托福写作考试分析
托福综合写作难点分析及备考建议
托福综合写作难点分析及备考建议托福综合写作难不难?不同的考生可能有不同的看法。
有同学不仅听力和阅读实力不错，归纳实力也很优秀，那么综合写作对他来说难度就不会很大。
下面我就和大家共享托福综合写作难点分析及备考建议，盼望能够协助到大家，来观赏一下吧。
【托福综合写作】综合写作难点分析及备考建议一.托福综合写作备考中的难点是什么大多数同学在备考托福综合写作的时候，第一个障碍是输入型(input difficulties)的难点，在综合写作里托福的阅读篇章和听力篇章里，考试内容涵盖的范围还是比拟广泛的，阅读篇章大约在300多字，听力篇章也是类似或者稍长一点的篇章，最初的备考难点在于，对于听力阅读的内容的生疏，但是假如针对托福考试的阅读和听力局部做过了特地的备考学习和训练，同学们可能会觉得托福综合写作的阅读和听力内容也没有很难，这其中的缘由是这样的，ETS(北美考试中心)所设计的托福的考试内容，主要是以美国中学以及大学一二年级的通识教育学问为考核背景的，涉及到的学术学科比拟全面，通俗一些说就是此时此刻美国中学和大一大二在读的同学们须要驾驭的常识性学问。
所以第一个输入型的障碍就是同学们必需相识和了解托福考试中的通识学问范畴是什么。
一旦这个障碍解决了，我们不但在阅读、听力上可以提分，同时在写作上也可以提分。
但是因为今日我们主要探讨针对其次个障碍输出型(output difficulties)做更具体的建议，所以输入型的局部就不再赘述了。
二.托福综合写作备考建议许多同学在备考初期认为只要听懂了读懂了综合写作的材料，写还不是很简洁的问题吗?综合写作又不是完全意义上的缔造性写作，复述一遍内容还不会吗?其实不然，如何利用确定的听力阅读文章中的观点和推论理由来构架自己的文章的思想和构造也是有组织难度的，正如托福正式的备考材料OG中提及到的内容一样，综合写作的关键词应当是information和organization，也就是信息量和组织逻辑。
toefl托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析
toefl托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理了托福考试满分范文,下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：衡量工作价值的方式托福写作难点话题一览Is money the most important aspect of a job?Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? The most important aspect of a job is the money a person earns. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.写作思路绽开结构分析这道题目问的是大家对于职业选择的看法。
由于题目中使用了most important这样的肯定词，所以一般来说都是选择反对这个观点会比较简单绽开论述。
实际上除了看工资以外，关于一项工作的价值还可以从其职业进展，对个人力量提升的关心等方面来绽开，这些都是大家比较简单想到也相对好绽开的论点。
本话题高分范文赏析I understand that nowadays it is very important for people to earn a lot of money. As a matter of fact, many people equate money with success: the more money you earn, the more successful you are. However, the financial aspect is not the most important aspect of a job.The work environment and camaraderie with ones coworkers, the personal fulfillment from ones occupation, and the opportunity to balance professional and personal lives are much more important. People who spend forty hours a week or more at their place of employment should enjoy their work environment, especially the company of their co-workers. After all, the prospect of having to spend any amount of time in a room or a building with people who one does not respect, who are unpleasant, or, even worse, hostile, will have a very negative effect on ones disposition and mental health. A few more dollars in the bank account cannot compensate for this. Similarly, one should derive a special fulfillment or pleasure from doing ones job. Normally, a person will spend at least a third of his/her adult life at work (eight hours or more every day). One should not waste this time by doing work that is boring or tedious even if it is well paid. The money earned will only enrich the life away from work but not enhance the work experience. Finally, the personal life can only be enjoyed adequately if there is enough time away from the professional life. Affluence affords many nice things, such as houses or cars or television sets, but a person who has to work night and day will not be able to derive any pleasure from them. Also, a father or a mother who makes a lot of money might be able to provide his or her family with a comfortable life, but how much good does that do if he or she never sees them? Time spent withfamily, especially children, is invaluable, and thus a job with long hours might cost a person more than it affords.托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：加入团队做leader还是member?Is it better to be a member of a group than to be the leader of a group?Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? It is better to be a member of a group than to be the leader of a group. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.论做leader的好处：主动，可以使用多的资源，获得更多;缺点：风险大，要担当更多责任。
托福写作高分满分点评和思路解析
托福写作高分满分点评和思路解析为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理了托福考试总分范文,下面我就和大家共享，来欣赏一下吧。
托福写作高分总分范文点评和思路解析：和濒危动物抢地盘?托福写作难点话题一览Land for human needs or endangered animalsSome people think that human needs for farmland, housing, and industry are more important than saving land for endangered animals. Do you agree or disagree with this point of view? Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.写作思路展开结构分析虽然两边立场都可以选，但一般来说依据政治正确的思路还是建议选择站濒危动物这一边，中国考生比较简洁relate到的例子就是熊猫了吧。
所以我认为选择不同意更好写一些。
大家可以列举两三个爱惜endangered animals的重要性。
同时不要忘了说明人类也确实需要更多的土地。
只不过不能只顾眼前利益(short term benefits)而已。
这样就能两边都兼顾到一些了。
本话题高分范文赏析When making decisions about land use, some say that human needs should come before animal needs in every case. While I agree that human needs should have primary consideration, humans have a special responsibility to protect the land that endangered animals call home. Animals adapt very slowly to sudden changes in their environments. Many endangered animals can only live in one place, or in a specific type of place. Humans, on the other hand, have a special ability to adapt quickly to changing and hostile environments. For instance, if humans need to live in a very dry environment they can use technology to locate and drill for water, or build pipelines to bring in water from outside. Thousands of years ago the residents of Xinjiang province dug underground tunnels hundreds of kilometers long to carry water to oasis towns like Turpan. Because humans are thus flexible while many animals are not, humans should make an effort to use up all available space before encroaching upon the habitats of endangered animals. One of the important reasons to protect endangered animals is that the delicate ecological balance of an area might be irreparably harmed by their extinction. For example, if humans chop down forests and use the land to grow corn, they might simultaneously destroy the habitats of a kind of bird that eats locusts. The next year because the locust population can grow unchecked, locusts might destroy the entire nearby corn crop. Not only do the birds lose their homes, but humans are also harmed. The ecological balance of many natural habitats is still not well understood and humans interfere in it at their peril. Finally, humans have much to learn from endangered species. One example is in the field of medicine. By observing a particular species of endangered monkeys in South America, scientists have discovered that monkeys eat a certain kind of plant when they get sick. Through research the scientists discovered that this plant also has medicinal value for humans. If the monkeys habitat had been destroyed to create more farmland, not only would we lose the plants and the monkeys, we would also lose life-saving medicines and the potential for medical research.托福写作高分总分范文点评和思路解析：对永不放弃的探讨托福写作难点话题一览Do we need Never, never give up?The expression Never, never give up means to keep trying and never stop working for your goals. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.写作思路展开结构分析这道题目比较狡猾，很多人可能一看到never就马上选好边预备反对了，但我觉得大家最好还是结合题目的实际状况来分析。
英语写作中的托福雅思高分范文赏析
英语写作中的托福雅思高分范文赏析托福和雅思是国际上非常著名的英语考试，涵盖了阅读、听力、口语和写作等内容。
在这些考试中，写作部分往往是考生们最为头疼的一块。
因此，想要取得高分就需要对优秀的范文进行赏析，借鉴其中的亮点和技巧。
在托福和雅思的写作考试中，要想获得高分，首先要有一个清晰的逻辑结构。
一篇高分范文应该有一个明确的中心思想，并且通过有条理的论证和连贯的衔接来支撑中心思想。
文章的结构要合理，可以采用常见的三段式结构：引入段、主体段落和结论段。
在引入段，作者应该引起读者的兴趣，并明确定义自己的观点。
可以使用一些有趣的事实、数据或者问题开篇，吸引读者的注意力。
接下来，逐渐过渡到主体段落。
在主体段落中，作者应该对中心思想进行充分的论证。
可以通过提供具体的例子、数据和实证来支持自己的观点。
同时，要注意段落之间的过渡和衔接，避免出现断裂或者突兀的感觉。
可以使用一些衔接性词语和短语，如as a result，in addition等等。
此外，要善于使用过渡句，使整篇文章的结构更加流畅。
另外，一个高分范文在语言运用上应该准确、丰富和多样。
考生可以通过使用各种句式和词汇来展示自己的语言能力。
可以使用复杂句、并列句和从句等等，来增加句子的多样性和多层次感。
同时，注意语法和拼写的准确性，避免错误影响文章的整体质量。
此外，一个高分范文在表达能力上也要出类拔萃。
考生可以通过使用丰富的词汇和表达方式，使文章更加生动有趣。
可以用形象生动的词语来描绘事物，让读者感受到真实和鲜活。
同时，要注意段落之间的逻辑关系，使行文更有连贯性和条理性。
最后，在结论段，作者应该总结自己的观点，并给出自己的建议或者展望。
结论部分要简洁明了，回归文章的中心思想，并给读者留下深刻的印象。
综上所述，要想在托福和雅思的写作考试中取得高分，考生们需要通过赏析优秀范文，学习其中的技巧和亮点。
一个高分范文在逻辑结构、语言运用、表达能力等方面都要出色。
关键是要有清晰的中心思想，并通过有条理的论证和连贯的衔接来支撑中心思想。
托福综合写作tpo56解析
托福综合写作tpo56解析全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：TPO 56：题目：选商科专业还是选工科专业听力：男生认为应选择商科专业的原因是：1. 商科专业博士毕业后更容易找到工作；2. 商科专业有可能赚更多的钱；3. 商科专业有更多的机会在职场上获得成功；4. 商科专业的课程比较灵活，学生可以选择感兴趣的领域作为专业方向。
综合写作：在TPO 56的综合写作中，讲述了一个关于选择商科专业和工科专业之间的讨论。
男生认为应当选择商科专业的原因在于毕业后更容易找到工作、赚更多的钱以及有更多成功的机会。
而女生则认为选择工科专业更佳，因为稳定性高、薪水丰厚、实践机会多、实用性强。
个人观点：就我个人而言，我认为在选择专业时要根据自身的兴趣和职业目标来进行。
商科专业和工科专业各有各的优势和劣势，因此在做决定时应综合考虑自己的情况。
如果对商业领域充满兴趣，并且希望在企业管理、市场营销等方面发展，那么选择商科专业是一个不错的选择。
而如果对工程技术或者科学研究更加感兴趣，希望在技术领域有所突破，那么选择工科专业可能更适合自己。
总结：在选择专业时，我们应当根据自己的兴趣和职业规划来进行决定。
商科专业和工科专业各有其特点，都是可以为我们提供广阔发展空间的选择。
在做选择时要多加考虑，不要盲目跟风选择热门专业，而是要根据自身情况和发展需要来进行决策。
只有选择了适合自己的专业，才能在未来的职业生涯中取得更好的发展和成就。
【字数：401】第二篇示例：托福综合写作是托福考试中的一项重要部分，考察考生在听力和阅读的基础上对文章进行综合分析和结论的能力。
在托福综合写作中，考生需要在20分钟内阅读一篇文章和听一段相关的演讲或讨论，然后根据所提供的信息写出一篇综合性的文章。
为了帮助考生更好地准备托福综合写作，下面将对TPO56进行解析。
TPO56考察的是关于风景如画的房子是否值得保留的话题。
文章内容主要包括两个方面：一是描述了房子的历史背景和建筑风格，称其为“美如画的明信片”；二是提到了由于发展需要，房子可能会被拆除，这是否值得讨论。
托福写作考试分析
托福写作考试分析王维瓒任何一种正规的考试都有一定的语言学理论和教学法理论作为指导。
早期托福以一种被称为离散项目测试（the discrete-point approach）的语言测试模式为基础。
该模式认为语言由不同的独立成分构成，通过测试语言知识的各个独立成分，就可以推断出一个考生的语言水平。
例如，通过测试考生对词汇意义的掌握，就可预测他的阅读理解能力；通过测试考生对句子结构的掌握情况，就可以判断他的写作能力。
实践证明，以这种模式为指导的旧托福考试存在着很大的弊端，它强调了对语言知识的掌握，却忽略了对使用语言进行交际的掌握。
其实，有相当一部分学生取得了相对较高的托福分数，但却不能说一口流畅地道的英文口语；有的学生能听懂录音绷里灌制的、没有任何干扰的英文，但到国外后却听不懂老师的讲课；还有一些考生记忆了大量的词汇，并通过做大量选择题的题海战术，非常熟练地掌握了句子结构方面的知识，但却很难写出一篇语言通顺、内容连贯、结构合理的作文。
这些所谓“哑巴英语”、“聋子英语”的事例在北美的中国留学生中比比皆是。
由于以上种种问题，ETS 才对旧托福大动手术，采用新的理论为指导，设计新的网考形式，应用新的评分标准。
和托福其他部分一样，托福写作题设计的理论基础仍然是交际语言教学法(Communicative Language Teaching) 或称交际法(Communicative Approach) 和自然法(The Natural Approach)。
应试者对这些教学理论以及由此产生的题目设计的指导思想和原则进行一些初步的了解，有助于领会测试的目的和要求，有的放矢地进行复习。
一、托福写作设计的理论基础：交际语言测试理论从上世纪60 年代开始，语言学家纷纷加入到对交际性测试理论（简称CT 理论）的研究中来，并且取得了一系列斐然的成绩。
最具有突出贡献的是Bachman, 他提出了全新的语言交际能力(communicative language ability：CLA) 模式。
11.26托福考试解析之五：写作
11.26托福考试解析之五：写作
综合写作：抹香鲸的头部有一个器官，里面有好多鲸油。
然后讨论这个器官的功能。
第一种解释、是说这东西是用来保护头部的，雄鲸鱼会为了求偶打架，通过这个可以保护头部。
听力说这个解释不对，因为抹香鲸的头部器官结构很复杂，比其他也会在我有的时候相互装的海洋哺乳类更复杂。
说明一定还有别的功能。
第二种解释、是说抹香鲸用这个来发出巨大的声音去捕食乌贼。
听力说乌贼根本就对声音不敏感，有很多干脆是聋的，所以也不对。
第三个解释、是说抹香鲸通过加热和冷却里面的油来控制上浮或者下潜。
听力说这样特别消耗能量，因为抹香鲸太大了。
这样去控制还不如直接游就行了。
微信公众号：纯青教育。
托福独立写作难点话题思路解读和范文赏析
托福独立写作难点话题思路解读和范文赏析为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理一些托福考试作文范文，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福独立写作难点话题思路解读和高分范文赏析：important influence of classmates托福写作难点话题一览Are classmates a more important influence than parents on a childs success in school?Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Classmates are a more important influence than parents on a childs success in school. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.写作思路绽开结构分析要经过比较之后才能选择，并不能一概而论(We should not make sweeping generalizations)。
以下的问题可以关心拓展思路：孩子与谁相处的时间更长一些?(尽管相处时间越长不见得影响就更大) 孩子与谁沟通的更多一些?(许多父母缺乏与孩子进行沟通的技巧) 家长通过什么方式影响孩子?同学通过什么方式影响孩子?或者，可以使用“It depends”的策略：要看哪一方面的影响?比如：饮食习惯的影响?思索方式的影响?审美观点的影响?本话题高分范文赏析It is extremely difficult, maybe even impossible, to generalize the relationships between parents and children.After all, personalities, temperaments, and values differ from person to person as does the ability to raise children.Furthermore, the relationship between parents and child changes over time, and the same is true for relationships between classmates. As a result, the question of who is a more important influence is difficult to answer, but what is undeniable is that parents should and classmates can have significant impact on a childs success in school.Parents are responsible for raising a child, and they should instill the value of education in him. After all, a child who enjoys education and learning is more likely to do well in school. This success will open up all kinds of opportunities in his future, from studying at a reputable university to finding a good job.Therefore, parents should take an active interest in their childs education and help him through difficult times by encouraging and motivating him. Nevertheless, parents must be careful not to force their child to success, particularly in early adolescence. Many teenagers become temporarily alienated from their parents during this period of their life, and a parents insistence on academic excellence against the childs will could further erode their relationship and also have a negative effect on the childs schooling.Relationships to classmates have a significant effect on a childs academic performance, because it is in their company that most of a students learning takes place. Since it is important for children of all ages to be accepted by their peers, much of a students life is spent trying to fit in. Ideally, students will motivate and learn from each other, but often the opposite is the case. A student who shines in the classroom can become a social outcast, because his/her classmates are jealous of his/her performance. This can then cause him/her to become less inclined to study and work hard, because acceptance by the classmates is more important to him/her than high marks.托福独立写作难点话题思路解读和高分范文赏析：workerexperience and salary托福写作难点话题一览Hire an inexperienced worker with low salary or an experienced one with high salary?If you were an employer, which kind of worker would you prefer to hire: an inexperienced worker at a lower salary or an experienced worker at a higher salary? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.写作思路绽开结构分析选择哪一个，要看是什么样的工作岗位position。
托福范文分析汇总
托福范文分析汇总托福考试中写作话题众多，看到话题如何解决，具体问题具体分析。
下面小编就为大家解析托福写作中常见的几个基本话题。
托福范文分析：要不要交不同的朋友Some people choose friends who are different from themselves. Others choose friends who are similar to themselves. Compare the advantages of having friends who are different from you with the advantages of having friends who are similar to you. Which kind of friend do you prefer for yourself? Why?Choosing friends that are either similar or different from one self can be a difficult task. Friends that share many similarities can offer a common purpose and way of life that is reassuring. Friends who are vastly different, on the other hand, may challenge and expand one’s mind, opening new vistas of thought where there were none before. Despite powerful arguments for both sides, I prefer friends who are different from me.First of all, choosing friends who are different from me allows me to learn from others. For example, I have a dear friend, who, although not academically inclined like myself, is a master with technology. He works with television news stations preparing their broadcasts for dissemination to the public. I, on the other hand, am technologically challenged. Despite my technological weakness, my friend has taken me under his wing and showed me some “tricks of the trade” in sound and video editing that I would have never learned otherwise. Although I will never be able to match my friend’s expertise at mastering technological innovations, without becoming friends with someone who has a disparate skill set than my own, I would have never learned aboutthe work that goes into producing a television broadcast.Secondly, choosing friends that are different has challenged me to reassess my own world-view. My best friend growing up in the United States was a recent immigrant from South Korea. His family was a traditional Korean family, espousing communal values over individualistic ones, and promoting tradition and respect before innovation. Being American, however, I was raised with an individualistic attitude toward most aspects of life. Rather than ask for help, I would often struggle to overcome the chal lenge myself. Spending time in my Korean friend’s home made me ponder the opposing world views of “communalism” and “individualism”. I eventually came to the conclusion that incorporating a bit of each perspective in my life would provide me with the greatest balance. However, without becoming friends with someone from a different culture and mindset, I would have never had to confront my own way of viewing the world, and I would be the poorer for it.In conclusion, I prefer choosing friends that are dissimilar from myself. Having such friends has allowed me to learn from the skills that they have that I do not share. In addition, choosing friends who are different from me has helped me realize that opposing approaches to viewing and interacting in the world can be blended into a harmonious, personal world view. Friends are vital to life. Having friends that are diverse is both a challenge and a joy, two factors that help provide a rich and rewarding life.托福范文分析：要不要进行太空探索Some people think governments should spend as much money as possible exploring outer space (for example, traveling to the Moon and other planets). Other people disagree ant think governments should spend this money for our basic needs onEarth. Which of these two opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.Even people born after 1968 can easily name the first man to land on the moon; we have all seen the black and white footage of Neil Armstrong in a space suit taking slow, bounding steps to plant an A merican flag on the moon’s surface. Now, forty years later, some might suggest that governments should continue exploring outer space, and should even devote a healthy amount of money from their budgets to this end. However, the needs of our world have changed, and we must prioritize our spending accordingly and allocate our financial resources to helping the Earth itself.When we consider the exploration of outer space that had its heyday in the 1950’s and 1960’s, we must also consider the political factors that were present here on Earth. During the Cold War, countries like the United States and the Soviet Union were interested in displaying their intellectual, scientific and financial resources, and outer space became the arena in which this took place. T he ‘‘Space Race’’ culminated in 1968 when the United States landed the first astronauts on the moon. Space exploration was of the extreme interest to ordinary citizens, but was connected to themes of national strength and patriotism.Now, as we consider whether to continue the exploration of outer space, our world is faced with a different set of circumstances. Governments are less preoccupied with their standing in the world, and more interested in the well-being of those who live in it. The greatest threat to our well-being is our damaged environment, and this is a concern of the entire world. For example, pollution caused by factories in South America might contribute to rising water levels in Bangladesh. Spaceexploration would require a great outlay of money on equipment, personnel and fuel; instead we must allot our financial resources toward cooperating with other countries to improve the environment and help make life more bearable for our fellow citizens on earth.In summary, those who were alive during the Age of Exploration of the 1950’s and 1960’s can remember the excitement of that era; the scientific findings of those missions to outer space have provided precious insights into the universe beyond Earth. However, one of the goals of governments pursuing space exploration was to provide a show of strength for their countries. Now, the best way a government can show its strength is to show that it cares for its fellow citizens around the world.托福范文分析：要不要做喜欢做的事Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? People should sometimes do things that they do not enjoy doing. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.It is only natural that we do things that we enjoy doing. However, doing things that we hate to do is a basic component of life. I agree that people occasionally have to do things that they dislike doing. There are a great number of things that we should do but hate to do. Moreover, by doing things we hate to do first, sometimes we learn to like them.In their personal lives, people sometimes have to accomplish tasks that they dislike doing. Who enjoys visiting a doctor, for example? We do this, however, because it is essential to taking care of our health. I do not know many people who enjoy doing household chores. But we do them because we need to maintain an orderly family life.In their professional lives, people occasionally have to finish tasks that are not fun, but that are essential components of their jobs. Few people like to work with someone who no one else likes. But if the person is a representative of our business partner, we may have to work with the person. If we are teachers, we may sometimes have to discipline students in class, for example. by asking them to turn off their cellular phones and publishing some policy regarding similar behavior. Teachers may feel reluctant to do so, but this is part of their professional responsibilities.Moreover, sometimes something that we hate to do turns into something enjoyable. Just by trying it, we may begin to enjoy doing it. For example, students may dislike learning some subjects at first. They have to learn them in order to graduate. Yet, somehow, they begin to enjoy learning them after some time. This also applies to other situations where people try new things.Not everything in life in life is enjoyable. Unpleasant tasks are an essential component of life. We do not enjoy them, but we accomplish them anyway. Unexpectedly, we sometimes lead to enjoyment.托福范文分析：应该接受家人还是政府的帮助2016年托福写作真题题目：2016年11月13日托福独立写作真题：A/D: People can solve important problems in their daily life on their own or with the help from families; The help from the government is not necessary.题目解析题目大意：人们可以自己或通过家人的帮助来解决生活中的重大问题，所以政府的帮助是没有必要的。
托福写作高分满分范文
为了让大家更好的准备托福考试，小编给大家整理了托福考试满分范文,下面小编就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。
托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：好学生才能接受高等教育?Should higher education be available to all students or only to good students?Some people believe that a college or university education should be available to all students. Others believe that higher education should be available only to good students. Discuss these views. Which view do you agree with? Explain why.写作思路展开结构分析两个观点都有些极端。
所以，大家应该先分析，再选择自己的立场。
义务教育制度(institution of compulsory education )说明社会已经认识到基础教育(fundamental education) 对所有的人都是必需的。
但是大学教育是不是所有人都需要的?这个社会很多职业(比如，饮食业)不需要大学教育。
让所有的人都上大学，是不是成为过分的财政负担(financial burden of the government)?用什么样的方法确定一个学生good enough so as to deserve higher education? 考试?考试制度也有缺陷。
可能选择的立场比如：我们国家目前是需要更多的人接受大学教育。
与此同时，一方面要保障大学教育的质量，另一方面，要改革考试制度，保障考生的公平机会。
本话题高分范文赏析Some people believe that only good students should have access to a university education. Others posit that higher education should be open to everyone, regardless of their academic abilities. I agree with the former opinion. Universities should only allow good students into their programs because these students value the importance of a good education and are interested in furthering their education. Furthermore, if all students were allowed into universities, the schools would quickly become saturated, and the quality of education received would diminish. A university education is very important to a good student. This type of student has set his/her sights on a university education from early on, and has put in the necessary work to earn a place in a good university. Poor students who did not try to achieve good grades in high school obviously do not care about their education, and therefore, do not deserve to go to university. However, if these poor students go back to school and improve their grades, they should also be allowed to go to university. Good students are very interested in furthering their education. They have put copious amounts of work into their education, and are interestedin learning more. Poor students are usually not as interested in furthering their education. If they were interested in this, they would have tried harder to begin with. With that said, let us suppose for a moment that universities did allow all students, regardless of their grades, into university. The school would quickly become overfull, and good students, who really care about their education, would suffer because of it. They might not be able to get into the classes they want, and if they do get in, there might be so many students in the class that it is impossible to learn. In conclusion, I think that it is important to save a university education for those who really want it—good students. If a poor student wishes to go to university, then he/she will have to return to high school and improve his/her grades.托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：儿童是否应该早上学?托福写作难点话题一览Should young children spend most of their time on school studies or playing?Some people think that children should begin their formal education at a very early age and should spend most of their time on school studies. Others believe that young children should spend most of their time playing. Compare these two views. Which view do you agree with? Why?两种观点都有些极端。
托福考试作文语法分析
托福考试作文语法分析2023年托福考试作文语法分析汇总在日复一日的学习、工作或生活中，大家都跟作文打过交道吧，作文是通过文字来表达一个主题意义的记叙方法。
写起作文来就毫无头绪？下面是店铺精心整理的2023年托福考试作文语法分析汇总，仅供参考，欢迎大家阅读。
1.托福独立写作语法错误汇总：非谓语动词使用不当原：Comparing with the money people earns， the sense of achievement is more important.改：Compared with the money people earns， the sense of achievement is more important.评：此处是动词compare的现在分词和过去分词使用混淆了。
在英语中，动词的现在分词往往表示的是主动的意思，过去分词则表示被动的含义。
原句想表达的是“将成就感与钱相比”，“把…与…相比”是明显的被动含义，因此应该使用compared.2. 托福独立写作语法错误汇总：时态混乱原：Although I have no work experience when I was a teenager， I always dreamed about having a job.改：Although I had no work experience when I was a teenager， I always dreamed about having a job.评：虽然托福写作以议论文为主，为了表示客观性，基本上使用的都是现在时态，但是在举例的时候还是会涉及到一些过去时态，例如上面的句子，切记：主从句时态要保持一致。
3. 托福独立写作语法错误汇总：表述累赘原：Internet plays an important and indispensible role in peoples life today.改：Internet plays an indispensible role in peoples life today.评：这个句子一看就知道是作者为了使用高级词汇而犯下的错误。
托福备考之独立写作观点分析及范文
托福备考之独立写作观点分析及范文托福备考之独立写作观点分析及范文Should young children spend most of their time on school studies orplaying?Some people think that children should begin their formal education at a very early age and shouldspend most of their time on school studies. Others believe that young children should spend most oftheir time playing. Compare these two views. Which view do you agree with? Why?『分析』两种观点都有些极端。
先比较两种观点，然后选择一个折衷的立场。
早上学的好处和坏处：好处是很多提前上学的孩子显得聪明，对付学习显得游刃有余(be more than equalto a task; accomplish a task with ease)。
完成formal education的时候比别人年轻，有更多的选择余地。
坏处是，经常挨欺负(be bullied; be treated rough)。
早熟(precocious)，可能会有副作用(negativeeffects)。
晚上学的好处和坏处：实际上并不吃亏;学习好坏不见得一定跟上学早晚有必然的联系(positiveconnection)。
坏处是，家长如果引导不好，不利于智力发育(development of child's intelligence)。
立场：不见得一定要尽早上学;孩子确实应该多花一些时间去玩。
但是应该正确引导，因为玩也分为好多种，玩棋牌游戏显然比玩泥巴(play with mud)要有益得多。
托福写作范文点评和思路解析
作为托福考试中最为重要的一门科目，写作在很大程度上决定了考生的总分数。
对于考生来说，掌握如何在考场上写出一篇优秀的作文，是非常关键的。
本文将通过对托福写作满分范文的点评和思路解析，向考生们展示如何在考场上写出一篇满分作文。
我们来看一篇托福写作满分范文：Topic: Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: In order to improve your overall health, youshould take a break and go on a vacation every year.Essay：There is no doubt that work and study are important for our lives. However, with the rapid development of the society, people are paying more and more attention to their health. Many people hold the opinion that taking a break and going on a vacation every year is a good way to improve overall health.I agree with this point of view for reasons as follows.To begin with, going on a vacation provides people withan opportunity to relieve stress. As we all know, stress is one of the most common problems that people face in theirdaily lives. People may encounter different levels of stressdue to various reasons, such as work overload, interpersonal conflicts, or family issues. Therefore, taking a break and going on a vacation every year could help people reduce their stress levels and recover their energy. They can spend more time in nature, breathe fresh air, and enjoy some new experiences. All these activities will make them feel relaxed and refreshed, which is good for their health.In addition, going on a vacation can increase people’s physical activity level. When people are on vacation, they tend to engage in more physical activities than they do in their daily lives. They may enjoy hiking, swimming, skiing,or just walking around the new places they visit. These activities not only provide people with the opportunity to exercise, but also allow them to explore the new environment and understand the local culture. Furthermore, they can meet new people and make new friends during the vacation, which is good for their social life.Finally, going on a vacation can improve people’s mental health as well. Research has shown that taking a break and going on a vacation can help people reduce the risk of depression and anxiety. By getting away from the routine of daily life, people can focus more on their own experience andfeelings. They can also spend more time with their family and friends, which is good for their emotional life. Moreover, they can learn new things and enrich their knowledge during the vacation, which is beneficial to their mental health.In conclusion, I believe that taking a break and going on a vacation every year is a good way to improve overall health of people. It can relieve stress, increase physical activity level, and improve mental well-being of people. Therefore, I would strongly recommend everyone to take a break and go on a vacation every year.点评：本文开头引入话题，明确表明自己对于“每年休假可以提高整体健康水平”这一观点的支持；接着从三个方面阐述了自己的论点，分别是：1）休假能缓解人们的压力；2）休假可以提高人们的身体活动水平； 3）休假对人们的精神健康也有益处。
托福模拟考试写作-概述说明以及解释
托福模拟考试写作-概述说明以及解释1.引言1.1 概述概述部分是文章引言的一部分，用于对即将讨论的主题进行简要介绍和概括。
在本文的概述部分，我们将对托福模拟考试写作进行概述。
托福（Test of English as a Foreign Language）是一个广泛接受的英语语言考试，用于评估非英语为母语的人士的英语水平。
这是一个国际化的考试，每年有成千上万的人参加。
托福考试的写作部分是其中一个重要组成部分，对考生的写作能力和逻辑思维进行考察。
在托福模拟考试写作中，考生需要根据所给的题目，展开逻辑思维，组织论点，并用恰当的语言表达自己的观点。
写作过程中，考生要注意清晰的论述结构、准确的用词和表达，以及恰当的语法和拼写。
因此，托福模拟考试写作不仅考察了考生的英语水平，也考察了考生的思辨能力和表达能力。
通过托福模拟考试写作，考生可以提前了解考试的形式和要求，熟悉各种常见的考题类型，并且通过练习，逐渐改善写作技巧和提高表达能力。
因此，托福模拟考试写作对于准备参加正式考试的考生来说，具有重要的意义和参考价值。
在接下来的文章部分，我们将对托福模拟考试写作的要点进行详细探讨，并总结对于参加模拟考试以及正式考试的考生来说，它们的重要性和启示。
同时，我们也将提出需要进一步研究的方向，以不断完善和优化托福模拟考试写作的教学方法和评估体系。
综上所述，托福模拟考试写作是一项重要的英语考试内容，它可以帮助考生提前准备和适应考试的要求，并为他们的正式考试打下坚实的基础。
在下文中，我们将深入探讨托福模拟考试写作的要点和重要性，希望读者能够从中获得启发和帮助。
1.2 文章结构2. 正文2.1 要点1: 托福模拟考试的意义在进行托福模拟考试写作之前，我们需要明确模拟考试的意义所在。
托福模拟考试可以帮助我们熟悉真实的考试环境和要求，提前感受考试压力，从而更好地应对真实考试。
它是一种训练和准备工具，使我们能够熟悉托福写作题型、提高写作技巧和书写效率。
新托福TPO3综合写作详细解析：伦勃朗
阅读材料： Rembrandt is the most famous of the seventeenth-century Dutch painters. However, there are doubts whether some paintings attributed to Rembrandt were actually painted by him. One such painting is known as attributed to Rembrandt because of its style, and indeed the representation of the woman’s face is very much like that of portraits known to be by Rembrandt. But there are problems with the painting that suggest it could not be a work by Rembrandt. 伦勃朗是⼗七世纪荷兰最富盛名的画家。
然后，对于有些画作是否确实出⾃他⼿却是颇有争议的。
有⼀副有争议的画归于伦勃朗名下是因为其风格属于伦勃朗，同时画上⼥⼦的⾯庞也同伦勃朗其他画作中的⼈物⾮常类似的。
然⽽，这幅画中存在的⼀些问题却表明这幅画不是伦勃朗的作品。
First, there is something inconsistent about the way the woman in the portrait is dressed. She is wearing a white linen cap of a kind that only servants would wear-yet the coat she is wearing has a luxurious fur collar that no servant could afford. Rembrandt, who was known for his attention to the details of his subjects’ clothing, would not have been guilty of such an inconsistency. ⾸先，这幅画上的⼀个问题就是画中⼥⼦的⾐着有些不协调。
托福考试写作专项历年真题2024
托福考试写作专项历年真题2024托福考试是世界各地许多学生申请海外大学的必备考试之一。
写作部分是托福考试的重要组成部分，考察考生的逻辑思维能力、语言表达能力以及写作结构能力。
下面将针对2024年的托福考试写作真题进行分析和解答。
1. 第一篇文章2024年托福考试写作真题的第一篇文章是关于人工智能对社会和工作的影响。
文章认为人工智能的发展将会带来工作机会的减少和不公平的分配问题。
然而，文章也指出人工智能的发展将带来效率的提高和创造更多新兴行业。
针对这篇文章，我们需要分析其观点，并进行适当的回应。
首先，可以在第一段简要概括文章内容。
然后，在接下来的段落中，可以对人工智能对工作机会的减少和不公平分配进行讨论，并提出自己的观点和论证。
最后，可以谈论人工智能对效率提高和新兴行业的积极影响，并进一步加以证明。
2. 第二篇文章托福考试写作2024年真题的第二篇文章是关于学生是否应该兼职工作的问题。
文章认为学生应该专注于学业，不应分散精力去兼职工作。
然而，文章也提到兼职工作可以培养学生的社会经验和实际能力。
对于这篇文章，我们需要对其观点进行分析。
首先，可以在第一段陈述文章的内容和观点。
接下来的段落中，可以对学生兼职工作对学生学业的影响进行讨论，并提出自己的观点和理由。
最后，可以讨论兼职工作对学生社会经验和实际能力的益处，并进一步说明。
3. 第三篇文章托福考试写作2024年真题的第三篇文章是关于环保问题的。
文章提出环保是全球性的重要议题，应该得到更多的关注和行动。
文章还指出环保问题的解决需要国际合作和政府领导。
对于这篇文章，我们需要对其观点进行分析并回应。
首先，可在第一段简要概括文章内容和观点。
接下来的段落中，可以探讨环保问题的重要性，并提出自己对于环保的看法和解决方案。
最后，可以谈论国际合作和政府领导的重要性，并给出相应的论据。
4. 第四篇文章托福考试写作2024年真题的第四篇文章是关于城市化对农村地区的影响。
托福学术讨论写作2023考情总结
托福学术讨论写作2023考情总结全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：托福学术讨论写作考试是托福考试中的一个重要部分，考生需要在规定的时间内阅读一段文字，然后听取一个相关问题，并用自己的观点作出写作回答。
通过这项考试，考官可以评估考生的阅读、听力、写作等多方面能力，以此来评判考生的语言水平和逻辑思维能力。
2023年的托福学术讨论写作考试也有一些变化和趋势，下面我们就来总结一下。
2023年的托福学术讨论写作题目更加贴近现实生活和社会热点。
在过去的考试中，题目往往涉及学术领域的议题，考生需要通过阅读一些专业性的文章来进行写作回答。
而在2023年的考试中，很多题目会更多地关注一些与日常生活相关的问题，比如环境保护、教育改革、科技发展等。
这意味着考生需要对社会现象和问题有更加深刻的理解，同时也需要具备更好的逻辑分析和写作能力。
2023年的托福写作考试更加注重考生的批判性思维和论证能力。
在过去的考试中，考生通常需要简单的描述问题和自己的观点，缺乏深度和逻辑性。
而在2023年的考试中，考官更倾向于看到考生对问题进行深入思考，能够全面分析问题、提出解决方案并做出合理论证。
考生需要在写作前认真分析题目，明确自己的立场，并通过有力的论据和案例来支持自己的观点。
2023年的托福写作考试更注重考生的语言表达和逻辑结构。
在写作过程中，考生需要用准确、丰富的词汇和句式来表达自己的观点，同时要保持逻辑清晰、结构严谨。
对于非英语母语的考生来说，这也是一个挑战，需要多加练习和提高。
建议考生多做练习，提高自己的写作水平和能力。
2023年的托福学术讨论写作考试具有更高的挑战性和要求，考生需要具备更为综合的语言能力和逻辑思维能力。
通过认真准备和练习，相信每位考生都能在考试中取得不错的成绩。
祝愿大家都能在托福考试中取得理想的成绩，实现自己的留学梦想！第二篇示例：2023年的托福学术讨论写作考情总结如下：一、考试内容及形式：1. 题目涵盖面广：考题内容包括教育、科技、文化、历史、社会等各个领域，题目涵盖面较广，考生需具备广泛的知识储备。
托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析汇总
托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析汇总为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理了托福考试满分范文,下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：读写力量在现代社会的重要性托福写作难点话题一览Is literacy more important today than in the past?Is the ability to read and write more important today than in the past? Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.写作思路绽开结构分析肯定程度上，同意这个说法。
(In a sense, it is true that…)阅读并理解(Comprehend)的力量，在信息过度丰富的今日，更加重要。
现代人的阅读量要比过去高出很多倍(过去高校生就是很高的学历，现在博士后[postdoctoral]才算是高学历)。
需要更多的力量去辨别真伪。
写作的力量更是如此，比如在工作中，写报告是一项重要内容，公司的规模越大，越是如此。
没有写作力量，就等于没有升迁机会。
本话题高分范文赏析As the world becomes smaller and smaller due to the process of globalization, it becomes more and more important that everyone learnshow to read and write. If one is to keep up with the fast pace of the world, literacy skills are of utmost importance.Technology is expanding at an ever-increasing rate. Computers, and the Internet, have become common terms in almost all nations in the world. If one wants to be able to communicate with others using this efficient method, one must learn the basics of reading and writing. The objects we have in our home are also becoming increasingly more complicated. For example, if one wants to use a DVD player with their television, one must be able to read the manual to learn how to work it. Even the most basic technologies come with an instruction guide: if one is unable to read, they will constantly be struggling to figure out how to work these technologies.As mentioned above, the world is becoming much smaller. More people are finding it necessary to leave their homes in small towns and villages, moving to the big cities where there is more opportunity. Some of these people find it quite difficult to navigate around the city, as one must know how to read in order to understand the street signs. If one cannot find the place where one has to report for work, it would be very difficult to make a living.Finally and perhaps most importantly, being able to read and write gives us the opportunity to think for ourselves. Wherever we are, people in authority positions tell us what we should believe. However, in manycases, it is not in our own best interest to follow the leaders ideas. People must learn to read and then examine the information for themselves. This is the only way that culture can evolve. Therefore, I think the skills of reading and writing are of vast importance, no matter where one lives in the world. The world population will continue to grow, and the only way to keep ahead is to learn to read and write.托福写作高分满分范文点评和思路解析：介绍代表国家的象征托福写作难点话题一览The thing representing your countryIf you were asked to send one thing representing your country to an international exhibition, what would you choose? Why? Use specific reasons and details to explain your choice.写作思路绽开结构分析这道题目自由度很高，对中国考生来说应当也很简单想到各种代表性的事物，比如中国特产的吉利物大熊猫，或者中国瓷器，这些都是对老外来说也特别具有中国特色，耳熟能详的事物。
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托福写作考试分析
王维瓒
任何一种正规的考试都有一定的语言学理论和教学法理论作为指导。
早期托福以一种被称为离散项目测试（the discrete-point approach）的语言测试模式为基础。
该模式认为语言由不同的独立成分构成，通过测试语言知识的各个独立成分，就可以推断出一个考生的语言水平。
例如，通过测试考生对词汇意义的掌握，就可预测他的阅读理解能力；通过测试考生对句子结构的掌握情况，就可以判断他的写作能力。
实践证明，以这种模式为指导的旧托福考试存在着很大的弊端，它强调了对语言知识的掌握，却忽略了对使用语言进行交际的掌握。
其实，有相当一部分学生取得了相对较高的托福分数，但却不能说一口流畅地道的英文口语；有的学生能听懂录音绷里灌制的、没有任何干扰的英文，但到国外后却听不懂老师的讲课；还有一些考生记忆了大量的词汇，并通过做大量选择题的题海战术，非常熟练地掌握了句子结构方面的知识，但却很难写出一篇语言通顺、内容连贯、结构合理的作文。
这些所谓“哑巴英语”、“聋子英语”的事例在北美的中国留学生中比比皆是。
由于以上种种问题，ETS 才对旧托福大动手术，采用新的理论为指导，设计新的网考形式，应用新的评分标准。
和托福其他部分一样，托福写作题设计的理论基础仍然是交际语言教学法(Communicative Language Teaching) 或称交际法(Communicative Approach) 和自然法(The Natural Approach)。
应试者对这些教学理论以及由此产生的题目设计的指导思想和原则进行一些初步的了解，有助于领会测试的目的和要求，有的放矢地进行复习。
一、托福写作设计的理论基础：交际语言测试理论
从上世纪60 年代开始，语言学家纷纷加入到对交际性测试理论（简称CT 理论）的研究中
来，并且取得了一系列斐然的成绩。
最具有突出贡献的是Bachman, 他提出了全新的语言交际能力(communicative language ability：CLA) 模式。
根据其[1] 观点，在设计和开发一项语言测试时，最核心的因素就是该测试的实用性，测试的实用性中又强调其可靠性(reliability)。
Brown[2] 把可靠性归为四种类型：与学生相关的可靠性(student-related reliability)，评分者的可靠性(rater reliability)，测试管理的可靠性(test administration reliability) 和测试的可靠性(test reliability)。
二、托福写作测试的可靠性分析
1. 试题的可靠性
写作测试的可靠性首先是试题本身的可靠性。
托福写作测试委员会细致的编写每个题目，每一道题目都是在专家基于“学术英语写作影响因素的基础上”精心设计的[3](p45)。
每一位考生在题目的处理上更擅长应对自己比较熟悉，且接近学习生活的题目。
如，托福独立写作试题的题目可能是：“选课挑难的，即使分数再高也在所不惜”。
亦或者题目是：“选课是根据个人爱好还是将来工作和职业的需要？”这两个题目都涉及到学生最基本的生活层面：选课，分数，工作。
所以，学生在处理类似题目的时候还是会得心应手的。
而托福的题目设计者也是在充分参考了北美高校的英语教学环境之后才设计出这些题目，从而保证了试题内容的确定性，进而提高了测试的一致性和可靠性。
2. 测试管理的可靠性
Brown[2] 指出，测试管理的可靠性是依赖于各测试管理中的相同环境，包括噪音﹑温度和光线等条件。
托福的写作测试是一个具有高风险性的测试，引自ETS 官方的说法[4]：因为托福考试的测验者会在不同的地点参加不同形式的托福考试，所以必须保证考试条件得到有力的监管，评分者和测试任务保持步调一致。
而为保持这种一致性，ETS 承诺所有的测试
中心都配备符合统一标准的软件和硬件，充分保证每位测试者都能在相同的条件下参加考试。
此外，ETS 还给测试者提供网上的考试练习和详细的考试流程介绍，其中包括题型顺序，考试时长和考试界面的操作方法等。
但实际情况是，该管理过程存在很多问题：测试者答题的不同步性，隔音措施的疏忽都造成了对考生的影响。
比如，有的被测试者才刚刚完成阅读部分的时候可能就已经能抢先听到旁边被测试者做口语测试的题目了。
再如，在两间大小相似的考场，台北的一个考场只有6 名被测试者，而在加州洛杉矶的一个考场却挤满了24 名被测试者。
测试环境的差别从客观上不可避免地影响测试管理的可靠性。
3. 评分者的可靠性
在2010 年1 月份以前，每篇作文由两名训练有素的专业评分人员根据评分标准分别进行全面评判（以整数1 分为基准单位，划分0-5 分区间），而后计算被测试者最终得分。
评分人员必须持有相关资历证明才能参加评分，而且评分的过程也受到ETS 的监控管理[4]。
在2010 年1 月之后，ETS 对托福写作部分的评分出现了重大的调整，取2 个人和2 个e-Rater 的算术平均分作为原始分。
电脑评分和人工评分两者各有利弊。
Attali[5] 指出，用电脑评分系统评分，在语法﹑词汇和结构上带来更高可靠性，但电脑评分系统并不能去衡量一篇文章的内容。
当其间接地发现作文里面的拼写，逻辑和语法错误，如常见的过渡词出现了拼写错误，电脑评分就会识别出来并且默认为无效，从而大大削弱了被测试者的作文质量，毕竟过渡词和逻辑结构词能够有效地反映被测试者的作文逻辑和思路。
而且对于被测试者在作文中体现出来的自我风格和个性，如文章字句的幽默诙谐，电脑评分也是无力识别的。
综合一机一人的联合型评分手段，托福考试更能够为满足其评分标准设置中允许在满足交际技能需要的前提下，考生偶尔犯语言要素方面的错误。
4. 与学生相关的可靠性
托福写作部分里与学生相关的可靠性还是比较高的。
Zhang[6] (2008）关于托福“重复测试者”的研究实验中，对120 多名重复测试者做了跟踪测试，这120 名被测试者在一个月里面参加了两次托福测试，而两次测试中间他们并没有接受任何高强度的针对性的训练。
实验的结果表明这两次托福成绩的差别非常小，实验从客观上说明被测试者在很短的时间内连续两次托福测试的分数是很接近且很类似的，这种相似性具有很强的一致性和同一性。
三、结论
根据ETS 的数据统计，托福考试写作部分的可靠性要低于听力﹑阅读和口语部分。
造成该结果的重要因素是写作部分仅有两个任务的局限性。
ETS[4] 所给出的解释是“这种比较花时间的写作任务确实没那些花时间少一些的其他任务可靠性高”。
Bachman[1] 也指出“那些只关注语言能力的个别方面的测试往往能获得更高的可靠性”。
托福写作部分是听力﹑阅读和写作三者的融合，同时也是对于词汇﹑语法﹑篇章和句法等综合能力的考量，因此其可靠性就相对低一些。
而且，写作部分的独立写作试题需要被测试者结合自己的个人经历和知识背景，所以被测试者的发挥容易受到题目的限制。
托福考试主要还是用于学校录取时看重的一个参考因素，因此，整体的分数才是最重要的标准，即使写作部分的可靠性比较低，只要测试的整体可靠性高，这个测试结果还是能比较客观的地反映被测试者的语言水平的。
参考文献：
[1] Bachman,L.F.Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press.1990.
[2] Brown,H. nguageAssessment:Principles and Classroom Practices[M].Pearson Education;NY.2004.
[3] 梁隽，托福写作测试的有效性[J]. 考试周刊，2008（45）
[4] Educational Testing Service.Reliability and Comparability of TOEFL IBT Scores.[C] Princeton,NJ.2008
[5] Attali,Y.Construct Validity of erater in Scoring TOEFL Essays (ETS Research Memorandum No.RR -07 -21).Educa. [C] tional Testing Service,Princeton,NJ.2007
[6] Zhang,Yanling.Repeater analyses for TOEFL IBT (ETS Research Memorandum)。