temperature PVC immersion fitting with optional flangedprocess connection for adjustable insertion depth.• H igh pressure and temperature specifications.• E lectrolytically polished stainless steel fittings for optimal corrosion resistance.Model ISC40FF Flow fittingA. Process temperature- Model ISC40FF-S : Maximum 150ºC (300°F) - Model ISC40FF-P : Maximum 100ºC (210°F) - Model ISC40FF-F : Maximum 130ºC (270°F)B. Process pressure- Model ISC40FF-S : Max. 1.0 MPa (150 psi) at 150ºC (300 °F)- Model ISC40FF-P : M ax. 0.6 MPa (90 psi) at 20°C (70°F)Max. 0.1 MPa (15 psi) at 100°C (210°F)- Model ISC40 FF-F : M ax. 1.0 MPa (150 psi) at 20°C (70°F)Max. 0.1 MPa (15 psi) at 120°C (250°F)C. Wetted materials- Model ISC40FF-S : AISI 316 Stainless Steel - Model ISC40FF-P : Polypropylene - Model ISC40FF-F : PVDF (KYNAR ®) Non-wetted materials - Nut : AISI 304 stainless steel. - Mounting set : AISI 304 Stainless Steel (optional) - Flange adapters : AISI 304 Stainless Steel (optional)Dimensions in mm (inches)Adapter dimensionsL1 L2FP1 - FF1 161 216FP2 - FF2 151 206FP3 - FF3 163 218FP4 - FF4 149 204FS1 278 112FS2 298 122FS3 274 110FS4298 122Flange dimensionsD k dg DN25 ø115 ø85 ø13.51 Inch ø108 ø79.2 ø15.71/2Inch ø88.7 ø66.6 ø15.7DN15 ø95 ø65 ø13.5Panel dimensions100x100, holes 70x70 ø10mm7GS 12D08J02-E-EModel and Suffix CodesModel and Suffix CodesModel ISC40FS Direct insertion subassembliesA. Process temperature- Model ISC40FS/SCS : Maximum 150ºC (300 ºF) - Model ISC40FS-PCS : Maximum 100ºC (210 ºF) - Model ISC40FS-FCS : Maximum 130ºC (270 ºF)B. Process pressure Model ISC40FS/SCS : M ax. 1.0 MPa (150 psi) at 150ºC (300ºF) Model ISC40FS-PCS : M ax. 0.6 MPa (90 psi) at 20ºC (70ºF)Max. 0.1 MPa (15 psi) at 100ºC (210ºF)Model ISC40FS-FCS : M ax. 1.0 MPa (150 psi) at 20ºC (70ºF)Max. 0.1 MPa (15 psi) at 120ºC (250ºF)C. Wetted materials- Model ISC40FS/SCS : AISI 316 Stainless steel - Model ISC40FS-PCS : Polypropylene - Model ISC40FS-FCS : PVDF (KYNAR ®) Non wetted materials - Nut : AISI 304 Stainless steel D. Process connection - Model ISC40FS-SCS/PCS/FCS : 2” screw-in coupling E. Shipping details - Dimensions : Refer to section Dimensions - Package : Normally packed with sensor - Weight: 500 g. (1 lbs)Model Suffix Option Description ISC40FS Flow fitting subassembly Material -F PVDF -P Polypropylene -S Stainless Steel Process -CS Dairy Coupling screw-in*connection -CW Dairy Coupling welded*Thread type -A NPT NPT or R -N No thread (for weld-in couplings)Options /M M aterial certificate 3.1. EN 10024(for wetted metal parts only)* Note: according to Din 11851Model Suffix Option Description ISC40FF flow fitting Material -S AISI 316 stainless steel -P Polypropylene (PP) -F PVDF (KYNAR ®)Process -A NPT connection 1/2”NPT Flange /FF1 PVDF, DN15 PN10 adapters /FF2 PVDF, DN25 PN10/FF3 PVDF, ANSI 1/2”-150lbs /FF4 PVDF, ANSI 1”-150lbs /FP1 PP, DN15 PN10 /FP2 PP, DN25 PN10/FP3 PP, ANSI 1/2”-150lbs /FP4 PP, ANSI 1”-150lbs/FS1 AISI 316 SS, DN15 PN10 /FS2 AISI 316 SS, DN25 PN10/FS3 AISI 316 SS, ANSI 1/2”- 150lbs /FS4 AISI 316 SS, ANSI 1”- 150lbsMounting set /MS Wall/pipe for SS flow fitting/MP Wall/pipe for PP or PVDF flow fittingMaterial certificate /M 3.1. according EN 10024for wetted metal parts onlyNote: O nly applicable for PEEK-sensors not suitablefor PFA-sensors8Model ISC40FD Immersion fittingA. Process temperature : Max. 80ºC (180 ºF) PVC : M ax. 150ºC (300 ºF)AISI 316 Stainless steelB. Process pressure - PVC : M ax. 0.2 MPa (30 PSI) at20ºC (70ºF)Max. 0.1 MPa (15 PSI) at 80ºC (180ºF)- AISI316 Stainless steel : 10 bar C. Wetted materials - Probe tube : C-PVC - Process sealing O-ring : Viton - Flange : PVC (Optional) Non wetted materials - Cable insulation : Thermoplastic rubber D. Process connection : - Adjustable flange : H ole pattern according to DINDN50-PN10 and ANSI 2” 150 lbs.O nly for the PVC (Optional). - Mounting set : G alvanized steel (Optional).Note: Adjustable flange (/FA) is only for the PVC fittingModel and Suffix Codes2" HandrailImmersion fittingModel Suffix Option Descriptioncode code code ISC40FD Immersion fitting Material -S AISI 316 Stainless steel -V PVC-C Pipe - B etween 05 to 20 meter length Example: 05 = 0.5 m Flange -NFL No flange -SFA AISI316 SS 2”-SFD AISI316 SS DN50Options/MS1 P ipe mounting set (Carbon steel)/FA A djustable flange with DINDN50-PN10 and ANSI 2” 150 lbs hole pattern (only for PVC)/PH5 P rotection hose for 5 m cable /PH10 Protection hose for 10 m cable Material certificate /M 3.1. according EN 10204(for wetted metal parts only)9GS 12D08J02-E-EPartno. Flanges Description K1500HGDN80 PN10 T-Piece, DN80 Flange K1500HF DN100 PN10 T-Piece, DN100 Flange K1541GXDN65 D N65, DN10 Flange forISC40(G/S)-TGT -Piece ISC40-TG10ISC40G(S)-GS Model ISC40G(S)-GR Model Model and Suffix CodesModelSuffix Option DescriptionISC40G-GR G eneral purpose, glass filledPEEK, retractable modelISC40S-GR I ntrinsically safe, glass filledPEEK, retractable modelTemp. sensor -T1 Pt1000 -T3 30kNTC Cable length -03 03 mtr-05 05 mtr -10 10 mtr -15 15 mtr -20 20 mtrCertificates /M M aterial certificate (only appliesto SS316 wetted part)Model and Suffix Codes11GS 12D08J02-E-ESPAREPARTS ISC40 SENSORParts ISC40 sensorPart no. Description MaterialQuantity K1500AM Gasket Viton 5K1500AL Mounting nutAISI 316 SS3Options ISC40 sensor, Flange adaptersPart no. Description Process connection Material O-ring(s) K1541ZR /SFA 2” ANSI 150 lbs AISI 316 SS Viton K1541ZQ /SFD DN50-PN16 AISI 316 SS Viton K1541KB /STW 3” tri-clamp AISI 316 SS EPDM K1541KC /S2W 2” tri-clamp AISI 316 SSEPDM K1541XF /TFD DN65 PN10 AISI 316 SS,TFM Kalrez K1541XG /TFN used with DN65 PN10 TFMKalrez K1541ZP /SFT Sanitary Tuchenhagen AISI 316 SS EPDM K1541ZG /STC1 Sanitary 2” tri-clamp AISI 316 SS EPDM K1541ZF /STC2 Tri-clamp complete AISI 316 SSEPDMNote: Other O-ring materials are available as sparepart O-rings ISC40 sensor, Flange adaptersPart no. Description DimensionsMaterial Quantity O-rings /SFA, /SFDK1500CA O-ring set 40.64 x 5.33; 26.57 x 3.53 EPDM 5 sets K1500CB O-ring set 40.64 x 5.33; 26.57 x 3.53 Viton 5 sets K1500CC O-ring set 40.64 x 5.33; 26.57 x 3.53 Silicon 5 sets K1500CD O-ring 40.64 x 5.33 Kalrez 1K1500CH O-ring 26.57 x 3.53Kalrez 1O-rings /STWK1541ZK O-ring set 40.87 x 3.53; 26.65 x 2.62; 3” seal-clampEPDM 2 sets O-rings /S2WK1541ZH O-ring set 40.87 x 3.53; 26.65 x 2.62; 2” seal-clamp EPDM 2 sets K1500DJ O-ring set 40.87 x 3.53; 26.65 x 2.62; 2” seal-clamp Viton 2 sets K1500DK O-ring set 40.87 x 3.53; 26.65 x 2.62; 2” seal-clampSilicon 2 sets O-rings /TFD, /TFNK1500AH O-ring 29.74 x 3.53Kalrez 1O-rings /SFTK1500CM O-ring set 18.72 x 2.62; 60 x 3EPDM 5 sets O-rings /STC1K1500CQ O-ring 18.72 x 2.62 EPDM 5K1500CP O-ring 18.72 x 2.62 Viton 5K1500CR O-ring 18.72 x 2.62Silicon 5O-rings /STC2K1500CT O-ring set 18.72 x 2.72; 2” seal-clamp EPDM 5 sets K1500CS O-ring set 18.72 x 2.72; 2” seal-clamp Viton 5 sets K1500CUO-ring set18.72 x 2.72; 2” seal-clampSilicon5 setsMaterialPVDF S.S. 316 VITON PEEKPPPVCPFA(Kynar)Sulfiric acid 10 OOO XXX OOO OOO OOOXOOO 50 OOO XXX OOO OOX OO OO OOO 95 OX - XXX OOO - - - X - XX OOO fuming - - - - - - OOO - - - - - - - OOO Hydrochloric acid 10 OOO - - - OOO OOX OO OX OOO sat. OOO - - - OOX OO OO OOO Nitric acid 25 OOX XXX OOX OOO OO OX OOO 50 OOX XXX - - - XXX X - OX OOO 95 OX - OOO - - - - - - - - - - OOO fuming - - - OOO - - - - - - - - - - OOO Phosphoric acid 25OOO - - - OOO OOOOOOXOOO 50 OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO 95 OOO OOO XX - OOO OO OO OOO Hydrofluoric acid 40 OOO - - - OOO - - - OO OX OOO 75 OOO - - - OOO - - - OO XX OOO Acetic acid 10 OOO OOX - - - OOO OO OX OOO glacial OX - OOX - - - OOX OX XX OOO Formic acid 80 OOO XXX - - - XXX OO O- OOX Citric acid 50 OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Calcium hydroxide sat. OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Potassium hydroxide 50 OOX OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium hydroxide 40 OOX OOO XXX OOO OO OX OOO Ammonia in water 30 OOO OOO XXX OOO OO OX OOO Ammonium chloride sat. OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Zinc chloride 50 OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Iron (III) chloride 50 OOO - - - OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium sulfite sat. OOO OOO - - - OOO OO OO OOO Sodium carbonate sat. OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Potassium chloride sat. OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium sulfate sat. OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Calcium chloride sat. OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium chloride sat. OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium nitrate 50 OOO XXX OOO OOO OO OO OOO Aluminium chloride sat. OOO - - - OOO OOO OO OO OOO Hydrogen peroxide 30 OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Sodium hypochloride 50 OOO XXX OOX OOO XX XX OOO Potassium dichromate sat. OOO OOO OOO OOO OO OO OOO Chlorinated lime OX - XXX XXX - - OO OOO Ethanol 80 OOX OOO X - - OOO OO OX OOO Cyclohexane OOX OOO OOO OOO - - OO OOO Toluene OOO OOO - - - OOO X - - - OOO Trichloroethane XXX OOX XXX OOO - -- -OOO Water OOO OOOOOO OOO OO OOOOO206010020601002060100206010020602060I n o r g a n i c a c i dO r g a n i c a c i dA l k a l iA c i d s a l tN e u t r a l s a l t O x i d i z i n g a g e n t O r g a n i c s o l v e n tTemp. ºC %Conc.B a s i c s a l t O = can be used, X = shortens useful life, - = cannot be used Note: I nformation in this list is based on our general experience and literature data and given in good faith.However Yokogawa is unable to accept responsobility for claims related to this information.2060100Chemical Compatibility ChartSubject to change without notice Copyright©Printed in The Netherlands, 21-1802 (A) I。

污水处理厂污水和污泥中微塑料的研究展望

污水处理厂污水和污泥中微塑料的研究展望李小伟;纪艳艳;梅庆庆;陈璐蓓;张晓磊;董滨;戴晓虎【摘要】微塑料被发现广泛存在于各类生态系统,研究表明,其可能对人类健康及其他生物产生潜在危害.污水中含有大量微塑料,尽管经污水处理厂处理后,含量显著减少,但仍被认为是自然水体中微塑料的主要来源之一.与此同时,污水中绝大部分微塑料会截留或转移到污泥中,在污泥土地利用过程中进入土壤生态系统,从而对后者产生潜在影响.此外,污水污泥处理过程中,微塑料的表面理化特性也会发生显著变化,从而影响其与重金属、有机污染物、致病菌的相互作用,进而增强污泥微塑料的生态风险.文中主要从以下几方面对污水处理厂污水和污泥微塑料相关研究进展进行综述:首先,从微塑料的组成、含量、来源、潜在危害,及其与人类活动的关系等方面进行概述;然后,分别综述污水处理厂污水和污泥中微塑料含量及去向研究进展;最后,提出需加强我国污水处理厂微塑料的研究、建立污水和污泥微塑料标准化分析方法、强化微塑料与污染物作用机制等的研究展望.【期刊名称】《净水技术》【年(卷),期】2019(038)007【总页数】11页(P13-22,84)【关键词】微塑料;污水处理厂;污水;污泥;潜在风险【作者】李小伟;纪艳艳;梅庆庆;陈璐蓓;张晓磊;董滨;戴晓虎【作者单位】上海大学环境与化学工程学院,上海200444;上海大学环境与化学工程学院,上海200444;上海大学环境与化学工程学院,上海200444;上海大学环境与化学工程学院,上海200444;上海大学环境与化学工程学院,上海200444;同济大学环境科学与工程学院,城市污染控制国家重点实验室,上海200092;同济大学环境科学与工程学院,城市污染控制国家重点实验室,上海200092【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TU992.3微塑料是指通过各种途径进入生态环境中直径小于5 mm的塑料颗粒。

它或悬浮于水体中，或沉积到水底，研究表明其广泛存在于海洋生态系统[1-2]，和河流[3-4]、湖泊[5-6]等淡水生态系统[7-8]，以及土壤[9-11]和沉积物[12-13]中，甚至在饮用水[14]、人类粪便、极地环境[15]中均发现了微塑料的存在。

A solvent extraction process for the preparation of ultrahigh purity scandium oxide

1. Introduction It is well known that scandium is a rare and very expensive metal. A number of new applications for scandium have been developed in recent years, including laser crystals
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P. Zhang et al. / Hydrometallurgy 47 (1997147-56
and coatings, cathode materials for color cathode-ray tubes, advanced ceramics, nuclear materials and catalysts for automobiles [ll. In addition, attention has been paid to the application of scandium in the optical industry [2]. The application of scandium in high temperature superconducting materials is also under investations have heightened the demand for scandium in both quantity and quality, it is difficult to recover scandium because it is associated in trace amounts (from 1O-3 to 10p4%) with natural minerals such as wolframite, titaniferous magnetites, tinstone @no,>, bauxite and uranium ore. Scandium is generally obtained as a by-product in the form of oxide from the processing of these ores [ll. A literature survey revealed that little data is available with respect to the purification of scandium oxide. Herchenroeder et al. [3,4] investigated the process for preparing kilogram quantities of scandium oxide of ultrahigh purity by ion exchange chromatography at 93°C. Guo et al. [5] developed a technique for producing 99.99% pure scandium oxide from starting materials containing about 70% scandium oxide by extraction chromatography with more than 90% recovery. Although the process [5] has a number of advantages, its usefulness as a large-scale production method might be restricted owing to the low scandium concentration in the stock solution used and the long operating period. In previous work [6], the authors have also described an extraction chromatography process using columns containing tributyl phosphate (TBP) supported on polystyrene-divinylbenzene copolymer from hydrochloric acid system by which scandium oxide could be purified from approximately 99% to 99.99% purity with an over 92% recovery. So far, however, no information regarding preparation of ultrahigh purity scandium oxide by solvent extraction has been found. For this reason, the authors investigated in the current work a process for the purification of scandium oxide by means of two-step solvent extraction. Using this process, scandium oxide of ultrahigh purity can be prepared with a recovery greater than 93% from the starting materials containing about 99% scandium oxide.

小学上册第十一次英语自测题(有答案)

小学上册英语自测题(有答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.My friend is a _____ (摄影师) who captures special moments.2.What is a common pet that purrs?A. DogB. CatC. BirdD. Fish答案: B3.Which sport is played with a bat and a ball?A. SoccerB. BasketballC. BaseballD. Tennis答案: C. Baseball4.She is a _____ (设计师) who works for a company.5.y describes how well a substance can _______ in a solvent. (溶解) Some ___6.My friend is my best _______ who listens to my thoughts and feelings.7.My sister is a great _____ (歌手) and performs at school.8.He is a _____ (技术人员) who repairs electronics.9. A chemical change can produce gas, light, or ______.10.My favorite animal is a _____ (lion/turtle).11.What do we use to tell time?A. RulerB. ClockC. BookD. Computer答案: B12.The chemical structure of DNA contains ______ bases.13. A __________ is a substance that can be broken down into simpler substances.14.What is the main purpose of a compass?A. Measure temperatureB. Tell timeC. Show directionD. Calculate distance答案:C15.The ________ was a significant era in American history for social change.16.What is the capital of Kiribati?A. TarawaB. KiritimatiC. AbemamaD. Butaritari答案:a17.The goldfish has _______ (眼睛) that help it see.18.The capital of Malaysia is ________ (吉隆坡).19.I like to ride my ______ to school.20.I can ________ a message.21.The dog is _____ by the tree. (sitting)22. A frog has webbed ______ (脚) for swimming.23.The __________ (历史的探索挑战) invite curiosity.24.I see a _____ (骑士) in the parade.25.The kitten plays with its _________ (尾巴).26.The eagle flies high in the ______ (天空).27.I can _____ my shoes by myself. (put on)28.The main use of chlorine in water treatment is to kill ______.29. A __________ is a location of natural beauty.30. A parrot can mimic _______ and sounds.31.The ________ was a significant moment in the history of labor rights.32.The ______ (植物的生态作用) is vital for life.33.The chemical symbol for iron is ______.34.The process of using heat to cook food is called ______.35.The ________ grows in my garden.36.古代的________ (rulers) 常常通过战争来扩展领土。

小学上册第13次英语下册试卷(含答案)

小学上册英语下册试卷(含答案)英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The symbol for molybdenum is _____.2.The cat loves to explore _____ new places.3.The chemical formula for silver bromide is _______.4.I like to ride my ________ (摩托车) on weekends.5.In a chemical reaction, the rearrangement of atoms leads to the formation of new_____.6.The moon is ___. (full)7.What is the name of the longest river in the world?A. AmazonB. NileC. YangtzeD. Mississippi8.What is the capital of Italy?A. RomeB. VeniceC. FlorenceD. Milan答案:A9.The ancient Romans used _____ to entertain their citizens.10.The _____ (火烈鸟) is a beautiful bird.11.The __________ is a large lake located in Canada. (安大略湖)12.The invention of the printing press revolutionized the spread of __________. (知识)13.I enjoy playing __________ with my family. (游戏)14.The ____ lives in the wild and is very fast.15.What is the name of the famous American singer known for "Ain't No Mountain High Enough"?A. Diana RossB. Aretha FranklinC. Tina TurnerD. Whitney Houston答案:A16. c Ocean is found near the ________ (北冰洋位于________附近). The Arct17. A solution that has a higher concentration of solute than the solvent is called a______ solution.18.The __________ (历史的记录者) document our journeys.19.I can ______ (solve) math problems quickly.20. e of Liberty was a gift from ________ to the United States. The Ston21.I enjoy _____ (购物).22.My cousin is a ______. She loves to help others succeed.23.What do you call a person who plays music?A. MusicianB. SingerC. PerformerD. All of the above答案:D24.What do we call a young guinea pig?A. PupB. KitC. CalfD. Baby答案:D Baby25. A _____ (植物历史) can provide context for their importance.26.What do we call the main character in a play or story?A. ProtagonistB. AntagonistC. Supporting characterD. Narrator27.Egypt is famous for its ancient ________ (埃及以其古老的________) and pyramids.28.Let’s go ________ to eat ice cream.29.I see a _______ (fox) in the distance.30.The process of ______ can change the landscape over time.31.The Earth's surface is constantly changing due to a variety of ______.32.The ________ is important for navigation on the seas.33.My aunt is a ______. She loves to teach children.34.My ________ (玩具名称) is a fantastic way to learn.35.The ________ was a major event that led to the founding of the United Nations.36.My ______ loves to explore new technologies.37.My mom always gives me __________ (鼓励) when I'm down.38.Which shape has three sides?A. SquareB. TriangleC. RectangleD. Circle答案:B39.The measure of how much space an object occupies is called ______.40.The __________ is part of the brain that controls movement.41. A __________ (化学职业) offers diverse opportunities in various fields.42.The __________ (非洲) has many diverse cultures and languages.43.I think technology is amazing, especially __________ because __________.44.What is the boiling point of water?A. 50°CB. 100°CC. 150°CD. 200°C答案:B45.What kind of animal is a frog?A. MammalB. ReptileC. AmphibianD. Fish答案:C46.What do we use to write on paper?A. PaintB. PencilC. GlueD. Tape47.There are many __________ in the garden.48. A _______ (小狼) learns to hunt from its parents.49.The ________ is a small, quiet creature.50.I like to watch the ______ at night.51.What do we call the place where we watch movies?A. TheaterB. ParkC. MallD. Playground52.My pet parrot can _________ (说话).53.What is the capital of Greece?A. AthensB. RomeC. IstanbulD. Cairo54.What is the primary color of a lime?A. YellowB. GreenC. RedD. Orange55.What do you call a baby dog?A. KittenB. PuppyC. CubD. Foal56.My cat loves to chase after ______ (光点).57.My best friend is _______ (funny/sad).58.The chemical formula for ammonia is ______.59.Which shape has three sides?A. SquareB. TriangleC. CircleD. Rectangle答案:B60.We hear ___ (birds/planes) flying.61.What do you call a large body of saltwater?A. LakeB. SeaC. OceanD. River62.The backbone protects the ______ in animals.63.What do you call the story of someone's life?A. NovelB. BiographyC. FantasyD. Poem答案:B64.What shape is a basketball?A. SquareB. TriangleC. CircleD. Oval答案:C65.We have a ______ (有趣的) discussion in class.66.I love to watch _____ (小动物) explore their surroundings.67.The chemical symbol for yttrium is ______.68.What do we call the warm-blooded animals that lay eggs?A. MammalsB. ReptilesC. BirdsD. Fish答案:C Birds69.The owl's exceptional hearing allows it to hunt effectively in ________________ (黑暗).70.We celebrate ________ (New Year) with fireworks.71. A lever can help lift a ______.72.What do we call a person who studies the past?A. HistorianB. ArchaeologistC. AnthropologistD. Sociologist73.Which animal is known for its long neck?A. ElephantB. GiraffeC. Polar BearD. Kangaroo答案:B74. A turtle can live for many ______ (年).75.The chemical symbol for bromine is ______.76.Which beverage is made from leaves?A. CoffeeB. TeaC. JuiceD. Soda77. A _____ (植物监测) program helps track plant health.78.What type of animal is a dolphin?A. FishB. MammalC. ReptileD. Bird79.The ancient Greeks held ________ in honor of their gods.80.What do we use to brush our teeth?A. ShampooB. ToothbrushC. SoapD. Comb答案:B81.I have a toy _______ that can change shapes and forms for fun.82.The __________ is the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.83.The ________ has a sharp smell.84.Bubbles forming in a solution may indicate a ________ reaction.85.The _______ of sound can be amplified with a speaker.86.I enjoy cooking ______ (传统) dishes from my culture.87.The ______ is a key part of the food chain.88.What is the name of the popular board game where you try to take over the world?A. RiskB. MonopolyC. Settlers of CatanD. Clue答案:A89.My toy ____ can play music and dance! (玩具名称)90.Astrobiology studies the possibility of ______ life in the universe.91.The children are _____ at the playground. (playing)92.I enjoy painting with ______ (水彩) because it creates beautiful ____________ (色彩).93.I enjoy _______ (参加) science clubs.94.What do you call the center of an atom?A. NeutronB. ProtonC. NucleusD. Electron答案:C95.canopy) of a forest is formed by the tops of trees. The ____96.What color is the sky?A. BlueB. GreenC. RedD. Yellow97.What is the color of snow?A. BlueB. YellowC. WhiteD. Green答案:C98.The chemical symbol for cobalt is __________.99.What is the name of the popular animated film about a girl who becomes a princess?A. MoanaB. CinderellaC. FrozenD. Snow White答案:C100.What do you call a young goat?A. KidB. CalfC. LambD. Puppy答案:A。

化学英语证书考试(pec)物理化学术语

化学英语证书考试（PEC）-物理化学术语1.BET公式BET formula2.DLVO理论DLVO theory3.HLB法hydrophile-lipophile balance method4.pVT性质pVT property5.ζ电势zeta potential6.阿伏加德罗常数Avogadro'number7.阿伏加德罗定律Avogadro law8.阿累尼乌斯电离理论Arrhenius ionization theory9.阿累尼乌斯方程Arrhenius equation10.阿累尼乌斯活化能Arrhenius activation energy11.阿马格定律Amagat law12.艾林方程Erying equation13.爱因斯坦光化当量定律Einstein's law of photochemical equivalence14.爱因斯坦－斯托克斯方程Einstein-Stokes equation15.安托万常数Antoine constant16.安托万方程Antoine equation17.盎萨格电导理论Onsager's theory of conductance18.半电池half cell19.半衰期half time period20.饱和液体saturated liquids21.饱和蒸气saturated vapor22.饱和吸附量saturated extent of adsorption23.饱和蒸气压saturated vapor pressure24.爆炸界限explosion limits25.比表面功specific surface work26.比表面吉布斯函数specific surface Gibbs function27.比浓粘度reduced viscosity28.标准电动势standard electromotive force29.标准电极电势standard electrode potential30.标准摩尔反应焓standard molar reaction enthalpy31.标准摩尔反应吉布斯函数standard Gibbs function of molar reaction32.标准摩尔反应熵standard molar reaction entropy33.标准摩尔焓函数standard molar enthalpy function34.标准摩尔吉布斯自由能函数standard molar Gibbs free energy function35.标准摩尔燃烧焓standard molar combustion enthalpy36.标准摩尔熵standard molar entropy37.标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation enthalpy38.标准摩尔生成吉布斯函数standard molar formation Gibbs function39.标准平衡常数standard equilibrium constant40.标准氢电极standard hydrogen electrode41.标准态standard state42.标准熵standard entropy43.标准压力standard pressure44.标准状况standard condition45.表观活化能apparent activation energy46.表观摩尔质量apparent molecular weight47.表观迁移数apparent transference number48.表面surfaces49.表面过程控制surface process control50.表面活性剂surfactants51.表面吸附量surface excess52.表面张力surface tension53.表面质量作用定律surface mass action law54.波义尔定律Boyle law55.波义尔温度Boyle temperature56.波义尔点Boyle point57.玻尔兹曼常数Boltzmann constant58.玻尔兹曼分布Boltzmann distribution59.玻尔兹曼公式Boltzmann formula60.玻尔兹曼熵定理Boltzmann entropy theorem61.玻色－爱因斯坦统计Bose-Einstein statistics62.泊Poise63.不可逆过程irreversible process64.不可逆过程热力学thermodynamics of irreversible processes65.不可逆相变化irreversible phase change66.布朗运动brownian movement67.查理定律Charle's law68.产率yield69.敞开系统open system70.超电势over potential71.沉降sedimentation72.沉降电势sedimentation potential73.沉降平衡sedimentation equilibrium74.触变thixotropy75.粗分散系统thick disperse system76.催化剂catalyst77.单分子层吸附理论mono molecule layer adsorption78.单分子反应unimolecular reaction79.单链反应straight chain reactions80.弹式量热计bomb calorimeter81.道尔顿定律Dalton law82.道尔顿分压定律Dalton partial pressure law83.德拜和法尔肯哈根效应Debye and Falkenhagen effect84.德拜立方公式Debye cubic formula85.德拜－休克尔极限公式Debye-Huckel's limiting equation86.等焓过程isenthalpic process87.等焓线isenthalpic line88.等几率定理theorem of equal probability89.等温等容位Helmholtz free energy90.等温等压位Gibbs free energy91.等温方程equation at constant temperature92.低共熔点eutectic point93.低共熔混合物eutectic mixture94.低会溶点lower consolute point95.低熔冰盐合晶cryohydric96.第二类永动机perpetual machine of the second kind97.第三定律熵third-law entropy98.第一类永动机perpetual machine of the first kind99.缔合化学吸附association chemical adsorption100.电池常数cell constant101.电池电动势electromotive force of cells102.电池反应cell reaction103.电导conductance104.电导率conductivity105.电动势的温度系数temperature coefficient of electromotive force 106.电动电势zeta potential107.电动现象electrokinetic phenomena108.电功electric work109.电化学electrochemistry110.电化学极化electrochemical polarization111.电极电势electrode potential112.电极反应reactions on the electrode113.电极种类type of electrodes114.电解池electrolytic cell115.电量计coulometer116.电流效率current efficiency117.电迁移electro migration118.电迁移率electromobility119.电渗electroosmosis120.电渗析electrodialysis121.电泳electrophoresis122.丁达尔效应Dyndall effect123.定容摩尔热容molar heat capacity under constant volume124.定容温度计Constant voIume thermometer125.定压摩尔热容molar heat capacity under constant pressure 126.定压温度计constant pressure thermometer127.定域子系统localized particle system128.动力学方程kinetic equations129.动力学控制kinetics control130.独立子系统independent particle system131.对比摩尔体积reduced mole volume132.对比体积reduced volume133.对比温度reduced temperature134.对比压力reduced pressure135.对称数symmetry number136.对行反应reversible reactions137.对应状态原理principle of corresponding state138.多方过程polytropic process139.多分子层吸附理论adsorption theory of multi-molecular layers 140.二级反应second order reaction141.二级相变second order phase change142.法拉第常数faraday constant143.法拉第定律Faraday's law144.法扬思-帕尼思规则Fajans- Pancth's rule145.反电动势back E.M.F.146.反渗透reverse osmosis147.反应分子数molecularity148.反应级数reaction orders149.反应进度extent of reaction150.反应热heat of reaction151.反应速率rate of reaction152.反应速率常数constant of reaction rate153.范德华常数van der Waals constant154.范德华方程van der Waals equation155.范德华力van der Waals force156.范德华气体van der Waals gases157.范特霍夫方程van't Hoff equation158.范特霍夫规则van't Hoff rule159.范特霍夫渗透压公式van't Hoff equation of osmotic pressure 160.非基元反应non-elementary reactions161.非体积功non-volume work162.非依时计量学反应time independent stoichiometric reactions 163.菲克扩散第一定律Fick's first law of diffusion164.沸点boiling point165.沸点升高elevation of boiling point166.费米－狄拉克统计Fermi-Dirac statistics167.分布distribution168.分布数distribution numbers169.分解电压decomposition voltage170.分配定律distribution law171.分散系统disperse system172.分散相dispersion phase173.分体积partial volume174.分体积定律partial volume law175.分压partial pressure176.分压定律partial pressure law177.分子反应力学mechanics of molecular reactions178.分子间力intermolecular force179.分子蒸馏molecular distillation180.封闭系统closed system181.附加压力excess pressure182.弗罗因德利希吸附经验式Freundlich empirical formula of adsorption 183.负极negative pole184.负吸附negative adsorption185.复合反应composite reaction186.盖·吕萨克定律Gay-Lussac law187.盖斯定律Hess law188.甘汞电极calomel electrode189.感胶离子序lyotropic series190.杠杆规则lever rule191.高分子溶液macromolecular solution192.高会溶点upper consolute point193.隔离法the isolation method194.格罗塞斯－德雷珀定律Grotthus-Draoer's law195.隔离系统isolated system196.根均方速率root-mean-square speed197.功work198.功函work content199.共轭溶液conjugate solution200.共沸温度azeotropic temperature201.构型熵configurational entropy202.孤立系统isolated system203.固溶胶solid sol204.固态混合物solid solution205.固相线solid phase line206.光反应photoreaction207.光化学第二定律the second law of actinochemistry208.光化学第一定律the first law of actinochemistry209.光敏反应photosensitized reactions210.光谱熵spectrum entropy211.广度性质extensive property212.广延量extensive quantity213.广延性质extensive property214.规定熵stipulated entropy215.过饱和溶液oversaturated solution216.过饱和蒸气oversaturated vapor217.过程process218.过渡状态理论transition state theory219.过冷水super-cooled water220.过冷液体overcooled liquid221.过热液体overheated liquid222.亥姆霍兹函数Helmholtz function223.亥姆霍兹函数判据Helmholtz function criterion224.亥姆霍兹自由能Helmholtz free energy225.亥氏函数Helmholtz function226.焓enthalpy227.亨利常数Henry constant228.亨利定律Henry law229.恒沸混合物constant boiling mixture230.恒容摩尔热容molar heat capacity at constant volume231.恒容热heat at constant volume232.恒外压constant external pressure233.恒压摩尔热容molar heat capacity at constant pressure234.恒压热heat at constant pressure235.化学动力学chemical kinetics236.化学反应计量式stoichiometric equation of chemical reaction 237.化学反应计量系数stoichiometric coefficient of chemical reaction 238.化学反应进度extent of chemical reaction239.化学亲合势chemical affinity240.化学热力学chemical thermodynamics241.化学势chemical potential242.化学势判据chemical potential criterion243.化学吸附chemisorptions244.环境environment245.环境熵变entropy change in environment246.挥发度volatility247.混合熵entropy of mixing248.混合物mixture249.活度activity250.活化控制activation control251.活化络合物理论activated complex theory252.活化能activation energy253.霍根-华森图Hougen-Watson Chart254.基态能级energy level at ground state255.基希霍夫公式Kirchhoff formula256.基元反应elementary reactions257.积分溶解热integration heat of dissolution258.吉布斯－杜亥姆方程Gibbs-Duhem equation259.吉布斯－亥姆霍兹方程Gibbs-Helmhotz equation260.吉布斯函数Gibbs function261.吉布斯函数判据Gibbs function criterion 262.吉布斯吸附公式Gibbs adsorption formula 263.吉布斯自由能Gibbs free energy264.吉氏函数Gibbs function265.极化电极电势polarization potential of electrode 266.极化曲线polarization curves267.极化作用polarization268.极限摩尔电导率limiting molar conductivity 269.几率因子steric factor270.计量式stoichiometric equation271.计量系数stoichiometric coefficient272.价数规则rule of valence273.简并度degeneracy274.键焓bond enthalpy275.胶冻broth jelly276.胶核colloidal nucleus277.胶凝作用demulsification278.胶束micelle279.胶体colloid280.胶体分散系统dispersion system of colloid 281.胶体化学collochemistry282.胶体粒子colloidal particles283.胶团micelle284.焦耳Joule285.焦耳-汤姆生实验Joule-Thomson experiment 286.焦耳-汤姆生系数Joule-Thomson coefficient 287.焦耳-汤姆生效应Joule-Thomson effect288.焦耳定律Joule's law289.接触电势contact potential290.接触角contact angle291.节流过程throttling process292.节流膨胀throttling expansion293.节流膨胀系数coefficient of throttling expansion 294.结线tie line295.结晶热heat of crystallization296.解离化学吸附dissociation chemical adsorption 297.界面interfaces298.界面张力surface tension299.浸湿immersion wetting300.浸湿功immersion wetting work301.精馏rectify302.聚（合）电解质polyelectrolyte303.聚沉coagulation304.聚沉值coagulation value305.绝对反应速率理论absolute reaction rate theory306.绝对熵absolute entropy307.绝对温标absolute temperature scale308.绝热过程adiabatic process309.绝热量热计adiabatic calorimeter310.绝热指数adiabatic index311.卡诺定理Carnot theorem312.卡诺循环Carnot cycle313.开尔文公式Kelvin formula314.柯诺瓦洛夫－吉布斯定律Konovalov-Gibbs law315.科尔劳施离子独立运动定律Kohlrausch's Law of Independent Migration of Ions 316.可能的电解质potential electrolyte317.可逆电池reversible cell318.可逆过程reversible process319.可逆过程方程reversible process equation320.可逆体积功reversible volume work321.可逆相变reversible phase change322.克拉佩龙方程Clapeyron equation323.克劳修斯不等式Clausius inequality324.克劳修斯－克拉佩龙方程Clausius-Clapeyron equation325.控制步骤control step326.库仑计coulometer327.扩散控制diffusion controlled328.拉普拉斯方程Laplace's equation329.拉乌尔定律Raoult law330.兰格缪尔－欣谢尔伍德机理Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism331.兰格缪尔吸附等温式Langmuir adsorption isotherm formula332.雷利公式Rayleigh equation333.冷冻系数coefficient of refrigeration334.冷却曲线cooling curve335.离解热heat of dissociation336.离解压力dissociation pressure337.离域子系统non-localized particle systems338.离子的标准摩尔生成焓standard molar formation of ion339.离子的电迁移率mobility of ions340.离子的迁移数transport number of ions341.离子独立运动定律law of the independent migration of ions342.离子氛ionic atmosphere343.离子强度ionic strength344.理想混合物perfect mixture345.理想气体ideal gas346.理想气体的绝热指数adiabatic index of ideal gases347.理想气体的微观模型micro-model of ideal gas348.理想气体反应的等温方程isothermal equation of ideal gaseous reactions 349.理想气体绝热可逆过程方程adiabatic reversible process equation of ideal gases 350.理想气体状态方程state equation of ideal gas351.理想稀溶液ideal dilute solution352.理想液态混合物perfect liquid mixture353.粒子particles354.粒子的配分函数partition function of particles355.连串反应consecutive reactions356.链的传递物chain carrier357.链反应chain reactions358.量热熵calorimetric entropy359.量子统计quantum statistics360.量子效率quantum yield361.临界参数critical parameter362.临界常数critical constant363.临界点critical point364.临界胶束浓度critical micelle concentration365.临界摩尔体积critical molar volume366.临界温度critical temperature367.临界压力critical pressure368.临界状态critical state369.零级反应zero order reaction370.流动电势streaming potential371.流动功flow work372.笼罩效应cage effect373.路易斯－兰德尔逸度规则Lewis-Randall rule of fugacity374.露点dew point375.露点线dew point line376.麦克斯韦关系式Maxwell relations377.麦克斯韦速率分布Maxwell distribution of speeds378.麦克斯韦能量分布MaxwelIdistribution of energy379.毛细管凝结condensation in capillary380.毛细现象capillary phenomena381.米凯利斯常数Michaelis constant382.摩尔电导率molar conductivity383.摩尔反应焓molar reaction enthalpy384.摩尔混合熵mole entropy of mixing385.摩尔气体常数molar gas constant386.摩尔热容molar heat capacity387.摩尔溶解焓mole dissolution enthalpy388.摩尔稀释焓mole dilution enthalpy389.内扩散控制internal diffusions control390.内能internal energy391.内压力internal pressure392.能级energy levels393.能级分布energy level distribution394.能量均分原理principle of the equipartition of energy395.能斯特方程Nernst equation396.能斯特热定理Nernst heat theorem397.凝固点freezing point398.凝固点降低lowering of freezing point399.凝固点曲线freezing point curve400.凝胶gelatin401.凝聚态condensed state402.凝聚相condensed phase403.浓差超电势concentration over-potential404.浓差极化concentration polarization405.浓差电池concentration cells406.帕斯卡pascal407.泡点bubble point408.泡点线bubble point line409.配分函数partition function410.配分函数的析因子性质property that partition function to be expressed as a product of the separate partition functions for each kind of state411.碰撞截面collision cross section412.碰撞数the number of collisions413.偏摩尔量partial mole quantities414.平衡常数（理想气体反应）equilibrium constants for reactions of ideal gases 415.平动配分函数partition function of translation416.平衡分布equilibrium distribution417.平衡态equilibrium state418.平衡态近似法equilibrium state approximation419.平衡状态图equilibrium state diagram420.平均活度mean activity421.平均活度系统mean activity coefficient422.平均摩尔热容mean molar heat capacity423.平均质量摩尔浓度mean mass molarity424.平均自由程mean free path425.平行反应parallel reactions426.破乳demulsification427.铺展spreading428.普遍化范德华方程universal van der Waals equation429.其它功the other work430.气化热heat of vaporization431.气溶胶aerosol432.气体常数gas constant433.气体分子运动论kinetic theory of gases434.气体分子运动论的基本方程foundamental equation of kinetic theory of gases435.气溶胶aerosol436.气相线vapor line437.迁移数transport number438.潜热latent heat439.强度量intensive quantity440.强度性质intensive property441.亲液溶胶hydrophilic sol442.氢电极hydrogen electrodes443.区域熔化zone melting444.热heat445.热爆炸heat explosion446.热泵heat pump447.热功当量mechanical equivalent of heat448.热函heat content449.热化学thermochemistry450.热化学方程thermochemical equation451.热机heat engine452.热机效率efficiency of heat engine453.热力学thermodynamics454.热力学第二定律the second law of thermodynamics 455.热力学第三定律the third law of thermodynamics456.热力学第一定律the first law of thermodynamics457.热力学基本方程fundamental equation of thermodynamics 458.热力学几率thermodynamic probability459.热力学能thermodynamic energy460.热力学特性函数characteristic thermodynamic function 461.热力学温标thermodynamic scale of temperature462.热力学温度thermodynamic temperature463.热熵thermal entropy464.热效应heat effect465.熔点曲线melting point curve466.熔化热heat of fusion467.溶胶colloidal sol468.溶解焓dissolution enthalpy469.溶液solution470.溶胀swelling471.乳化剂emulsifier472.乳状液emulsion473.润湿wetting474.润湿角wetting angle475.萨克尔－泰特洛德方程Sackur-Tetrode equation476.三相点triple point477.三相平衡线triple-phase line478.熵entropy479.熵判据entropy criterion480.熵增原理principle of entropy increase481.渗透压osmotic pressure482.渗析法dialytic process483.生成反应formation reaction484.升华热heat of sublimation485.实际气体real gas486.舒尔采－哈迪规则Schulze-Hardy rule487.松驰力relaxation force488.松驰时间time of relaxation489.速度常数reaction rate constant490.速率方程rate equations491.速率控制步骤rate determining step492.塔费尔公式Tafel equation493.态－态反应state-state reactions494.唐南平衡Donnan equilibrium495.淌度mobility496.特鲁顿规则Trouton rule497.特性粘度intrinsic viscosity498.体积功volume work499.统计权重statistical weight500.统计热力学statistic thermodynamics501.统计熵statistic entropy502.途径path503.途径函数path function504.外扩散控制external diffusion control505.完美晶体perfect crystalline506.完全气体perfect gas507.微观状态microstate508.微态microstate509.韦斯顿标准电池Weston standard battery510.维恩效应Wien effect511.维里方程virial equation512.维里系数virial coefficient513.稳流过程steady flow process514.稳态近似法stationary state approximation515.无热溶液athermal solution516.无限稀溶液solutions in the limit of extreme dilution 517.物理化学Physical Chemistry518.物理吸附physisorptions519.吸附adsorption520.吸附等量线adsorption isostere521.吸附等温线adsorption isotherm522.吸附等压线adsorption isobar523.吸附剂adsorbent524.吸附量extent of adsorption525.吸附热heat of adsorption526.吸附质adsorbate527.析出电势evolution or deposition potential528.析因子性质property that partition function to be expressed as a product of the separate partition functions for each kind of state529.稀溶液的依数性colligative properties of dilute solutions530.稀释焓dilution enthalpy531.系统system532.系统点system point533.系统的环境environment of system534.相phase535.相变phase change536.相变焓enthalpy of phase change537.相变化phase change538.相变热heat of phase change539.相点phase point540.相对挥发度relative volatility541.相对粘度relative viscosity542.相律phase rule543.相平衡热容heat capacity in phase equilibrium544.相图phase diagram545.相倚子系统system of dependent particles546.悬浮液suspension547.循环过程cyclic process548.压力商pressure quotient549.压缩因子compressibility factor550.压缩因子图diagram of compressibility factor551.亚稳状态metastable state552.盐桥salt bridge553.盐析salting out554.阳极anode555.杨氏方程Young's equation556.液体接界电势liquid junction potential557.液相线liquid phase lines558.一级反应first order reaction559.一级相变first order phase change560.依时计量学反应time dependent stoichiometric reactions561.逸度fugacity562.逸度系数coefficient of fugacity563.阴极cathode564.荧光fluorescence565.永动机perpetual motion machine566.永久气体Permanent gas567.有效能available energy568.原电池primary cell569.原盐效应salt effect570.增比粘度specific viscosity571.憎液溶胶lyophobic sol572.沾湿adhesional wetting573.沾湿功the work of adhesional wetting574.折射率index of refraction575.真溶液true solution576.真实电解质real electrolyte577.真实气体real gas578.真实迁移数true transference number579.振动配分函数partition function of vibration580.振动特征温度characteristic temperature of vibration 581.蒸气压下降depression of vapor pressure582.正常沸点normal point583.正吸附positive adsorption584.支链反应branched chain reactions585.直链反应straight chain reactions586.指前因子pre-exponential factor587.质量作用定律mass action law588.制冷系数coefficient of refrigeration589.中和热heat of neutralization590.轴功shaft work591.转动配分函数partition function of rotation592.转动特征温度characteristic temperature of vibration 593.转化率convert ratio594.转化温度conversion temperature595.状态state596.状态方程state equation597.状态分布state distribution598.状态函数state function599.准静态过程quasi-static process600.准一级反应pseudo first order reaction601.自动催化作用auto-catalysis602.自由度degree of freedom603.自由度数number of degree of freedom604.自由焓free enthalpy605.自由能free energy606.自由膨胀free expansion607.组分数component number608.最低恒沸点lower azeotropic point609.最高恒沸点upper azeotropic point610.最佳反应温度optimal reaction temperature 611.最可几分布most probable distribution 612.最可几速率most propable speed。

Universal relaxation function in nonextensive systems

We have derived the dipolar relaxation function for a cluster model whose volume distribution was obtained from the generalized maximum Tsallis nonextensive entropy principle. The power law exponents of the relaxation function are simply related to a global fractal parameter α and for large time to the entropy nonextensivity parameter q . For intermediate times the relaxation follows a stretched exponential behavior. The asymptotic power law behaviors both in the time and the frequency domains coincide with those of the Weron generalized dielectric function derived from an extension of the Levy central limit theorem. They are in full agreement with the Jonscher universality principle. Moreover our model gives a physical interpretation of the mathematical parameters of the Weron stochastic theory and opens new paths to understand the ubiquity of self-similarity and power laws in the relaxation of large classes of materials in terms of their fractal and nonextensive properties.

基于van_Genuchten模型土壤水分特征曲线的vanfit和MATLAB软件模拟研究

Journal of Agricultural Catastrophology 2023, Vol.13 No.7基于van Genuchten模型土壤水分特征曲线的vanfit和MATLAB软件模拟研究罗小清1，杨屹杰2，唐辉亮21.福建省将乐县气象局，福建将乐 353300；2.福建省三明市气象局，福建三明 353000摘要研究了土壤水分特征曲线对探讨土壤水分运动机理及溶质运移动力学机制具有重要科学意义。

由于测定土壤水分特征曲线的长历时性和时间限制，在从相关参考文献中提取土壤水分特征曲线测定数据的基础上，建立土壤水分特征曲线的资料库，采用van Genuchten模型对土壤水分特征曲线进行描述，分别应用vanﬁt软件和MATLAB软件下的lsqcurveﬁt函数2种方法对土壤进行van Genuchten模型下的4个参数拟合分析。

结果表明，2个程序拟合结果大体相近且优良，均方差较小，拟合曲线大致相同，且土壤质地不同，其土壤水分特征曲线差别较大。

关键词土壤水分特征曲线；van Genuchten模型；参数拟合；vanﬁt软件；lsqcurveﬁt函数中图分类号：S152.7 文献标识码：B 文章编号：2095–3305(2023)07–0254-03土壤水分特征曲线是描述土壤水基质势或土壤吸力随土壤含水量变化关系的曲线，用于表征土壤水分在非饱和状态下能态与数量之间的关系，反映土壤持水和释水特性，可作为最重要和最基本的工具，用于研究土壤水分运动，调节利用土壤水，改良土壤等，该曲线的基本运动趋势为：随着含水量的减少，土壤基质势降低或水吸力升高。

受到土壤在吸水和释水过程中土壤空气的作用和固、液而接触角不同的影响，土壤水分特征曲线并不是单值函数曲线。

土壤物理性质、土温、土壤中有机质含量会对土壤水分特征曲线造成一定的影响，土壤种植作物也会影响土壤物理性质及有机质含量，不同的作物，其耕作制度和施肥方法也存在显著的差异，且还会影响土壤的性状，因此相同层次的不同作物表现出的土壤水分特征曲线也有明显的不同[1]。

中学物理化学术语(英文)

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43. 标准压力 standard pressure 44. 标准状况 standard condition 45. 表观活化能 apparent activation energy 46. 表观摩尔质量 apparent molecular weight 47. 表观迁移数 apparent transference number 48. 表面 surfaces 49. 表面过程控制 surface process control 50. 表面活性剂 surfactants 51. 表面吸附量 surface excess 52. 表面张力 surface tension 53. 表面质量作用定律 surface mass action law 54. 波义尔定律 Boyle law 55. 波义尔温度 Boyle temperature 56. 波义尔点 Boyle point 57. 玻尔兹曼常数 Boltzmann constant 58. 玻尔兹曼分布 Boltzmann distribution 59. 玻尔兹曼公式 Boltzmann formula 60. 玻尔兹曼熵定理 Boltzmann entropy theorem 61. 玻色－爱因斯坦统计 Bose-Einstein statistics 62. 泊 Poise 63. 不可逆过程 irreversible process 64. 不可逆过程热力学 thermodynamics of irreversible processes 65. 不可逆相变化 irreversible phase change 66. 布朗运动 brownian movement 67. 查理定律 Charle's law 68. 产率 yield 69. 敞开系统 open system 70. 超电势 over potential 71. 沉降 sedimentation 72. 沉降电势 sedimentation potential 73. 沉降平衡 sedimentation equilibrium 74. 触变 thixotropy 75. 粗分散系统 thick disperse system 76. 催化剂 catalyst 77. 单分子层吸附理论 mono molecule layer adsorption 78. 单分子反应 unimolecular reaction 79. 单链反应 straight chain reactions 80. 弹式量热计 bomb calorimeter 81. 道尔顿定律 Dalton law 82. 道尔顿分压定律 Dalton partial pressure law 83. 德拜和法尔肯哈根效应 Debye and Falkenhagen effect 84. 德拜立方公式 Debye cubic formula 85. 德拜－休克尔极限公式 Debye-Huckel's limiting equation 86. 等焓过程 isenthalpic process

Efficient Water Oxidation Using CoMnP Nanoparticles

Communication /JACS
Eﬃcient Water Oxidation Using CoMnP Nanoparticles
Da Li, Habib Baydoun, Clau ́ dio N. Verani, and Stephanie L. Brock*
Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
S Supporting Information *
Байду номын сангаас
ABSTRACT: The development of eﬃcient water oxidation catalysts based on inexpensive and Earth-abundant materials is a prerequisite to enabling water splitting as a feasible source of alternative energy. In this work, we report the synthesis of ternary cobalt manganese phosphide nanoparticles from the solution-phase reaction of manganese and cobalt carbonyl complexes with trioctylphosphine. The CoMnP nanoparticles (ca. 5 nm in diameter) are nearly monodisperse and homogeneous in nature. These CoMnP nanoparticles are capable of catalyzing water oxidation at an overpotential of 0.33 V with a 96% Faradaic eﬃciency when deposited as an ink with carbon black and Naﬁon. A slight decrease in activity is observed after 500 cycles, which is ascribed to the etching of P into solution, as well as the oxidation of the surface of the nanoparticles. Manganese-based ternary phosphides represent a promising new system to explore for water oxidation catalysis.

DLS 样品制备指南

Guide for DLS sample preparationEric Farrell & Jean-Luc Brousseau Ph.D.NomenclatureThe term solvent refers the pure solvent used toprepare the diluent. Examples of solvents are toluene or water. The diluent may also be referred to as the liquid in DLS textbooks. Diluents are solvent with additives, for example a 10% by weight methanol in water or a 10 mM KNO 3 salt in DI water solution. The samples to be analyzed by DLS will be prepared in the liquid. The solution or suspension to be measured is the sample in the liquid. Although there are differences, the terms suspended and dissolved will be used interchangeably in this document.Aqueous measurementsParticle size measurements by DLS should not beconducted in pure de-ionized (DI) water, as the electrical double layer surrounding the particles will have long distance interaction. The size measured in DI water will usually be too big by 2 to 10 nm due to the electrostatic interaction between the particles. To screen any charge on the particles, it is a good idea to measure in water with a trace amount of salt. The ions with opposite charge will condense around the particle, screening long distance electrostatic interactions. A general salt like NaCl can be used but often the chloride ions are too aggressive and may react with the particles or adsorb to their surface. We recommend the use of KNO 3 for aqueous diluents. A concentration of 10 mM KNO 3 is ideal for all concentrations of particles.Diluent / LiquidIf the liquid is a pure solvent like toluene, thepurest solvent possible shouldbe sourced. Non-polar solvents do not usually dissolve or carry dust. These canThis document is intended to help the user determine the best way to prepare samples for dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. If the user wants to know how to prepare the 92nm latex standard for best measurements, please refer to the document entitled "A Guide toProper Sample Preparation: Electrostatically-Stabilized Nanoparticles in Water.”be used as is, as any filtering and manipulation will only risk adding dust. If the solvent is polar, then chances are that filtering will help remove dust in the solvent. In the case of aqueous diluents like KNO 3 in water, filtering is needed as salts are notoriously full of dust. It is always a good practice to filter the aqueous diluent using a 0.1 or 0.2 micrometer filter that has been previously rinsed according to the manufacturer’s practice. Rinsing the filter is an important step that should not be omitted.Dry sample dissolutionIf your sample is a dry powder, it will need to bedissolved or suspended before it can be measured. If the sample is a protein, the solution should not be stirred too aggressively and should never be sonicated. If the sample is sturdy, then sonication, vortex, spinning and other methods can be used to dissolve/suspend the sample. It is for the user to figure out the dissolution time and method. Experiment with different dissolution methods and time. In the case of a sample that disperses quickly, the time to disperse with agitation may be only a few minutes. Large polymers may require more than 24 hours to completely dissolve into solution. When preparing your sample, take a good look at how the sample is dispersing. For further information on preparing stable suspensions from dry powders, refer to ISO standard 14887 entitled “Sample preparation – Dispersing procedures for powders in liquids.”Liquid sample preparationFor liquid samples, the sample may need to bediluted. It is ideal to dilute the sample in the same exact liquid it was originally prepared in, using the same concentrations of additives (i.e. salts, surfactants,dispersing agents) if any were present. In highly concentrated liquid samples, the samples may appear opaque or milky-white. If the sample is highly concentrated, the sample should be diluted in the liquid of choice. Usually putting a drop of the neat sample in 20 mL of liquid or doing a 1:1000 dilution should be sufficient.ConcentrationsSolutions prepared for DLS will need to be clearto very slightly hazy. Although the instrument can measure solutions at concentration up to 40% and possibly more, the size measured in these cases will be wrong. It is not a DLS measurement if the sample is not clear. The Stokes-Einstein equation applies to infinitely dilute solutions. Highly concentrated measurements can be made for diffusing wave spectroscopy (DWS) and other applications. For DLS particle sizing, the sample needs to be water clear to very slightly hazy. If the solution is white or too hazy, it should be diluted further before attempting a DLS size measurement. If the sample is too concentrated, the measured size of your particles will be inaccurate due to multiple scattering or viscosity effects. Multiple scattering occurs when the particle concentration is high enough where the light scattered from a single particle is re-scattered by others in the suspension. This will cause your measured particle size to be artificially low. Viscosity effects occur when the volume of sample added to the liquid is enough such that it will alter the viscosity of the liquid. If the liquid viscosity is wrong due to viscosity effects, your measured particle size will also be wrong. A simple schematic is shown to describe the effects ofmeasuring at high concentration. Depending on the sample and the liquid, a size reduction or a size increase can be seen when theconcentration is too high for DLS. At extremely high concentrations, this phenomenom usually reverses.When the solution is ready for analysis, it should be inspected for particles at the bottom of the cuvette. If there are particles at the bottom of the cuvette, the sample distribution will not be accurate, as the large settled particles will not be measured, resulting in an inaccurate size distribution. Samples with large particles settling are either not dispersed correctly (wrong pH, not enough sonication, not enough dilution time, etc.) or are not suitable for DLS. For low density particles, samples may exhibit the opposite behavior. Creaming is the term used for large particles of lower density than the solvent reaching the top of the sample. If the sample is creaming, there is either a dispersion problem or the particles are too big to be measured by DLS.When the solution is ready for analysis and placed in the cuvette, care should be taken to avoid bubbles that may form on the walls of the cuvette. Slowly tilting or tapping the cuvette on a hard surface may help also.Colored solutionsIn the case of colored solutions, as long as the laser light is not absorbed completely by the solution, the sample can be measured. Colored samples and fluorescing samples may be harder to measure. Often the sample is available without the fluorescent dye or the absorbing chromophore. In this case it will be easier to measure the sample without the dye/chromophore present. To distinguish the scattering from the inherent color of a sample, try reading text through the sample. If the text can be read, then the scattering is not creating most of the opacity.Filtering the solutionIf the solution is to be filtered, keep in mind that the size distribution may be changed if the particles are removed by the filter. A good rule of thumb is to use a pore size (filter size) 3 times larger than the largest size to be measured. For DLS a 5 micrometer filter can be used in most cases. Always verify that the largest size measured is smaller than the filter pore size by a factor of 3. Always rinse the filter prior to use. These recommendations are valid for all filters except the Whatman Anotop series filters. For Whatman Anotop series filters, pass the first drop of sample to waste.MeasurementsOnce the solution is homogenous and ready for DLS measurement, the solution can be placed in the instrument. For the novice, there are two ways of checking that the concentration is not too high and that the DLS measurement will be valid.1) Count rate check: For an instrument equipped with an APD, the count rate for the scattering intensity of the dilute solution should be less than 2 Mcps (2,000,000 count per seconds) with the intensity maximized. Note that measurements SHOULD NOT be made at this high count rate. The maximum count rate for the measurement should be 500-600 kcps. The attenuator will need to be adjusted after measuring the scattering intensity on maximum intensity in most cases, especially if the count rate is greater than 600 kcps.2) Dilution check: The second way to verify that the concentration is suitable for DLS measurements is to dilute your sample by 50% after the first measurement. If the size of the dilution is the same as the size of the more concentrated measurement and the count rate is reduced by a factor of 2, then the first measurement concentration was low enough.After many measurements it will be easy to assess the concentration of the solution to be measured.Forbest practices for measuring samples size, please refer to the document “Guide for DLS measurements”.Nanoparticle, Protein, & Polymer Characterization。

有机介质中酶催化的基本原理

收稿:2004年7月,收修改稿:2004年11月　3通讯联系人　e 2mail :zyang @有机介质中酶催化的基本原理杨　缜3(深圳大学生命科学学院　深圳518060)摘　要　酶在有机溶剂中催化作用的研究日益受到重视,其应用范围也越来越广。

本文就有机介质中酶催化的基本原理进行了讨论,包括酶的结构和催化机理,以及溶剂和水对酶的结构和催化功能的影响。

同时,本文归纳出提高酶活性的一系列方法,其中不少方法简便易行,能使酶活性提高102—105倍。

关键词　非水酶学　酶活性　有机介质　催化机理中图分类号:Q55;T Q426197　文献标识码:A 文章编号:10052281X (2005)0520924207Fundamentals of Biocatalysis in Organic SolventsYang Zhen3(C ollege of Life Science ,Shenzhen University ,Shenzhen 518060,China )Abstract Nonaqueous enzym ology has attracted m ore and m ore interests from researchers and industry because of the unique properties provided by enzymes in nonaqueous environments.Supported by an exponential growth of the literature ,this rapidly developing research area has made tremendous progress in recent years in gaining an im proved fundamental understanding of enzyme function and activation in organic media.In such a non 2conventional milieu ,the enzyme maintains its structural and mechanistic integrity.The role of water and s olvents on enzyme function has been discussed in detail ,such as the effects of water on enzyme activity and protein m obility ,the effects of s olvent on the water ass ociated with the enzyme ,on enzyme ’s active site and protein dynamics and con formation ,on substrates and products ,and on the enzymatic activation energy.A series of methods and techniques for activating enzymes in organic s olvents have been summarized ,such as to overcome the limitations in diffusion and accessibility ,to optimize the pH situation ,to minimize the effect of s olvents on activation energy ,to enhance the con formational m obility of the enzyme ,and to prevent enzyme denaturation during dehydration by ly ophilizing enzymes in the presence of a selection of organic or inorganic excipients (e.g.nonbu ffer salts or macrocycles ).These techniques are quite sim ple and scalable ,and canprom ote a wide range of enzyme activation (up to 1052fold )through different mechanisms.All these will undoubtedly helpus to effectively design high 2activity enzyme preparations suitable for use in organic s olvents and to broaden the applications of nonaqueous enzym ology to a greater extent.K ey w ords nonaqueous enzym ology ;enzyme activity ;organic media ;catalytic mechanism一、引　言酶不仅在水溶液里而且在有机溶剂中具有催化活性,这已经成为一个公认的事实。

Evaluation of water soluble b-D-glucan from Auricularia auricular-judae as potential

Evaluation of water soluble b -D -glucan from Auricularia auricular-judae as potential anti-tumor agentZhaocheng Ma a ,Jianguo Wang a ,Lina Zhang a,*,Yufeng Zhang b ,Kan Ding caDepartment of Chemistry,Wuhan University,Wuhan 430072,PR China bSchool of Stomatology,Wuhan University,Wuhan 430079,PR China cGlycochemistry &Glycobiology Lab,Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Shanghai 201203,PR Chinaa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 20July 2009Received in revised form 9January 2010Accepted 11January 2010Available online 15January 2010Keywords:Auricularia auricula-judae PolysaccharideAnti-tumor activity Apoptosisa b s t r a c tA water soluble b -D -glucan was isolated by 70%ethanol aqueous solution from Auricularia auricula-judae,coded as AAG.AAG exhibited strong inhibition against Acinar cell carcinoma (ACC)proliferation.The in vivo tests showed that AAG signiﬁcantly inhibited tumor growth in a dose-dependent fashion,but not because of cytotoxicity.All the doses showed certain inhibition ratios against tumor-cell growth,while the dose of 20mg/kg exhibited highest anti-tumor activities.Moreover,the enhancement ratios of body weight for all the doses were signiﬁcantly higher than that for 5-ﬂuorouracil (5-Fu).Fluorescence microscopy observed the apoptosis tumor cell induced by AGG sample.The results from TUNEL assay fur-ther conﬁrmed the apoptosis in Sarcoma 180solid tumor.Immunohistochemistry for apoptosis-related proteins Bax and Bcl-2expression tests revealed that AAG induced S-180tumor cell apoptosis by up-reg-ulation of Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2expression.These ﬁndings demonstrated that the AAG has biological activities and could be considered as a candidate for possible anti-tumor drugs.Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionCancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world.The main cause is that they damage immune systems in tumor treat-ment.So,it is necessary to develop novel anti-tumor agents with administrating immunity potential.Polysaccharides have attracted more attention recently in the biochemical and medical ﬁelds because of their anti-tumor and immunomodulating properties (Zhang,Cui,Cheung,&Wang,2007).Numerous bioactive polysac-charides are considered as immunomodulators affecting on prolif-eration and differentiation of immune cells and cytokines,interleukins and receptors production due to recognition these compounds by the certain receptors located on the leukocytes and other immune cells that lead to enhance the innate and cell-mediate immune responses (Baea,Janga,&Jinb,2006;Khalikovaa,Zhanaevaa,Korolenkoa,Kaledinb,&Koganc,2005;Lavia,Friesemb,Gereshc,Hadarb,&Schwartza,2006;Moradali,Mostafavi,Ghods,&Hedjaroude,2007).Some polysaccharides extracted from Chinese herbal medicines have been reported to possess anticancer activities (Chen et al.,2008;Lia et al.,2004).In our lab,various polysaccharides and their derivatives having anticancer activities have been isolated from Pleurotus tuber regium (Tao,Zhang,&Cheung,2006),Lentinus Edodes(Zhang,Li,Xu,&Zeng,2005),Poria cocos (Huang,Zhang,Cheung,&Tan,2006;Wang,Zhang,Li,Hou,&Zeng,2004),and Ganoderma tsugae mycelium (Peng,Zhang,Zeng,&Xu,2003).Auricularia auric-ula-judae ,an ear-like shaped edible fungi,has potential anti-tumor activities (Misaki &Kakuta,1995;Misaki,Kakuta,Sasaki,Tanaka,&Miyaji,1981).In our previous work,the structure of a water soluble b -glucan (AAG)isolated from Auricularia auricula-judae has been characterized.It was composed of a main chain of (1?4)-linked D -glucopyranosyl with branching points at O -6of (1?6)-linked D -glucopyranosyl residues.The content of glucuronic acid is about 19%and the distribution of glucuronic acid was not periodic in the polysaccharide (Ma,Wang,&Zhang,2008).However,its bioactivi-ties have been never ually,relatively high molecular weight glucans appear to be more effective anti-tumor activity than those of low molecular weight (Mizuno,1996).But some medical properties of some mushroom polysaccharides like (1?3)-a -glu-curonoxylomannans,are not strongly dependent on molecular weights.Their hydrolyzed fractions containing glucuronoxylo-mannans with molecular weights from 53to 1000KDa are as effective as those fractions,having higher molecular weights (Gao,Seljelid,Chen,&Jiang,1996).It was also reported that differences in molecular weight had no obvious inﬂuence on the activities of the heteroglycans.Generally,Genetic alterations resulting in the loss of apoptosis or disturbance of apoptosis-signaling pathways are likely to be critical components of carcinogenesis (Schulte-Her-mann,Grasl-Kraupp,&Bursch,1994).Apoptosis,programmed cell0144-8617/$-see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.01.015*Corresponding author.Tel.:+862787219274;fax:+862768754067.E-mail addresses:zhangln@ ,lnzhang@ (L.Zhang).Carbohydrate Polymers 80(2010)977–983Contents lists available at ScienceDirectCarbohydrate Polymersj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /c a r b p oldeath,is modulated by anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors, which involves a large number of proteins.The proapoptotic and anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2family act as a rheostat in regulating programmed cell death and are considered as targets of anticancer therapy(Baea,Janga,Yimb,&Jin,2005;Baell&Huang, 2002;Goodsell,2002).The ratio of death antagonists(Bcl-2,Bcl-xL)to agonists(Bax,Bad,Bid)determines whether a cell will respond to an apoptotic stimulus.Down-regulation of the death suppressor Bcl-2could inhibit tumor growth via promoting programmed cell death(Zhivotovsky,Orrenius,Brustugun,&Doskeland,1998).It has been proven that Bax promotes apoptosis whereas Bcl-2 suppresses apoptosis(Ranger,Malynn,&Korsmeyer,2001).Bax re-sides in an inactive state in the cytosol of many cells.In response to death stimuli,Bax protein undergoes conformational changes that expose membrane-targeting domains,resulting in its translocation to mitochondrial membranes,where Bax inserts and causes release of cytochrome c to activate caspase-3and other apoptogenic pro-teins(Guo et al.,2003;Wolter et al.,1997).When Bax predominates, apoptosis is accelerated and the death repressor activity of Bcl-2is counteracted(Oltvai,Milliman,&Korsmeyer,1993).In the present work,we evaluated in vivo anti-tumor activities of the polysaccharide AAG against xenograft Sarcoma180tumor cells and in vitro inhibition ratio to the proliferation of Acinar cell carcinoma(ACC)tumor cells.Furthermore,the mechanism of the anti-tumor activities of the AAG were investigated by the morpho-logical approaches(ﬂuorescence microscopy with Hoechst stain) and by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling(TUNEL)technique and immunohistochemical method for apoptosis-related proteins Bcl-2and Bax,attempting to elucidate the mechanism.2.Materials and methods2.1.Isolation and fractionationAAG was isolated from fruit bodies of Auricularia auricula-judae, a commercial product cultivated in Fangxian(Hubei,China) according to previously reported method.AAG is water-dissoluble polysaccharides composed of a main chain of b-(1?4)-D-glucan with b-(1?6)-D-glucose side groups having molecular weight to be2.88Â105(Ma et al.,2008).2.2.In vitro anti-tumor testA colorimetric3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazo-lium bromide(MTT)method was used for measuring the prolifera-tion for adherent tumor cells.Acinar cell carcinoma(ACC)tumor cells(1Â105cells/mL)were grown in Roswell Park Memorial Insti-tute(EPMI)1640medium supplemented with10%fetal bovine serum(FBS)under atmosphere of5%carbon dioxide at37°C for 72h,in present of sample at concentrations of0.005and0.05mg/ L in0.9%aqueous NaCl.The number of living ACC tumor cells at the end of the72h incubation period was determined colorimetri-cally based on the tetrazolium salt MTT as described by Mosmann (1983)).5-Fluorouracil(5-Fu,as positive control)and the tested sample were compared with a control sample.2.3.In vivo anti-tumor testSarcoma180(S-180)tumor cells(1Â105cells/mouse)were subcutaneously inoculated into8-week-old male BALB/c mice weighting20±1g.Twenty-four hours later,5-ﬂuorouracil(5-Fu) and the tested samples were dissolved in0.9%aqueous NaCl and injected intraperitoneally once a day for8days.The same volume of0.9%aqueous NaCl was injected intraperitoneally into the control mice.The mice were sacriﬁced on the next day after the last injection,and the tumors were excised.The tumor weights were compared with those in the control mice.The inhibition ratio (n)and enhancement ratio of body weight(/)were calculated as follows:n¼½ðW cÀW tÞ=W c Â100%ð1Þ/¼½ðW aÀW bÞ=W b Â100%ð2Þwhere W c is the average tumor weight of the control group,W t is the average tumor weight of the tested group;and W b and W a are the body weight of mice before and after the plete regression is indicated as the ratio of the number of tumor-free mice to the number of mice tested.2.4.Fluorescence microscopy and apoptotic assessmentACC tumor cells(1Â105cells/mL)from exponential phase cultures were treated with the AAG sample at different time and concentrations,and were incubated simultaneously in RPMI1640 medium containing10%fetal bovine serum(FBS)under an atmo-sphere of5%CO2at37°C.Following the treatment,the cells were collected for apoptotic assessment.Apoptosis and necrosis were distinguished by usingﬂuorescence microscopy with Hoechst 33342.Brieﬂy,the cell-permeant dye Hoechst33342(10mg/mL; Sigma)for15min in the dark,followed by washing twice with phosphate-buffered saline(PBS),andﬁnally were observed under an inverted phaseﬂuorescence microscope(Olympus DP70,Tokyo, Japan)equipped with a40Âobjective and UVﬁlter cube.Cells were shown with blue round nuclei,red round nuclei,blue frag-ment nuclei and red fragmented nuclei,corresponding to viable, necrotic,apoptotic cells,respectively.Nuclei of apoptotic characteristics including apoptosis were counted and compared numerically to morphologically normal nuclei in the sameﬁeld. Apoptotic index(AI),which represents the percentage of apoptotic nuclei,was calculated as:AN/TNÂ100%,where AN and TN are average number of apoptotic and total nuclei,respectively.Quanti-tative analysis was performed by counting more than500cells in six randomﬁelds per sample.Each assay was repeated at least three times.2.5.Immunohistochemistry for apoptosis-related proteinsBax and Bcl-22.5.1.Pretreatment of tumor tissueS-180tumors were excised from BALB/c mice and used in the in vivo anti-tumor test.The tumors were cut into small pieces, andﬁxed with formalin for36h.Fixed-tumors were dehydrated by immersing in a series from70%,80%,90%,95%to100%of graded ethanol solution for15–20min.Dehydrated-tumors were passed through successive changes of methyl benzoate until all ethanol was replaced by methyl benzoate.Subsequently,the tumors were embedded in the parafﬁn.Finally,4mm serial sections were cut from the formalin-ﬁxed,parafﬁn-embedded pretreatment tumor blocks and mounted on poly-L-lysine(PLL)-coated microscope slides,and then were dried at60°C for1h for immunostaining.2.5.2.Immunostain of TUNELThe tumor tissues from treated and control mice were examined by the TUNEL assay to detect the30free hydroxyl ends (3-OH)of the DNA strands created by nucleases in apoptotic cells. Sections of tumor tissues were treated for20min with proteinase K(20l g/mL in PBS),equilibrated for10min with TdT buffer,and incubated for2h in a TdT mix containing100U TdT and0.5l L bio-tin-16-dUTP.Biotin-16-dUTP labeled in3-OH of DNA was detected by streptavidin-HRP and visualized using DAB for color reaction according to the manufacturer’s instructions.Then the sections978Z.Ma et al./Carbohydrate Polymers80(2010)977–983were counterstained lightly by methyl green,dehydrated through a graded series of alcohol,cleared in xylene andﬁnally mounted by Permount.The cells whose nucleus turned a distinct brown col-or were considered as positive cells while the cells whose nucleus turned green were negative cells.The numbers of positive cells were counted with a hemacytometer under a100Âmicroscope and the mean number was calculated.2.5.3.Immunostain of Bax and Bcl-2The tests of Bax and Bcl-2immunohistochemistry were per-formed by the peroxidase-labeled streptavidin biotin method with microwave antigen retrieval(Lohmann et al.,2002;Saxena,McMe-ekin,&Thomson,2002;Xie,Clausen,Angelis,&Boysen,1999).Par-afﬁn in the sections were removed by treating with xylene for 15min twice,and then gradually hydrated through a series from 95%,80%to70%of graded ethanol(2min each)and distilled water (2min).Endogenous peroxidase was blocked by incubation in3% hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)for10min at37°C,followed by washing for four times with PBS(5min each).Antigen retrieval was carried out in a microwave oven.Brieﬂy,the sections were heated to95°C in0.01M citrate buffer(pH6.0),and were maintained at this tem-perature for10min,followed by rinsing in warm tap water.And then the sections were treated with normal goat serum for 10min at37°C to reduce nonspeciﬁc staining.Subsequently,the rabbit antimouse Bax and Bcl-2polyclonal antibodies(Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.,Santa Cruz,CA,US)as primary antibodies were added in optimal dilution and the sections were incubated over-night in a humidiﬁed chamber at4°C.This step and each of the fol-lowing were succeeded by washing for four times in PBS for5min each.The sections were incubated for10min at37°C in a humid-iﬁed chamber with biotinylated goat antirabbit IgG(Zhongshan Golden Bridge Biotechnology Co.,Ltd.,Beijing,China;1:200)as sec-ondary antibodies,followed by exposure to streptavidin horserad-ish-peroxidase(Zhongshan Golden Bridge Biotechnology Co.,Ltd., Beijing,China)for10min at37°C.The color was developed using a solution containing0.05%diaminobenzidine(DAB)as chromogen and0.02%H2O2.After visualization of horseradish-peroxidase activity by color reaction with DAB,the sections were weakly counterstained with hematoxylin,mounted and examined using light microscope equipped with a40Âobjective.To conﬁrm immu-nospeciﬁcity,negative controls consisted of sections in which the primary antibody was omitted and replaced by buffer or a nonim-mune IgG.Formalin-ﬁxed,parafﬁn-embedded sections of normal human lymph node served as positive controls.Both the number of immunoreactive cells and the total number of cells(at least 500cells)were determined to calculate percentage of Bax and Bcl-2positive cells by visual inspection of six differentﬁelds per section.To assess the apoptosis,ratios of Bcl-2:Bax were determined.2.6.Statistical analysisStudent’s t-test was used to evaluate the differences between the controls and tested groups.Signiﬁcant difference between two groups was deﬁned as p<0.05.3.Results and discussion3.1.In vitro and in vivo resultsIn view of the in vitro inhibition ratio of ACC tumor cells by AAG polysaccharide at different concentrations(0.005and0.05mg/L), the polysaccharide exhibited strong inhibition against cell growth and there was also a dose–response relationship between concen-tration of AAG and suppression of ACC cell proliferation(Fig.1).The AAG samples showed inhibition ratios of23.5%and34.1%at the concentration of0.005and0.05mg/L,respectively.It was com-parable to5-Fu(40.4%).To evaluate the in vivo anti-tumor activity of AAG sample,the sample solutions were injected intraperitoneally(i.p.5,20and 40mg/kg)to BALB/c mice once daily for8days after S-180tumor cells inoculation for24h.The results of the in vivo anti-tumor activities of the AAG sample are summarized in Table1,in which also lists that of5-Fu,a chemotherapeutic anticancer agent as a po-sitive control.The doses of5,20and40mg/kg showed inhibition ratios of16.4%,39.1%and37.7%,respectively.The results showed that AAG signiﬁcantly inhibited tumor growth in dose-dependent way,but all the doses show certain inhibition ratios against tu-mor-cell growth.The tumor weigh of the control group was 0.81g,while the tumor weight of mice treated with low,interme-diate and high concentration of AAG were reduced to average weighs0.68,0.49and0.51g,respectively.The tumor weight of mice treated with a low,intermediate or high dose AAG was signif-icantly lower than that of the control group(p<0.05).Compared with the other dose,the dose20mg/kg exhibited highest anti-tu-mor activities.Moreover,the enhancement ratios of body weight for all the doses weigh signiﬁcantly higher than that for5-Fu,indi-cating that the AAG sample had much lower toxicities than5-Fu, which kills normal cells as well as cancer cells.3.2.Fluorescence microscopy and apoptotic assessmentMorphological changes can provide the most reliable criteria for recognizing apoptotic process.Therefore,we utilizedﬂuorescence microscopy to observe apoptosis by changes in cellular morphol-ogy,including cell shrinkage,condensation and fragmentation of nuclei,all of which are indicative of apoptosis(Liu,Trimarchi,& Keefe,1999).Data in Fig.2showed nuclear morphology of various type of ACC cell death visualized byﬂuorescence microscopy withTable1Anti-tumor activity of the AAG sample against Sarcoma180solid tumor grown in BALB/c mice.Sample Dose(mg/kgÂdays)Inhibitionratio(%)Enhancement ratioweight(%)Completeregression Control20Â828.80/105-Fu20Â862.118.80/105Â816.4*26.80/10 AAG20Â839.1*26.90/1040Â837.7*26.90/10*p<0.05,signiﬁcant difference when compared to the control.Z.Ma et al./Carbohydrate Polymers80(2010)977–983979Hoechst staining following exposure to the AAG for24h at concen-tration of0.5and0.05mg/mL.Hoechst stains the nuclei of cells with a broken or an intact cell membrane.In Fig.2b and c round nuclei,blue fragment nuclei or shrinkage cells,corresponded to viable and apoptotic cells,respectively.As shown in Fig.2a,the control group was mainly living cells,while the both concentration had many apoptotic cells with fragmented nuclei.The obvious inhibition against tumor cells indicated that the AAG sample could induce apoptosis in ACC cells.3.3.Effect of AAG on tumor tissues cell morphologyFig.3shows histological section of tumor tissues in control group and AAG-treated pared with the tumor tissues of the control group mice,the tumor tissues of AAG sample treated mice showed a massive necrosis such as nucleus atrophy, disintegrating and structure less red staining region.Meanwhile, chromatin condensation,cell shrinkage,plasma membrane blab-bing and the formation of membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies were observed in the tumor sections of AAG-treated mice,indicat-ing many tumor cells were undergoing apoptosis.3.4.Detection of apoptosis of tumor tissue cells by TUNEL assayIn view of the previous Fluorescence microscopy analysis,we concluded that AAG induced apoptotic cell death in ACC cells.To further conﬁrm the apoptosis of tumor tissues induced by the administration of AAG,the TUNEL assay was performed.As shown in Fig.4,with an increase of AAG the number of TUNEL-positive cells signiﬁcantly increased from5.1%(5mg/kg)to9.3%(20mg/Fig.2.Nuclear morphology of the various type of cell death was visualized byﬂuorescence microscopy with Hoechst staining following exposure to the control group(a), AAG-treated concentration of0.5mg/mL(b)and0.05mg/mL(c).Fig.3.Histological section of tumor tissues in control group(a),dose5mg/kg AAG-treated mice(b),dose20mg/kg AAG-treated mice(c)and dose40mg/kg AAG-treated mice(d).980Z.Ma et al./Carbohydrate Polymers80(2010)977–983Z.Ma et al./Carbohydrate Polymers80(2010)977–983981Fig.4.Apoptotic staining of tumor tissues using a TUNEL technique.Control group(a),dose5mg/kg AAG-treated mice(b),dose20mg/kg AAG-treated mice(c)and dose(d).40mg/kg AAG-treated miceFig.5.Bax immunostain in S-180tumor of the untreated control mice(a),dose5mg/kg AAG-treated mice(b),dose20mg/kg AAG-treated mice(c)and dose40mg/kg AAG-treated mice(d).kg)and 7.2%(40mg/kg),respectively (p <0.05).The apoptotic staining patterns with TUNEL assay corroborated the AAG-induced apoptosis of tumor tissues.3.5.Immunohistochemistry for apoptosis-related proteins Bax and Bcl-2Since AAG polysaccharide morphologically induced apoptosis in the tumor cells,the study next investigated if AAG deregulates the apoptotic signal transduction pathway in tumor cells.We have investigated alterations in the expression of apoptosis-related pro-teins Bcl-2and Bax in S-180tumor treated by intraperitoneal injec-tion of AAG aqueous solution into BALB/c mice.Figs.5and 6showed the apoptosis-related proteins Bax and Bcl-2immunostain in S-180tumor of the untreated control mice and different dose AAG-treated mice.The results revealed a signiﬁcant difference in expression of the proteins in control and AAG groups.In the controlgroup,Bax was not detected,whereas Bcl-2immunostain was sig-niﬁcantly strong in pared with the control group,the mice treated with AAG exhibited a signiﬁcant decreased expression of Bcl-2and increased expression of Bax.The uniquely high Bax expression with low Bcl-2immunostain in the AAG group indicated that the AAG polysaccharide induced apoptosis of S-180tumor cells probably by up-regulating expression of Bax to coun-teract the effect of Bcl-2.The results from the quantitative analysis of the Bax and Bcl-2immunostain for S-180tumor in the control and AAG groups were listed in Table 2.The Bax expression in S-180tumor after treated with AAG was signiﬁcantly stronger than that of control group (without exposure to AAG).Simultaneously,after treatment by AAG,expression level of Bcl-2protein was sig-niﬁcantly lower than that of the control group.Furthermore,a high expression level of Bax accompanied by a low Bcl-2immunoreac-tivity could sustain a low Bcl-2:Bax ratio in favor of apoptosis,or alternatively,it could effectively antagonize the anti-apoptotic lev-els of the Bcl-2.The immunohistochemical results indicated that the AAG polysaccharide induced apoptosis in xenograft S-180tu-mor cell by up-regulating Bax and down-regulating Bcl-2.4.ConclusionAAG polysaccharides isolated from Auricularia auricula-judae was water-soluble,and had an M w of 2.88Â105.The anti-tumor activities of AAG had been discovered in a dose-dependent manner and the apoptosis in ACC cells could be induced by AAGpolysac-Fig.6.Bcl-2immunostain in S-180tumor of the untreated control mice (a),dose 5mg/kg AAG-treated mice (b),dose 20mg/kg AAG-treated mice (c)and dose 40mg/kg AAG-treated mice (d).Table 2The quantitative analysis of the Bax and Bcl-2immunostaining for S-180tumor cells in the control and AAG treated groups.SamplesBax(%immunoreactivity)Bcl-2(%immunoreactivity)Control group3.858.5AAG dose 5mg/kg 30.3*21.8AAG dose 20mg/kg 46.5*39.6*AAG dose 40mg/kg42.6*30.7**p <0.05,signiﬁcant difference when compared to the control.982Z.Ma et al./Carbohydrate Polymers 80(2010)977–983charide.Furthermore,histological examination of the tumor tissue indicated that AAG induced a massive necrosis and inﬁltration.In addition,apoptosis was also observed from the tumor tissues trea-ted with AAG,which further conﬁrmed by TUNEL assay.Further analysis of the tumor inhibition mechanism revealed that the expression of Bax increased and the expression of Bcl-2decreased dramatically in S-180tumor tissue section after injection of AAG. 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Water – The Universal Solvent
Water is often called the universal solvent because …?
Why do so many substances readily dissolve in water?
Solubility
Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in a liquid. This is determined by the molecular arrangement of the liquid and the substance.
Sources:
Chlorine, sulfates from volcanic activity
Na, Mg, K, Ca ions come from the weathering of feldspar-rich rocks (granites and other igneous rocks).
Determines the water’s vertical position in the ocean
Factors affecting seawater density:
Temperature - the greatest influence
Salinity
Variations in ocean water density with depth
Processes that decrease salinity (add water)
Precipitation Runoff from land Icebergs melting Sea ice melting
Processes that increase salinity (remove water)
Called the thermocline
High-latitudes
Cooler surface temperatures
No rapid change in temperature with depth
Variations in ocean water temperature with depth
water molecule.
Hydrogen bonding of these electrically polarized molecules gives water the properties of cohesion, adhesion and dissolving power.
Composition of Seawater
Ocean Layering
Three-layered structure Shallow zone(300 – 450 m) Surface mixed zone Sun-warmed zone Zone of mixing ~2% of ocean water
Transition zone Between surface layer
Sulfur – hydrothermal vents
Salinity
Sources of sea salts
Chemical weathering of rocks
Outgassing – gases from volcanic eruptions
Surface salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33‰ to 38‰
Evaporation Formation of sea ice
Ocean temperature variation with depth来自Low-latitudes
High temperature at the surface
Rapid decrease in temperature with depth
Seawater consists of about 3.5% (by weight) of dissolved minerals; typically expressed in parts-per-thousand (‰)
Salinity (NaCl) Average salinity is 35‰
Constant highdensity water
~80% of ocean water
Layering in the ocean
Thermohaline Oceanic Circulation
Solvent = does the dissolving
Solute = is the substance dissolved
Water is polar. Substances with (+) and (-) surface charges are attracted to the (+) and (-) ends of the
and deep zone Thermocline and
pycnocline ~18% of ocean water
Deep zone
Sunlight never reaches this zone
Temperatures are just a few degrees above freezing
Relative proportions of water and dissolved components in seawater
Ions in Seawater
HMS Challenger: 1884 Dittmar found that the relative concentration of ions is the same all over the world (took over 77 samples from various depths and locations).
Variations in the ocean’s surface temperature and salinity with latitude
Ocean Density
Density is mass per unit volume – how heavy something is for its size (g/cm3)