道路毕业设计 中英文翻译
毕业设计中英文翻译
英文The road (highway)The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel. It is made of the roadbed, the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility.The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder, side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture. The road surface require being smooth, having enough intensity, good stability and anti-slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic.The route marking is one kind of traffic safety facility painted by oil paint or made by the concrete and tiles on high-level, less high-type surface. Its function is coordinating the sign to make the effective control to the transportation, directing the vehicles skip road travel, serving unimpeded and the safe purpose. Our country’s road route marking has the lane median line, the traffic lane boundary, the curb line, the parking line, the conduction current belt, the pedestrian crossing line, the four corners center circle, the parking azimuth line. The route marking has the continual solid line, the broken line and the arrow indicator and its color uses the white or the yellow.The arch of bridge is the structure which strides over rivers, mountain valley and channel. It is made generally by steel rod, concrete and stone.The tunnel is the cave which connects both sides of the road. The technique of this construction is very complex, the cost of the projects is higher than common road .However, it reduces the driving distance between two places, enhances the grade of the technical in building the road and guarantees the cars can drive fast and safely, thus reduces the cost of transportation.The protective project is to protect and consolidate the roadbed in order that it can guarantee the intensity and the stability of the road, thus maintains the automobile to pass through safely.In order to guarantee that safe operation of the highway transportation, besides the highway engineering and the vehicles performance, it must have some traffic signal, route marking, each kind of director and demonstrate facility. The highway marking uses certain mark and draw symbol, simple words and number, then installs in the suitable place to indicate the front road's condition or the accident condition including the informational sign, the warning signal, the prohibitory sign, the road sign and so on.The road which Join city, village and industry, mainly are used for the automobile and has certain technical standard and the facility path can be called the highway. “The highway” in Chinese is the modern view, but it was not existed in old day. It gets the name from the meaning of being used for the public traffic. Where are the human, there are the road. It is a truth. However, the road is not the highway. If we talk the history about the road, the earliest highway is that built by the old Egyptians for making the pyramid. Next is the street which built by the Babylon people about 4000 years ago. All these are much earlier than our country.About 500 B.C., the Persian Empire road has linked up East and West, and connected the road to China. It is the earliest and longest Silk Road. 2500 years ago, it might be the greatestroad .The ancient Rome Empire’s road was once celebrated; it took Rome as the center, all around built 29 roads. Therefore it came out one common saying: every road leads to Rome.The road's construction is the process to enhance technique and renew the building materials. The earliest is the old road, it is easy to build but it is also to destroy. If there is too much water or cars, it will be uneven and even be destroyed. The macadam road appeared in the Europe which outbalanced the earliest mud road. Then the brick road appeared which was earlier than China. It was one great breach that we molded bitumen on the macadam road. From ancient times to the present, China has courier station and courier road, while the first more advance road was the one that from Long Zhou in Gang Xi to Zhen Nan Guan in 1906.The difference between Road and pathThe path is the project for each kind of vehicles and people to pass through. According to its function, we can divide it into the urban road, the road, the factories and mines path, the forest road and county road.The classification of roadFirst, according to administrative rank, it includes national highway, province road, county road and the special road. Generally the national highway and province road are named main line; the county road is named branch line.The national road is the main line and has political and economy significance, including the important national defense road and the road collecting our capital with other provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. It is also the road links the economy center, seaport hinge, factory and important strategic place. The highway striding over different provinces are built, protected and managed by the special organizations which are approved by the ministry of communications.The provincial road is the main line built, protected, managed by the road manage department .It is full of political and economic sense to the whole province.The single way four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium-duty truck volume of traffic 200.The county route is refers to has county-wide (county-level city) politics,the econom-icsignificance, connects in the county and the county the main township (town), the prin-cipal commodities production and the collection and distribution center road, as well as does not belong to the federal highway, provincial road's county border the road. The coun-ty route by the county, the city road Department responsible for the work is responsibleto construct, the maintenance and the management.The township road refers to mainly the road which for the township (town) the villa-geeconomy,the culture, the administration serves, as well as does not belong to above t-hecounty route between road's township and the township and the township and the exte-rior contact road. Township is responsible by the people's government to construct, the m-aintenance and the management.The special-purpose road is refers to feeds specially or mainly supplies the factories andmines,the forest region, the farm, the oil field, the tourist area, the military importantplace and so on and the external relations road. The special-purpose road is responsibleby the special-purpose unit to construct, the maintenance and the management. May also entrust the local road department to construct, the maintenance and the management.Second, according to the use duty, the function and adapts the volume of traffic division.According to our country present "Highway engineering Technical standard" the roadaccording to the use duty, the function and the adaptation volume of tra-fficdivides into highway,arterial road, second-class road, tertiary highway, four level of road five ranks: 1st, the highway to feed specially the automobile and should control the difference c-ompletely respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.The four traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.The six traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 45000~80000.The eight traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile r-educe passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 60000~100000.2nd, the arterial road to supply the automobile and may according to need to control the difference respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.The four traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobil reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 15000~30000.The six traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.3rd, the second-class road to supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.Can adapt each day and nights 3000~7500 medium-duty truck volume of traffic generally.4rd, tertiary highways to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.Can adapt each day and nights 1000~4000 medium-duty truck volume of traffic generally.The 5, four levels of roads to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane or the single-lane highway.The two-lane four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium-duty truck volume of traffic 1500.Highway engineering includes Highway planning location design and maintenance. Before the design and construction of a new highway or highway improvement can be undertaken there mint be general planing and consideration of financing As part of general planning it is decided what the traffic need of the rea will be for a considerable period, generally 20 years, and what construction will meet those needs. To assess traffic needs the highway engineer collects and analyzes information about the physical features of existing facilities, the volume, distribution, and character of present traffic, and the changes to be expected in these factor. The highway engineer must determine the most suitable location layout, and capacity of the new route and structures. Frequently, a preliminary line or location and several alternate routes are studied. The detailed design is normally begun only when the preferred location has been chosen.In selecting the best route, careful consideration is given to the traffic requirements terrain to be traversed value of land needed for the right-of-way. and estimated cost of construction for the various plans. The photogrammetric method, which makes use of aerial photographs is used extensively to indicate the character of the terrain on large projects where it is most economical. On small project,Financing considerations determine whether the project can be carried out t\t one time or whether construction must be in stages with each stage initiated as funds become available. In deciding the best method of financing the work, the engineer makes an analysis of whom it willbenefit. Important highways and streets benefit* in varying degrees, three groups* users owners of adjacent property and the general public.Users of improved highways benefit from decreased cost of transportation, greater travel comfort, increased safety and saving of time. They also obtain recreational and educational benefits. Owners of abutting or adjacent property may benefit from better access, increased property value, more effective police and fire protection, improved street parking greater pedestrian traffic safety, and the use of the street right-of-way for the location of public utilities such as water lines and sewers.Evaluation of various benefits from highway construction is often difficult but is a most important phase of highway engineering. Some benefits can be measured with accuracy, but the evaluation of others is more speculative. As a result numerous methods arc used to finance construction, and much engineering work may he involved in selecting the best procedure.Environmental evaluation. The environmental impact of constructing highways has received increased attention and importance. Many projects have been delayed and numerous others canceled because ot environmental problems. The environmental study or report covers many factors, including noise generation, air pollution disturbance of areas traversed destruction of existing housing and possible alternate routes.Highway engineers must also assist in the acquisition of right-of-way needed for new highway facilities Acquisition of the land required for construction of expressway lending into the central business areas of cities has proved extremely difficult i the public is demanding that traffic engineers work closely with c i t y planners, architects, sociologists and all groups interested in beautification and improvement of cities to assure that expressways extendinx through metropolitan areas be built only after coordinated evaluation of all major questions, including the following;(1) Is sufficient attention being paid -to beautification of the expressway itself? (2) Would a change in location preserve major natural beauties of the city? (3) Could a depressed design he logically substituted for those sections where an elevated expressway is proposed? (4) Can the general design he improved to reduce the noise created by large volumes of traffic? (5) Are some sections of the city being isolated by the proposed location?Detailed design. Detailed design of a highway project includes preparation of drawings or blueprints to be used for construction. These plans show, for example, the location, the dimensions of such elements as roudway width* the finaj pro (he road, the location and type of drainage facilities, and the quantities of work involved, including earthwork and surfacing.In planning the grading operations the design engineer considers the type of material to be encountered in excavating or in cutting away the high points along the project and how the rnaterial removed can best be utilised for fill or for constructing embankments across low areas elsewhere on the project. For this the engineer must analyze the gradation and physical properties of the soil, determine how the embankments can best be compacted, and calculate the volume of earthwork to be done. Electronic calculating procedures are now sometimes used for the last step. Electronic equipment has also speeded up many other highway engineering calculations. Powerful and highly mobile earth moving machines have been developed TO permit rapid and economical operations., Selection of the type and thickness of roudway surfacing to be constructed is an important part of design. The type chosen depends upon the maximum loads to be accommodated, thefrequency of these loads and other factors. For some mures, traffic volume may be so low that no surfacing is economically justified and natural soil serves as the roadway. As traffic increases, a surfacing of sandy cluy, crushed slag, crushed stone caliche crushed oyster shells, or a combination of these may be applied. If gravel is used, it usually contains sufficient clay and fine material to help stabilize the surfacing. Gravel surfaces may be further stubilized by application of calcium chloride, which also aids in controlling dust. Another surfacing is composed of Portland cement and water mixed iuto the upper few inches of the suhgrade and compacted with rollers. This procedure forms A soil-cement base that can be surfaced with bituminous materials. Roadways ro carry large volumes of heavy vehicles must be carefully designed and made of considerable thickness.Much of highway engineering is devoted to the planing and construction of facilities to drain the highway or street and lo carry streams across the highway right-of-way.Removal of surface water from the road or street is known a surface druiuage. It is accomplished by constructing the road so that it has a crown and by sloping the shoulders and adjacent areas so as to control the flow of water either toward existing natural drainage, such as open ditches, or into a storm drainage system of calehbasins and underground pipes. If a storm drainage system is used, as it would be with city streets, the design engineer must give consideration to the rntal area draining onto the street, the maximum rate of runoff expected, the duration of the design storm, the amount of ponding allowable at each carchbasin, and the proposed spacing of the catchbasins along the street. From this information the desired capacity of the individual eatehbaxin and the size of the underground piping network urc calculated. In designing facilities to carry streams under the highway the engineer must determine the area to be drained the maximum probable precipitation over the drainage basin, the highest expected runoff rare.and then, using (hit information, must calculate the required capacity of llit: drainage structure. Generally designs are made adequate to accommodate not only the largest flow ever recorded for that location but the greatest discharge that might be expected under the most adverse conditions for a given number of years.Factor considered in calculating the expected flow through a culvert opening include size, length, and shape of the opening, roughness of the walls, shape of t h e entrance and downstream end of the conduit, maximum allowable height of water at the entrance, and water level at the outletMuch engineering und construction work has been done to provide rest stops along major expressway routes t especially the national system of interstate highways. These facilities must be carefully located to permit easy and safe exit and return access to the highway. Many units have been built ^ scenic locations in forested areas to permit picnic grounds and walkways through the forest. These rest areas are especially beneficial to tho«e drivers traveling long distances with few stops.. The control and reduction of noise along busy routes, especially expressways, has become an important part of highway engineering. In many communities high walls have been huilt along either side of the expressway. Such walls can he costly to construct, hut can prove very beneficial, barriers can reduce overall noise levels by over 50%.Construction operations. Although much engineering and planing must be done preliminary to it, the actual construction is normally the costliest part of making highway uud street improvements.Willi t h e award of a construction contract following the preparation of the detailed plans and specifications t engineers go onto the ftite and lay out the project. As part of this staking out. limits of earthwork are shown, location of drainage structures indicated, and profiles established.Heavy rollers are used to compact the soil or subgrade below the roadway in order to eliminate later settlement. Pneumatic tired rollers and sheepsfoot rollers (steel cylinders equipped with numerous short steel teeth or feet J are often employed for this operation. Vibratory rollers have been developed and used on some projects in recent years. One type vibrates up to 3400 times/min, compacting the underlying material to an appreciable depth.Maintenance and operation. Highway maintenance consists of the repair and upkeep of surfacing and shoulders, bridges and drainage facilities? signs, traffic control devices, guard rails, traffic striping on the pavement, retaining walls, and side slopes. Additional operations include ice control und snow removal, because it is valuable to know why some highway designs give better performance and prove less costly to maintain than others, engineers supervising maintenance can offer valuable guidance to design engineers. Consequently, maintenance and operation arc important parts of highway engineering.中文公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体。
道路与桥梁专业外文翻译、中英对照
本科毕业设计（论文）专业外文翻译专业名称:土木工程专业（道路与桥梁）年级班级:道桥08-5班学生姓名:指导教师:二○一二年五月十八日Geometric Design of Highwayse.fo.travel.I.i.mad.o.th.roadbed.th.roa.surfac e.th.bridge.th.culver.an.th.tunnel.I.addition.i.als.ha.th.crossin.o.lines.th.protectiv.proje c.an.th.traffi.engineerin.an.th.rout.facility.Th.roadbe.i.th.bas.o.roa.surface.roa.shoulder.sid.slope.sid.ditc.foundations.I.i.sto n.materia.structure.whic.i.designe.accordin.t.route'.plan.positio..Th.roadbed.a.th.bas.o. travel.mus.guarante.tha.i.ha.th.enoug.intensit.an.th.stabilit.tha.ca.preven.th.wate.an.ot he.natura.disaste.fro.corroding.ple.structur.buil.wit.mixture.Th.roa .surfac.requir.bein.smooth.havin.enoug.intensity.goo.stabilit.an.anti-slipper.function.T for.an.th.traffic.Highwa.geometr.design.t.conside.Highwa.Horizonta.Alignment.Vertica.Alignme positio.o.coordination.bu.als.pa.attentio.t.th.sm oot.flo.o.th.lin.o.sight.etc.Determin.th.roa.geometry.conside.th.topography.surfac.feat .o.th.highwa.geom bination.1.Alignment 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fac.bu.sufficientl.abov.i.t.allo.surfac.drainag.and.wher.necessary.t.permi.th.win.t.clea.d riftin.snow.Wher.th.roa.approache.o.follow.alon.streams.th.heigh.o.th.grad.lin.ma.b.di ctate.b.th.expecte.leve.o.floo.water.Unde.al.conditions.smooth.flowin.grad.line.ar.pref erabl.t.chopp.one.o.man.shor.straigh.section.connecte.wit.shor.vertica.curves.Change.o.grad.fro.plu.t.minu.shoul.b.place.i.cuts.an.change.fro..minu.grad.t..plu. grad.shoul.b.place.i.fills.Thi.wil.generall.giv..goo.design.an.man.time.i.wil.avoi.th.appn d.Othe.consideration.fo.determinin.th.grad.lin.ma.b.o.mor.importanc.tha.th.balancin.o. cut.an.fills.uall.requir..mor.detaile.stud.o.th.control.an.fine.adjustmen.o.elev ation.tha.d.rura.projects.I.i.ofte.bes.t.adjus.th.grad.t.mee.existin.condition.becaus.o.th. additiona.expens.o.doin.otherwise.I.th.analysi.o.grad.an.grad.control.on.o.th.mos.importan.consideration.i.th.effec. o.grade.o.th.operatin.cost.o.th.moto.vehicle.A.increas.i.gasolin.consumptio.an..reducti 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ightenin.th.grad.nea.th.to.o.th.ascent.Dip.i.th.profil.grad.i.whic.vehicle.ma.b.hidde.fro. vie.shoul.als.b.avoided.Maximu.grad.fo.highwa.i..percent.Standard.settin.minimu.gra de.ar.o.importanc.onl.whe.surfac.drainag.i..proble.a.whe.wate.mus.b.carrie.awa.i..gutte.o.roadsid.ditch.I.suc.instance.th.AASHT.suggest..minimu.o.0.35%.3.Sigh.DistanceFo.saf.vehicl.operation.highwa.mus.b.designe.t.giv.driver..sufficien.distanc.o.clea. versio.ahea.s.tha.the.ca.avoi.unexpecte.obstacle.an.ca.pas.slowe.vehicle.withou.danger .Sigh.distanc.i.th.lengt.o.highwa.visibl.ahea.t.th.drive.o..vehicle.Th.concep.o.saf.sigh. distanc.ha.tw.facets.“stopping.(o.“n.passing”.an.“passing”.rg.object.ma.dro.int..roadwa.an.wil.d.seriou.damag.t..moto.vehicl.tha.strn.i.th.pat.o.followin.vehicles.I.dit he.instance.prope.desig.require.tha.suc.hazard.becom.visibl.a.distance.grea.enoug.tha. driver.ca.sto.befor.hittin.them.Furthe.more.i.i.unsaf.t.assum.tha.on.oncomin.vehicl.ma. n.i.whic.i.i.traveling.fo.thi.migh.resul.i.los.o.contro.o.collisio. wit.anothe.vehicle.Stoppin.sigh.distanc.i.mad.u.o.tw.elements.Th.firs.i.th.distanc.travele.afte.th.obstr e.int.vie.bu.befor.th.drive.applie.hi.brakes.Durin.thi.perio.o.perceptio.an.rea ction.th.vehicl.travel.a.it.initia.velocity.Th.secon.distanc.i.consume.whil.th.drive.brake .th.vehicl.t..stop.Th.firs.o.thes.tw.distance.i.dependen.o.th.spee.o.th.vehicl.an.th.perce ptio.tim.an.brake-reactio.tim.o.th.operator.Th.secon.distanc.depend.o.th.spee.o.th.vehi cle.th.conditio.o.brakes.times.an.roadwa.surface.an.th.alignmen.an.grad.o.th.highway.O.two-lan.highways.opportunit.t.pas.slow-movin.vehicle.mus.b.provide.a.interval s.Otherwis.capacit.decrease.an.accident.increas.a.impatien.driver.ris.head-o.collision.b .passin.whe.i.i.unsaf.t.d.so.Th.minimu.distanc.ahea.tha.mus.b.clea.t.permi.saf.passin.i. calle.th.passin.sigh.distance.I.decidin.whethe.o.no.t.pas.anothe.vehicle.th.drive.mus.w eig.th.clea.distanc.availabl.t.hi.agains.th.distanc.require.t.carr.ou.th.sequenc.o.event.th a.mak.u.th.passin.maneuver.Amon.th.factor.tha.wil.influenc.hi.decisio.ar.th.degre.o.ca utio.tha.h.exercise.an.th.acceleratin.abilit.o.hi.vehicle.Becaus.human.diffe.markedly.p w.o.mec hanics.var.considerabl.amon.drivers.Th.geometri.desig.i.t.ensur.highwa.traffi.safet.foundation.th.highwa.constructio.p roject.aroun.th.othe.highwa.o.geometri.design.therefore.i.th.geometr.o.th.highwa.desig binatio.o.design.wil.affec.th. whol.highwa.geometri.desig.quality.an.th.safet.o.th.traffi.t.brin.advers.impact.So.o.th.geometr.o.th.highwa.desig.mus.b.focu.on.公路几何设计公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体。
公路工程专业词汇翻译(汉英)讲义
公路highway道路road公路工程highway engineering公路网highway network公路网密度highway density公路等级highway classification公路自然区划climatic zoning for highway公路用地highway right-of-way高速公路freeway等级公路classified highway辅导relief road干线公路arterial highway支线公路feeder highway专用公路accomodation highway国家干线公路(国道) national trunk highway省级干线公路(省道) provincial trunk highway县公路(县道) county road乡公路(乡道) township road辐射式公路radial highway环形公路ring highway绕行公路bypass交通结构traffic structure交通组成traffic composition混合交通mixed traffic交通流traffic flow交通流理论traffic flow theory车流vehicle stream交通密度traffic density车头间距space headway车头时距time headway车间净距vehicular gap延误delay地点速度spot speed行驶速度running speed运行速度poerating speed临界速度critical speed平均速度average speed计算行车速度(设计车速) design speed交通量traffic volume年平均日交通量annual average daily traffic月平均日交通量monthly average daily traffic 年第30位最大小时交通量thirtieth highest annualhourly volume年最大小时交通量maximum annual hourly设计小时交通量design hourly volume通行能力traffic capacity基本通行能力basic traffic capacity可能通行能力possible traffic capacity设计通行能力design traffic capacity 道路服务水平level of service公路交通规划traffic planning交通调查traffic survey交通量调查traffic volume survey交通量观测站traffic volume observationstation起迄点调查(OD调查) origin-destination study出行trip境内交通local traffic过境交通through traffic交通发生traffic generation交通分布traffic distribution交通分配traffic assignment交通预测traffic prognosis行车道carriageway分离式行车道divided carriageway车道lane变速车道speed-change lane加速车道acceleration lane减速车道deceleration lane爬坡车道climbing lane停车道parking lane错车道turn-out lane自行车道cycle path路侧人行道sidewalk分隔带lane seperator中央分隔带median divider中间带central strip路肩shoulder;verge路缘带marginal strip路缘石kerb;curb侧向余宽lateral clearance路拱camber;crown路拱横坡crown slope公路建筑限界clearance of highway公路路线highway route公路线形highway alignment平面线形horizontal alignment纵面线形vertical alignment线形要素alignment elements平曲线horizontal curve极限最小平曲线半径limited minimum radius ofhorizontal curve复曲线compound curve反向曲线reverse curve断背曲线broken-back curve回头曲线switch-back curve缓和曲线transition curve竖曲线vertical curve弯道加宽curve widening加宽缓和段transition zone of curve超高superelevation超高缓和段supere levation runoff纵坡longitudinal gradient最大纵坡maximum longitudinal gradient 最小纵坡minimum ongitudinal gradient 变坡点grade change point平均纵坡average gradiant坡长限制grade length limitation高原纵坡拆减highland grade compensation 缓和坡段transition grading zone合成坡度resultant gradent视距sight distance停车视距non-passing sight distance;stopping sight distance超车视距passing sight distance道路交叉road intersection;道口railroad grade crossing平面交叉at-grade intersection ;grade crossing 正交叉right-angle intersection斜交叉skew intersection环形交叉rotary intersection十字形交叉“+”intersectionT形交叉T intersection错位交叉offset intersection;staggered junction Y形交叉Y intersection立体交叉grade separation分离式立体交叉simple grade separation,separategrade crossing互通式立体交叉interchange首蓿叶形立体交叉full cloverleaf interchange部分首蓿叶形立体交叉cloverleaf interchange菱形立体交叉diamond interchange定向式立体交叉directional interchange喇叭形立体交叉three-leg interchange环形立体交叉rotary interchange匝道ramp交叉口road crossing; intersection交叉口进口intersection entrance交叉口出口intersection exit加铺转角式交叉口intersection with widenedcorners拓宽路口式交叉口flared intersection分道转弯式交叉口channelized intersection渠化交通channelization交织weaving交织路段weaving section合流converging分流diverging冲突点conflict point 交通岛traffic island导流岛channe lization island中心岛central island安全岛refuge island沿线设施roadside facilities交通安全设施traffic safety device人行横道crosswalk人形地道pedestrian underpass人形天桥pedestrian overcrossing 护栏guard fence防护栅guard fence,safety barrier 遮光栅anti-dizzling screen应急电话emergency telephone反光标志reflective sign反光路钮reflective button弯道反光镜traffic mirror道路交通标志road traffic sign警告标志warning sign禁令标志regulatory sign指示标志guide sign指路标志information sign辅助标志auxiliary sign可变信息标志changeable message sign 路面标线pavement marking防雪设施snow protection facilities 防沙设施sands protection facilities 隔音墙acoustic barrier停车场parking area踏勘reconnaissance可行性研究feasibility study线形设计highway alignment design 公路景观设计highway landscape design 选线route selection路线控制点control point定线location比较线alternative line展线line development初测preliminary survey定测location survey地貌topographie fcature地物culture地形topography台地terrace垭口pass; saddle back平原区plain terrain微丘区rolling terrain重丘区hilly terrain山岭区mountainous terrain沿溪线valley line山脊线ridge line山坡线hill-side line越岭线ridge crossing line土方调配cut-fill transition土方调配图cut-fill transition program土方调配经济运距economical hauling distance导线traverse导线测量traverse survey中线center line中线测量center line survey施工测量construction survey竣工测量final survey(路线)平面图plan交点intersection point虚交点imaginary intersection point转点turning point转角intersection angle方位角azimuth angle象限角bearing方向角direction angle切线长tangent length曲线长curve length外（矢）距external secant测站instrument station测点observation point中桩center stake加桩additional stake护桩reference stake断链broken chainage水准测量levelling survey水准点bench mark绝对基面absolute datum高程elevation地面高程ground elevation设计高程designed elevation(路线)纵断面图profile中桩填挖高度cut and fill at center stake地形测量topographic survey基线base line地形图topographic map等高线contour line横断面测量cross-sectional survey横断面图cross-section坑探pit test钻探boring摄影测量photogrammetry航空摄影测量aerial photogrammetry地面立体摄影测量ground stereophoto grammetry 地面控制点测量ground control-point survey 航摄基线aerophoto base影像地图photographic map像片索引图(镶辑复照图) photo index航摄像片判读aerophoto interpretation 综合法测图planimatric photo全能法测图universal photo微分法测图differential photo像片镶嵌图photo mosaic路基subgrade路堤embankment路堑cutting半填半挖式路基part cut-partfill subgrade 台口式路基benched subgrade路基宽度width of subgrade路基设计高程design elevation of subgrade （路基）最小填土高度minimum height of fill边坡side slope边坡坡度grade of side slope（边）坡顶top of slope（边）坡脚toe of slope护坡道berm边坡平台plain stage of slope碎落台berm at the foot of cutting slope 护坡slope protection挡土墙retaining wall重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall横重式挡土墙balance weight retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙cantilever retaining wall扶壁式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall柱板式挡土墙column-plate retaining wall 锚杆式挡土墙anchored retaining wall by tie rods 锚碇板式挡土墙anchored bulkhead retaining wall 石笼rock filled gabion抛石riprap路基排水subgrade drainage边沟side ditch截水沟intercepting ditch排水沟drainage ditch急流槽chute跌水drop water蒸发池evaporation pond盲沟blind drain渗水井seepage well透水路堤permeable embankment过水路面ford填方fill挖方cut借土borrow earth弃土waste取土坑borrow pit弃土堆waste bank回填土back-filling黄土loess软土soft soil淤泥mud泥沼moor泥炭peat盐渍土salty soil膨胀土expansive soil冻土frozen soil流砂quicksand软弱地基soft ground强夯法dynamic consolidation预压法preloading method反压护道loading berm砂井sand drain路基沙垫层sand mat of subgrade压实compaction压实度degree of compaction(标准)最大干容重maximum dry unit weight相对密实度relative density毛细水capillary water土石方爆破blasting crater抛掷爆破blasting for throwing rock爆破漏斗blasting crater松动爆破blasting for loosening rock爆破作用圈acting cire les of blasting路面pavement弹性层状体系理论elastic multilayer theory(回弹)弯沉deflection加州承载比(CBR) California bearing ratio(CBR) 路面宽度width of pavement路槽road trough刚性路面rigid pavement柔性路面flexible pavement路面结构层pavement structure layer面层surface course磨耗层wearing course联结层binder course基层base course垫层bed course隔水层aquitard隔温层thermal insulating course封层seal coat透层prime coat保护层protection course补强层streng thening layer高级路面high type pavement 次高级路面sub-high type pavement中级路面intermediate type pavement 低级路面low type pavement水泥混凝土路面cement concrete pavement沥青路面bituminous pavement沥青混凝土路面bituminous concrete pavement 沥青碎石路面bituminous macadam pavement 沥青贯入碎(砾)石路面bituminous penetrationpavement沥青表面处治bituminous surface treatment 块料路面block pavement石块路面stone block pavement泥结碎石路面clay-bound macadam pavement 水结碎石路面water-bound macadam pavement 级配路面graded aggregate pavement稳定土基层stabilized soil base course工业废渣基层industrial waste base course块石基层telford base层铺法spreading in layers拌和法mixing method厂拌法plant mixing method路拌法road mixing method热拌法hot mixing method冷拌法cold mixing method贯入法penetration method铺砌法pitching method缩缝contraction joint胀缝expansion joint真缝true joint假缝dummy joint横缝transverse joint纵缝longitudinal joint施工缝construction joint传力杆dowel bar拉杆tie bar路面平整度surface evenness路面粗糙度surface roughness路面摩擦系数friction coefficient of pavement 附着力adhesive force水滑现象hydroplaning phenomenon桥梁bridge公路桥highway bridge公铁两用桥highway and rail transit bridge 人形桥pedestrian bridge跨线桥overpass bridge高架桥viaduct永久性桥permanent bridge半永久性桥semi-permanent bridge临时性桥temporary bridge钢筋混凝土桥reinforced concrete bridge预应力混凝土桥prestressed concrete bridge钢桥steel bridge圬工桥masonry bridge木桥timber bridge正交桥right bridge斜交桥skew bridge弯桥curved bridge坡桥bridge on slope斜桥skew bridge正桥right bridge上承式桥deck bridge中承式桥half-through bridge下承式桥through bridge梁桥beam bridge简支梁桥simple supported team bridge 连续梁桥continuous beam bridge悬臂梁桥cantilever beam bridge联合梁桥composite beam bridge板桥slab bridge拱桥arch bridge双曲拱桥two-way curved arch bridge空腹拱桥open spandrel arch bridge实腹拱桥filled spandrel arch bridge系杆拱桥bowstring arch bridge桁架桥truss bridge钢构桥rigid frame bridgeT形钢构桥T-shaped rigid frame bridge连续钢构桥continuous rigid frame bridge 斜腿钢构桥rigid frame bridge with inclinedlegs斜拉桥(斜张桥) cable stayed bridge悬索桥suspension bridge漫水桥submersible bridge浮桥pontoon bridge开启桥movable bridge装配式桥fabricated bridge装拆式钢桥fabricated steel bridge涵洞culvert管涵pipe culvert拱涵arch culvert箱涵box culvert盖板涵slab culvert无压力式涵洞non-pressure culvert压力式涵洞pressure culvert半压力式涵洞partial pressure culvert倒虹吸涵siphon culvert上部结构superstructure主梁main beam 横梁floor beam纵梁longitudinal beam,stringer挂梁suspended beam拱圈arch,ring拱上结构spandrel structure腹拱spandrel arch拱上侧墙spandrel wall桥面系floor system,bridge decking桥面铺装bridge deck pavement伸缩缝expansion and contraction joint 桥面伸缩装置bridge floor expansion andcontraction installation安全带afety belt桥头搭板transition slab at bridge head下部结构substructure桥墩pier墩身pier body墩帽coping盖梁bent cap破冰体ice apron重力式桥墩gravity pier实体桥墩solid pier空心桥墩hollow pier柱式桥墩column pier排架桩墩pile bent pier柔性墩flexible pier制动墩braking pier单向推力墩single direction thrusted pier桥台abutment台身abutment body前墙front wall翼墙wing walls台帽coping锥坡conical slope耳墙wing wallsU形桥台U-shaped abutment八字形桥台flare wing wall abutment一字形桥台head wall abutment,straight abutment 重力式桥台gravity abutment埋置式桥台buried abutment扶壁式桥台counterforted abutment锚锭板式桥台anchored bulkhead abutment 支撑式桥台supported type abutment地基subsoil加固地基consolidated subsoil天然地基natural subsoil基础foundation扩大基础spread foundation沉井基础open caission foundation管柱基础cylindrical shaft foundation桩基础pile poundation桩pile预制桩precast pile就地灌注桩cast-in-place concrete pile摩擦桩friction pile支承桩bearing pile承台bearing platform支座bearing固定支座fixed bearing活动支座expansion bearing索塔cable bent tower索鞍cable saddle调治构造物regulating structure丁坝spur dike顺坝longitudinal dam桥位bridge site桥梁全长total length of bridge主桥main bridge引桥approach span跨径span桥涵计算跨径computed span桥涵净跨径clear span矢跨比rise span ratio计算矢高calculated rise of arch桥下净空clearance of span桥面净空clearance above bridge floor桥梁建筑高度construction height of bridge 荷载load永久荷载permanent load可变荷载variable load偶然荷载accidental load荷载组合loading combinations车辆荷载标准loading standard for design vchicle 设计荷载design load施工荷载construction load梁beam简支梁simple-supported beam连续梁continuous beam悬臂梁cantilever beam板slab拱arch桁架truss刚构rigid frame柱column强度strength刚度stiffness ,rigidity抗裂度crack resistance稳定性stability 位移displacement变形deformation挠度deflection预拱度camber流域catchment basin集水面积runoff area径流runoff水文测验hydrological survey河床river bed河槽river channel主槽main channel边滩side shoal河滩rlood land河床宽度bed width河槽宽度channel width过水断面discharge section水位water level最高(或最低)水位maximum(minimum)water level 通航水位navigable water level设计水位design water level水面比降water surface slope河床比降gradient of river bed湿周weffed perimeter糙率coefficient of roughuess水力半径hydraulic radius水文计算hydrological computation设计流量designed discharge设计流速designed flow velocity行近流速approach velocity洪水调查floor survey洪水频率floor frequency设计洪水频率designed flood frequency潮汐河流tidal river悬移质suspended load推移质bed material load水力计算hydraulic computation水头water head冲刷scour桥下一般冲刷general scour under bridge桥墩(或墩台)局部冲刷local scour near pier自然演变冲刷natural scour冲刷系数coefficient of scouring淤积silting壅水back water流冰ice drift先张法pretensioning method后张法post-tensioning method缆索吊装法erection with cableway悬臂拼装法erection by protrusion悬臂浇筑法cast-in-place cantilever mathod 移动支架逐跨施工法span by span method纵向拖拉法erection by longtitudinal pullingmethod顶推法incremental launching method 转体架桥法construction by swing浮运架桥法erecting by floating顶入法jack-in method围堰cofferdam护筒pile casing隧道tunnel洞门tunnel portal衬砌tunnel lining明洞open cut tunnel围岩surrounding rork隧道建筑限界structural approach limit of runnels 明挖法open cut method矿山法mine tunnelling method盾构法shield tunneling method沉埋法(沉管法) lmmersed tunnel导坑heading隧道支撑tunnel support构件支撑element support喷锚支护lock bolt support with shotcrete 隧道通风tunnel ventilation隧道照明tunnel lighting养护maintenance定期养护periodical maintenance巡回养护patrol maintenance大中修周期maintenance period小修保养routine maintenance中修intermediate maintenance大修heavy maintenance改善工程road inprovement抢修emergency repair of road加固strengthening of structure回砂sand sweeping罩面overlay of pavement路面翻修pavement recapping路向补强pavement strengthening车辙rutting路面搓板surface corrugation路面网裂net-shaped cracking路面龟裂alligator cracking路面碎裂pavement spalling反射裂缝reflection crack路面坑槽pot holes路面冻胀surface frost heave路面沉陷pavement depression 路面滑溜surface slipperiness露骨suiface angularity啃边edge failure泛油bleeding拥包upheaval拱胀blow up错台faulting of slab ends错位slab staggering滑坡slide坍方land slide崩塌collapse碎落debris avalanche沉降settlement沉陷subsidence泥石流mud avalanche(振动)液化liquefaction翻浆frost boiling岩溶karst沙害sand hazard雪害snow hazard水毁washout好路率rate of good road养护质量综合值general tating of maintenancequality路容road appearance路况road condition路况调查road condition survey路政管理rlad administration民工建勤civilian labourers working onpublic project养路费toll of road maintenance养路道班maintenance gang粒料granular material集料(骨料) aggregate矿料mineral aggregate矿粉mineral powder砂sand砾石gravel砂砾sand gravel卵石cobble stone碎石broken stone,crushed stone片石rubble块石block stone料石dressed stone石屑chip工业废渣industrial solid waste结合料binder有机结合料organic binding agent沥青bitumen地沥青asphalt天然沥青natural asphalt石油沥青petroleum asphalt煤沥青coal tar乳化沥青emulsified bitumen氧化沥青oxidized asphalt路用沥青road bitumen无机结合料inorganic binding agent粉煤灰fly ash混合料mixture沥青混合料bituminous mixture沥青混凝土混合料bituminous concrete mixture 沥青碎石混合料bituminous macadam mixture 沥青砂asphalt sand沥青膏asphalt mastic水泥砂浆cement mortar石灰砂浆lime mortar水泥混凝土混合料cement concrete mixture水泥混凝土cement concrete钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete预应力(钢筋)混凝土prestressed concrete早强混凝土early strength concrete干硬性混凝土dry concrete贫混凝土lean concrete轻质混凝土light-wehght concrete纤维混凝土fibrous concrete外掺剂admixture减水剂water reducing agent加气剂air entraining agent早强剂early strength agent缓凝剂retarder钢筋steel bar预应力钢材prestressing steel高强钢丝high tensile steel wire钢铰线stranded steel wire冷拉钢筋cold-stretched steel bar冷拔钢丝cold-drawn steel wire高强螺栓high strength bolt空隙率porosity孔隙比void ratio粒径grain size颗粒组成grain composition细度fineness筛分sieve analysis级配gradation级配曲线grading curve最佳级配optimum gradation含水量water content最佳含水量optimum water content稠度界限consistency limit 液限liquid limit塑限plastic limit缩限shrinkage limit塑性指数plasticity index水泥标号cement mark水泥混凝土标号cement concrete mark水泥混凝土配合比proportioning of cement concrete 水灰比water cement ratio和易性workabillty坍落度slump硬化hardening水硬性hydraulicity气硬性air hardening离析segregation徐变creep老化ageing(沥青)稠度consistency (of bitumen)针入度penetration粘(滞)度viscosity软化点softening point延度ductility闪点flash point溶解度dissolubility热稳性hot stability水稳性water stability油石化asphalt-aggregate ratio含油率bitumen content压碎率rate of crushing磨耗率abrasiveness弹性模量modulus of elasticity回弹模量modulus of resilience劲度(模量) stiffness modulus模量比modulus ratio泊松比poisson’s ratio疲劳试验fatigue test劈裂试验splitting test三轴试验triaxial test击实试验compaction test触探试验cone penetration test弯沉试验deflection test环道试验circular track test承载板试验loading plate test透水性试验perviousness test车辙试验wheel tracking test马歇尔试验Marshall stability test压实度试验compactness test铺砂法sand patch method硬练胶砂强度试验earth-dry mortar strength –test 软练胶砂强度试验plastic mortar strength-test(水泥)安定性试验soundness test(of cement)击实仪compaction test equipment长杆贯入仪penetration test equipment承载板loading plate杠杆完沉仪beam lever deflectometer路面曲率半径测定仪surface-curvature apparatus路面平整度测定仪viameter路面透水度测定仪surface permeameter五轮仪fifth-wheel tester制动仪skiddometer速度检测器speed detector万能试验机universal testing machine三轴(剪切)仪triaxial shear ratiotester加州承载比(CBR)测定仪California bearingratiotester标准筛standard sieves(沥青)针入度仪penetrometer(沥青)粘度仪viscosimeter(沥青)延度仪ductilometer(沥青)软化点仪(环-球法)softening pointtester(ringball method)闪点仪(开口杯式) flash point tester(open cupmethod)马歇尔稳定度仪Marshall stability apparatus (沥青混合料)抽提机bitumen extractor砂浆稠度仪mortar penetration tester坍落度圆锥筒slump cone标准工业粘度计standard concrete consistometer 饱和面干吸水率试模saturated-surface-duiedmoisture retention tester撞击韧度试验机impact toughness machine圆盘耐磨硬度试验机wear hardness machine狄法尔磨耗试验机Deval abrasion testing machine 洛杉矶磨耗试验机Los Angeles abrasiontestingmachine压碎率试模crushing strength tester单斗挖掘机single-bucket excavator推土机bulldozer除根机rootdozer铲运机scraper平地机grader挖沟机trencher耕耘机cultivator松土机ripper松土搅拌机pulvi-mixer稳定土拌和机stabilizer凿岩机rock breaker碎石机stone crusher碎石撒布机stone spreader装载机loader 羊足压路机sheep-foot roller手扶式单轮压路机walk behind single drum蛙式打夯机frog rammer内燃夯实机internal comtustion compactor 铁夯(铁撞柱) tamping iron压路机roller振动压路机vibratory roller沥青加热器asphalt heater沥青泵asphalt pump沥青洒布机asphalt sprayer沥青洒布车asphalt distributor沥青混合料拌和设备asphalt mixing plant沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt paver散装水泥运输车cement deliver truck水泥混凝土混合料拌和设备concrete mixing plant (水泥混凝土混合料)搅拌运输车concrete delivertruck水泥混凝土混合料摊铺机concrete paver振捣器concrete vibrator水泥混凝土混合料整面机concrete finisher真空泵vacuum pump水泥混凝土路面切缝机concrete joint cutter水泥混凝土路面锯缝机concrete saw水泥混凝土路面清缝机concrete joint cleaner水泥混凝土路面填缝机concrete joint sealer水泵pump泥浆泵mud pump张拉钢筋油泵prestressed steel bar drawing oil pump 砂浆泵mortar pump水泥混凝土混合料泵concrete pump钢筋切断机bar shear钢筋冷轧机cold-rolling mill钢筋冷拉机steel stretcher钢筋冷拔机steel bar cold-extrudingmachine钢筋冷镦机steel bar heading press machine 钢筋拉伸机steel extension machine钢筋弯曲机steel bar bender钢筋调直机steel straighten machine对焊机butt welder钻孔机boring machine打桩机pile driver拔桩机pile extractor千斤顶jack张拉预应力钢筋千斤顶prestressed steel bar drawingjack手拉葫芦chain block起重葫芦hoisting block卷扬机hoister缆索吊装设备cableway erecting equipment起重机crane架桥机bridge erection equipment砂筒sand cylinder盾构shield全气压盾构compressed air shield半盾构roof shield隧道掘进机tunnel boring machine全断面隧道掘进机tunnel boring machine for fullcection喷枪shotcrete equipment装碴机mucker盾构千斤顶main jack拉合千斤顶pull-in jacks复拌沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt remixer路面铣削机pavemill回砂车sand sweeping equipment除雪机snow plough装雪机snow loader洗净剂喷布车detergent spray truck清扫车sweeper洒水车water truck划标线机line maker振动筛vibrating screen撒布机spreader输送机conveyer提升机elevator翻斗车dump-body car自卸汽车dumping wagon牵引车tow truck拖车头tractor truck挂车trailer平板车flat truck工程车shop truck万能杆件fabricated universal steel members 交通规划traffic rules交通事故traffic accident交通事故率traffic accident rate人口事故率population accident rate车辆事故率vehicle accident rate运行事故率operating accident rate交通控制traffic control中央控制台central control unit点控制spot control线控制line control面控制area control交通信号traffic signal交通信号灯traffic signal lamp信号周期signal cycle绿信比split ratio 信号相位signal phase相位差phase difference 绿波green wave交通监视系统traffic surveillance 交通公害vehicular pollution。
道路桥梁专业 中英文对照---毕业设计论文 外文文献翻译
附录一英文翻译原文AUTOMATIC DEFLECTION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING OFA BALANCED CANTILEVER CONCRETE BRIDGEby Olivier BURDET, Ph.D.Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, SwitzerlandInstitute of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete SUMMARYThere is a need for reliable monitoring systems to follow the evolution of the behavior of structures over time.Deflections and rotations are values that reflect the overall structure behavior. This paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term deformations of bridges by use of inclinometers. High precision electronic inclinometers can be used to follow effectively long-term rotations without disruption of the traffic. In addition to their accuracy, these instruments have proven to be sufficiently stable over time and reliable for field conditions. The Mentue bridges are twin 565 m long box-girder post-tensioned concrete highway bridges under construction in Switzerland. The bridges are built by the balanced cantilever method over a deep valley. The piers are 100 m high and the main span is 150 m. A centralized data acquisition system was installed in one bridge during its construction in 1997. Every minute, the system records the rotation and temperature at a number of measuring points. The simultaneous measurement of rotations and concrete temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions. The system will be used in combination with a hydrostatic leveling setup to follow the long-term behavior of the bridge. Preliminary results show that the system performs reliably and that the accuracy of the sensors is excellent.Comparison of the evolution of rotations and temperature indicate that the structure responds to changes in air temperature rather quickly.1.BACKGROUNDAll over the world, the number of structures in service keeps increasing. With the development of traffic and the increased dependence on reliable transportation, it is becoming more and more necessary to foresee and anticipate the deterioration of structures. In particular,for structures that are part of major transportation systems, rehabilitation works need to be carefully planned in order to minimize disruptions of traffic. Automatic monitoring of structures is thus rapidly developing.Long-term monitoring of bridges is an important part of this overall effort to attempt to minimize both the impact and the cost of maintenance and rehabilitation work of major structures. By knowing the rate of deterioration of a given structure, the engineer is able to anticipate and adequately define the timing of required interventions. Conversely, interventions can be delayed until the condition of the structure requires them, without reducing the overall safety of the structure.The paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term bridge deformations. The use of high precision inclinometers permits an effective, accurate and unobtrusive following of the long-term rotations. The measurements can be performed under traffic conditions. Simultaneous measurement of the temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions and those induced by creep and shrinkage. The system presented is operational since August 1997 in the Mentue bridge, currently under construction in Switzerland. The structure has a main span of 150 m and piers 100 m high.2. LONG-TERM MONITORING OF BRIDGESAs part of its research and service activities within the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), IBAP - Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete has been involved in the monitoring of long-time deformations of bridges and other structures for over twenty-five years [1, 2, 3, 4]. In the past, IBAP has developed a system for the measurement of long-term deformations using hydrostatic leveling [5, 6]. This system has been in successful service in ten bridges in Switzerland for approximately ten years [5,7]. The system is robust, reliable and sufficiently accurate, but it requires human intervention for each measurement, and is not well suited for automatic data acquisition. One additional disadvantage of this system is that it is only easily applicable to box girder bridges with an accessible box.Occasional continuous measurements over periods of 24 hours have shown that the amplitude of daily movements is significant, usually amounting to several millimeters over a couple of hours. This is exemplified in figure 1, where measurements of the twin Lutrive bridges, taken over a period of several years before and after they were strengthened by post-tensioning, areshown along with measurements performed over a period of 24 hours. The scatter observed in the data is primarily caused by thermal effects on the bridges. In the case of these box-girder bridges built by the balanced cantilever method, with a main span of 143.5 m, the amplitude of deformations on a sunny day is of the same order of magnitude than the long term deformation over several years.Instantaneous measurements, as those made by hydrostatic leveling, are not necessarily representative of the mean position of the bridge. This occurs because the position of the bridge at the time of the measurement is influenced by the temperature history over the past several hours and days. Even if every care was taken to perform the measurements early in the morning and at the same period every year, it took a relatively long time before it was realized that the retrofit performed on the Lutrive bridges in 1988 by additional post-tensioning [3, 7,11] had not had the same effect on both of them.Figure 1: Long-term deflections of the Lutrive bridges, compared to deflections measured in a 24-hour period Automatic data acquisition, allowing frequent measurements to be performed at an acceptable cost, is thus highly desirable. A study of possible solutions including laser-based leveling, fiber optics sensors and GPS-positioning was performed, with the conclusion that, provided that their long-term stability can be demonstrated, current types of electronic inclinometers are suitable for automatic measurements of rotations in existing bridges [8].3. MENTUE BRIDGESThe Mentue bridges are twin box-girder bridges that will carry the future A1 motorway from Lausanne to Bern. Each bridge, similar in design, has an overall length of approximately 565 m, and a width of 13.46 m, designed to carry two lanes of traffic and an emergency lane. The bridges cross a deep valley with steep sides (fig. 2). The balanced cantilever design results from a bridge competition. The 100 m high concrete piers were built using climbing formwork, after which the construction of the balanced cantilever started (fig. 3).4. INCLINOMETERSStarting in 1995, IBAP initiated a research project with the goal of investigating the feasibility of a measurement system using inclinometers. Preliminary results indicated that inclinometers offer several advantages for the automatic monitoring of structures. Table 1 summarizes the main properties of the inclinometers selected for this study.One interesting property of measuring a structure’s rotations, is that, for a given ratio of maximum deflection to span length, the maximum rotation is essentially independent from its static system [8]. Since maximal allowable values of about 1/1,000 for long-term deflections under permanent loads are generally accepted values worldwide, developments made for box-girder bridges with long spans, as is the case for this research, are applicable to other bridges, for instance bridges with shorter spans and other types of cross-sections. This is significant because of the need to monitor smaller spans which constitute the majority of all bridges.The selected inclinometers are of type Wyler Zerotronic ±1°[9]. Their accuracy is 1 microradian (μrad), which corresponds to a rotation of one millimeter per kilometer, a very small value. For an intermediate span of a continuous beam with a constant depth, a mid-span deflection of 1/20,000 would induce a maximum rotation of about 150 μrad, or 0.15 milliradians (mrad).One potential problem with electronic instruments is that their measurements may drift overtime. To quantify and control this problem, a mechanical device was designed allowing the inclinometers to be precisely rotated of 180° in an horizontal plane (fig. 4). The drift of each inclinometer can be very simply obtained by comparing the values obtained in the initial and rotated position with previously obtained values. So far, it has been observed that the type of inclinometer used in this project is not very sensitive to drifting.5. INSTRUMENTATION OF THE MENTUE BRIDGESBecause a number of bridges built by the balanced cantilever method have shown an unsatisfactory behavior in service [2, 7,10], it was decided to carefully monitor the evolution of the deformations of the Mentue bridges. These bridges were designed taking into consideration recent recommendations for the choice of the amount of posttensioning [7,10,13]. Monitoring starting during the construction in 1997 and will be pursued after the bridges are opened to traffic in 2001. Deflection monitoring includes topographic leveling by the highway authorities, an hydrostatic leveling system over the entire length of both bridges and a network of inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. Data collection iscoordinated by the engineer of record, to facilitate comparison of measured values. The information gained from these observations will be used to further enhance the design criteria for that type of bridge, especially with regard to the amount of post-tensioning [7, 10, 11, 12, 13].The automatic monitoring system is driven by a data acquisition program that gathers and stores the data. This system is able to control various types of sensors simultaneously, at the present time inclinometers and thermal sensors. The computer program driving all the instrumentation offers a flexible framework, allowing the later addition of new sensors or data acquisition systems. The use of the development environment LabView [14] allowed to leverage the large user base in the field of laboratory instrumentation and data analysis. The data acquisition system runs on a rather modest computer, with an Intel 486/66 Mhz processor, 16 MB of memory and a 500 MB hard disk, running Windows NT. All sensor data are gathered once per minute and stored in compressed form on the hard disk. The system is located in the box-girder on top of pier 3 (fig. 5). It can withstand severe weather conditions and will restart itself automatically after a power outage, which happened frequently during construction.6. SENSORSFigure 5(a) shows the location of the inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. The sensors are placed at the axis of the supports (①an d⑤), at 1/4 and 3/4 (③an d④) of the span and at 1/8 of the span for②. In the cross section, the sensors are located on the North web, at a height corresponding to the center of gravity of the section (fig.5a). The sensors are all connected by a single RS-485 cable to the central data acquisition system located in the vicinity of inclinometer ①. Monitoring of the bridge started already during its construction. Inclinometers①,②and③were installed before the span was completed. The resulting measurement were difficult to interpret, however, because of the wide variations of angles induced by the various stages of this particular method of construction.The deflected shape will be determined by integrating the measured rotations along the length of the bridge (fig.5b). Although this integration is in principle straightforward, it has been shown [8, 16] that the type of loading and possible measurement errors need to be carefully taken into account.Thermal sensors were embedded in concrete so that temperature effects could be taken into account for the adjustment of the geometry of the formwork for subsequent casts. Figure 6 shows the layout of thermal sensors in the main span. The measurement sections are located at the same sections than the inclinometers (fig. 5). All sensors were placed in the formwork before concreting and were operational as soon as the formwork was removed, which was required for the needs of the construction. In each section, seven of the nine thermal sensor (indicated in solid black in fig. 6) are now automatically measured by the central data acquisition system.7. RESULTSFigure 7 shows the results of inclinometry measurements performed from the end ofSeptember to the third week of November 1997. All inclinometers performed well during that period. Occasional interruptions of measurement, as observed for example in early October are due to interruption of power to the system during construction operations. The overall symmetry of results from inclinometers seem to indicate that the instruments drift is not significant for that time period. The maximum amplitude of bridge deflection during the observed period, estimated on the basis of the inclinometers results, is around 40 mm. More accurate values will be computed when the method of determination ofdeflections will have been further calibrated with other measurements. Several periods of increase, respectively decrease, of deflections over several days can be observed in the graph. This further illustrates the need for continuous deformation monitoring to account for such effects. The measurement period was .busy. in terms of construction, and included the following operations: the final concrete pours in that span, horizontal jacking of the bridge to compensate some pier eccentricities, as well as the stressing of the continuity post-tensioning, and the de-tensioning of the guy cables (fig. 3). As a consequence, the interpretation of these measurements is quite difficult. It is expected that further measurements, made after the completion of the bridge, will be simpler to interpret.Figure 8 shows a detail of the measurements made in November, while figure.9 shows temperature measurements at the top and bottom of the section at mid-span made during that same period. It is clear that the measured deflections correspond to changes in the temperature. The temperature at the bottom of the section follows closely variations of the air temperature(measured in the shade near the north web of the girder). On the other hand, the temperature at the top of the cross section is less subject to rapid variations. This may be due to the high elevation of the bridge above ground, and also to the fact that, during the measuring period, there was little direct sunshine on the deck. The temperature gradient between top and bottom of the cross section has a direct relationship with short-term variations. It does not, however, appear to be related to the general tendency to decrease in rotations observed in fig. 8.8. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSFuture developments will include algorithms to reconstruct deflections from measured rotations. To enhance the accuracy of the reconstruction of deflections, a 3D finite element model of the entire structure is in preparation [15]. This model will be used to identify the influence on rotations of various phenomena, such as creep of the piers and girder, differential settlements, horizontal and vertical temperature gradients or traffic loads.Much work will be devoted to the interpretation of the data gathered in the Mentue bridge. The final part of the research project work will focus on two aspects: understanding the very complex behavior of the structure, and determining the most important parameters, to allow a simple and effective monitoring of the bridges deflections.Finally, the research report will propose guidelines for determination of deflections from measured rotations and practical recommendations for the implementation of measurement systems using inclinometers. It is expected that within the coming year new sites will be equipped with inclinometers. Experiences made by using inclinometers to measure deflections during loading tests [16, 17] have shown that the method is very flexible and competitive with other high-tech methods.As an extension to the current research project, an innovative system for the measurement of bridge joint movement is being developed. This system integrates easily with the existing monitoring system, because it also uses inclinometers, although from a slightly different type.9. CONCLUSIONSAn innovative measurement system for deformations of structures using high precision inclinometers has been developed. This system combines a high accuracy with a relatively simple implementation. Preliminary results are very encouraging and indicate that the use of inclinometers to monitor bridge deformations is a feasible and offers advantages. The system is reliable, does not obstruct construction work or traffic and is very easily installed. Simultaneous temperature measurements have confirmed the importance of temperature variations on the behavior of structural concrete bridges.10. REFERENCES[1] ANDREY D., Maintenance des ouvrages d’art: méthodologie de surveillance, PhD Dissertation Nr 679, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1987.[2] BURDET O., Load Testing and Monitoring of Swiss Bridges, CEB Information Bulletin Nr 219, Safety and Performance Concepts, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1993.[3] BURDET O., Critères pour le choix de la quantitéde précontrainte découlant de l.observation de ponts existants, CUST-COS 96, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 1996.[4] HASSAN M., BURDET O., FAVRE R., Combination of Ultrasonic Measurements and Load Tests in Bridge Evaluation, 5th International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 1993.[5] FAVRE R., CHARIF H., MARKEY I., Observation à long terme de la déformation des ponts, Mandat de Recherche de l’OFR 86/88, Final Report, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1990.[6] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Long-term Monitoring of Bridge Deformation, NATO Research Workshop, Bridge Evaluation, Repair and Rehabilitation, NATO ASI series E: vol. 187, pp. 85-100, Baltimore, USA, 1990.[7] FAVRE R., BURDET O. et al., Enseignements tirés d’essais de charge et d’observations à long terme pour l’évaluation des ponts et le choix de la précontrainte, OFR Report, 83/90, Zürich, Switzerland, 1995.[8] DAVERIO R., Mesures des déformations des ponts par un système d’inclinométrie,Rapport de maîtrise EPFL-IBAP, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1995.[9] WYLER AG., Technical specifications for Zerotronic Inclinometers, Winterthur, Switzerland, 1996.[10] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Generalization of the Load Balancing Method, 12th FIP Congress, Prestressed Concrete in Switzerland, pp. 32-37, Washington, USA, 1994.[11] FAVRE R., BURDET O., CHARIF H., Critères pour le choix d’une précontrainte: application au cas d’un renforcement, "Colloque International Gestion des Ouvrages d’Art: Quelle Stratégie pour Maintenir et Adapter le Patrimoine, pp. 197-208, Paris, France, 1994. [12] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Wahl einer geeigneten Vorspannung, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 92/3, 67, Germany, 1997.[13] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Choix d’une quantité appropriée de précontrain te, SIA D0 129, Zürich, Switzerland, 1996.[14] NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS, LabView User.s Manual, Austin, USA, 1996.[15] BOUBERGUIG A., ROSSIER S., FAVRE R. et al, Calcul non linéaire du béton arméet précontraint, Revue Français du Génie Civil, vol. 1 n° 3, Hermes, Paris, France, 1997. [16] FEST E., Système de mesure par inclinométrie: développement d’un algorithme de calcul des flèches, Mémoire de maîtrise de DEA, Lausanne / Paris, Switzerland / France, 1997.[17] PERREGAUX N. et al., Vertical Displacement of Bridges using the SOFO System: a Fiber Optic Monitoring Method for Structures, 12th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, San Diego, USA, to be published,1998.译文平衡悬臂施工混凝土桥挠度和温度的自动监测作者Olivier BURDET博士瑞士联邦理工学院，洛桑，瑞士钢筋和预应力混凝土研究所概要：我们想要跟踪结构行为随时间的演化，需要一种可靠的监测系统。
公路工程专业词汇翻译(汉英)
公路highway道路road公路工程highway engineering公路网highway network公路网密度highway density公路等级highway classification公路自然区划climatic zoning for highway公路用地highway right—of-way高速公路freeway等级公路classified highway辅导relief road干线公路arterial highway支线公路feeder highway专用公路accomodation highway国家干线公路（国道）national trunk highway省级干线公路(省道) provincial trunk highway县公路（县道) county road乡公路(乡道) township road辐射式公路radial highway环形公路ring highway绕行公路bypass交通结构traffic structure交通组成traffic composition混合交通mixed traffic交通流traffic flow交通流理论traffic flow theory车流vehicle stream交通密度traffic density车头间距space headway车头时距time headway车间净距vehicular gap延误delay地点速度spot speed行驶速度running speed运行速度poerating speed临界速度critical speed平均速度average speed计算行车速度（设计车速）design speed交通量traffic volume年平均日交通量annual average daily traffic月平均日交通量monthly average daily traffic 年第30位最大小时交通量thirtieth highest annualhourly volume年最大小时交通量maximum annual hourly设计小时交通量design hourly volume通行能力traffic capacity基本通行能力basic traffic capacity可能通行能力possible traffic capacity设计通行能力design traffic capacity 道路服务水平level of service公路交通规划traffic planning交通调查traffic survey交通量调查traffic volume survey交通量观测站traffic volume observationstation起迄点调查(OD调查）origin-destination study 出行trip境内交通local traffic过境交通through traffic交通发生traffic generation交通分布traffic distribution交通分配traffic assignment交通预测traffic prognosis行车道carriageway分离式行车道divided carriageway车道lane变速车道speed—change lane加速车道acceleration lane减速车道deceleration lane爬坡车道climbing lane停车道parking lane错车道turn-out lane自行车道cycle path路侧人行道sidewalk分隔带lane seperator中央分隔带median divider中间带central strip路肩shoulder；verge路缘带marginal strip路缘石kerb;curb侧向余宽lateral clearance路拱camber；crown路拱横坡crown slope公路建筑限界clearance of highway公路路线highway route公路线形highway alignment平面线形horizontal alignment纵面线形vertical alignment线形要素alignment elements平曲线horizontal curve极限最小平曲线半径limited minimum radius ofhorizontal curve复曲线compound curve反向曲线reverse curve断背曲线broken-back curve回头曲线switch—back curve缓和曲线transition curve竖曲线vertical curve弯道加宽curve widening加宽缓和段transition zone of curve超高superelevation超高缓和段supere levation runoff纵坡longitudinal gradient最大纵坡maximum longitudinal gradient 最小纵坡minimum ongitudinal gradient 变坡点grade change point平均纵坡average gradiant坡长限制grade length limitation高原纵坡拆减highland grade compensation 缓和坡段transition grading zone合成坡度resultant gradent视距sight distance停车视距non—passing sight distance;stopping sight distance超车视距passing sight distance道路交叉road intersection;道口railroad grade crossing平面交叉at—grade intersection ;grade crossing正交叉right-angle intersection斜交叉skew intersection环形交叉rotary intersection十字形交叉“+"intersectionT形交叉T intersection错位交叉offset intersection；staggered junction Y形交叉Y intersection立体交叉grade separation分离式立体交叉simple grade separation，separate grade crossing互通式立体交叉interchange首蓿叶形立体交叉full cloverleaf interchange部分首蓿叶形立体交叉cloverleaf interchange菱形立体交叉diamond interchange定向式立体交叉directional interchange喇叭形立体交叉three—leg interchange环形立体交叉rotary interchange匝道ramp交叉口road crossing; intersection交叉口进口intersection entrance交叉口出口intersection exit加铺转角式交叉口intersection with widenedcorners拓宽路口式交叉口flared intersection分道转弯式交叉口channelized intersection渠化交通channelization交织weaving交织路段weaving section合流converging分流diverging 冲突点conflict point交通岛traffic island导流岛channe lization island中心岛central island安全岛refuge island沿线设施roadside facilities交通安全设施traffic safety device人行横道crosswalk人形地道pedestrian underpass人形天桥pedestrian overcrossing护栏guard fence防护栅guard fence，safety barrier 遮光栅anti-dizzling screen应急电话emergency telephone反光标志reflective sign反光路钮reflective button弯道反光镜traffic mirror道路交通标志road traffic sign警告标志warning sign禁令标志regulatory sign指示标志guide sign指路标志information sign辅助标志auxiliary sign可变信息标志changeable message sign路面标线pavement marking防雪设施snow protection facilities 防沙设施sands protection facilities 隔音墙acoustic barrier停车场parking area踏勘reconnaissance可行性研究feasibility study线形设计highway alignment design 公路景观设计highway landscape design 选线route selection路线控制点control point定线location比较线alternative line展线line development初测preliminary survey定测location survey地貌topographie fcature地物culture地形topography台地terrace垭口pass；saddle back平原区plain terrain微丘区rolling terrain重丘区hilly terrain山岭区mountainous terrain沿溪线valley line山脊线ridge line山坡线hill-side line越岭线ridge crossing line土方调配cut-fill transition土方调配图cut-fill transition program土方调配经济运距economical hauling distance导线traverse导线测量traverse survey中线center line中线测量center line survey施工测量construction survey竣工测量final survey（路线）平面图plan交点intersection point虚交点imaginary intersection point转点turning point转角intersection angle方位角azimuth angle象限角bearing方向角direction angle切线长tangent length曲线长curve length外（矢）距external secant测站instrument station测点observation point中桩center stake加桩additional stake护桩reference stake断链broken chainage水准测量levelling survey水准点bench mark绝对基面absolute datum高程elevation地面高程ground elevation设计高程designed elevation(路线)纵断面图profile中桩填挖高度cut and fill at center stake地形测量topographic survey基线base line地形图topographic map等高线contour line横断面测量cross—sectional survey横断面图cross—section坑探pit test钻探boring摄影测量photogrammetry航空摄影测量aerial photogrammetry地面立体摄影测量ground stereophoto grammetry 地面控制点测量ground control-point survey航摄基线aerophoto base影像地图photographic map像片索引图(镶辑复照图) photo index航摄像片判读aerophoto interpretation 综合法测图planimatric photo全能法测图universal photo微分法测图differential photo像片镶嵌图photo mosaic路基subgrade路堤embankment路堑cutting半填半挖式路基part cut—partfill subgrade 台口式路基benched subgrade路基宽度width of subgrade路基设计高程design elevation of subgrade （路基）最小填土高度minimum height of fill边坡side slope边坡坡度grade of side slope（边)坡顶top of slope（边）坡脚toe of slope护坡道berm边坡平台plain stage of slope碎落台berm at the foot of cutting slope 护坡slope protection挡土墙retaining wall重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall横重式挡土墙balance weight retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙cantilever retaining wall扶壁式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall柱板式挡土墙column—plate retaining wall 锚杆式挡土墙anchored retaining wall by tie rods 锚碇板式挡土墙anchored bulkhead retaining wall 石笼rock filled gabion抛石riprap路基排水subgrade drainage边沟side ditch截水沟intercepting ditch排水沟drainage ditch急流槽chute跌水drop water蒸发池evaporation pond盲沟blind drain渗水井seepage well透水路堤permeable embankment过水路面ford填方fill挖方cut借土borrow earth弃土waste取土坑borrow pit弃土堆waste bank回填土back-filling黄土loess软土soft soil淤泥mud泥沼moor泥炭peat盐渍土salty soil膨胀土expansive soil冻土frozen soil流砂quicksand软弱地基soft ground强夯法dynamic consolidation预压法preloading method反压护道loading berm砂井sand drain路基沙垫层sand mat of subgrade压实compaction压实度degree of compaction（标准)最大干容重maximum dry unit weight相对密实度relative density毛细水capillary water土石方爆破blasting crater抛掷爆破blasting for throwing rock爆破漏斗blasting crater松动爆破blasting for loosening rock爆破作用圈acting cire les of blasting路面pavement弹性层状体系理论elastic multilayer theory(回弹)弯沉deflection加州承载比（CBR）California bearing ratio(CBR）路面宽度width of pavement路槽road trough刚性路面rigid pavement柔性路面flexible pavement路面结构层pavement structure layer面层surface course磨耗层wearing course联结层binder course基层base course垫层bed course隔水层aquitard隔温层thermal insulating course封层seal coat透层prime coat保护层protection course补强层streng thening layer 高级路面high type pavement次高级路面sub—high type pavement中级路面intermediate type pavement 低级路面low type pavement水泥混凝土路面cement concrete pavement沥青路面bituminous pavement沥青混凝土路面bituminous concrete pavement 沥青碎石路面bituminous macadam pavement 沥青贯入碎（砾）石路面bituminous penetrationpavement沥青表面处治bituminous surface treatment 块料路面block pavement石块路面stone block pavement泥结碎石路面clay—bound macadam pavement水结碎石路面water—bound macadam pavement级配路面graded aggregate pavement稳定土基层stabilized soil base course工业废渣基层industrial waste base course块石基层telford base层铺法spreading in layers拌和法mixing method厂拌法plant mixing method路拌法road mixing method热拌法hot mixing method冷拌法cold mixing method贯入法penetration method铺砌法pitching method缩缝contraction joint胀缝expansion joint真缝true joint假缝dummy joint横缝transverse joint纵缝longitudinal joint施工缝construction joint传力杆dowel bar拉杆tie bar路面平整度surface evenness路面粗糙度surface roughness路面摩擦系数friction coefficient of pavement 附着力adhesive force水滑现象hydroplaning phenomenon桥梁bridge公路桥highway bridge公铁两用桥highway and rail transit bridge 人形桥pedestrian bridge跨线桥overpass bridge高架桥viaduct永久性桥permanent bridge半永久性桥semi-permanent bridge临时性桥temporary bridge钢筋混凝土桥reinforced concrete bridge预应力混凝土桥prestressed concrete bridge钢桥steel bridge圬工桥masonry bridge木桥timber bridge正交桥right bridge斜交桥skew bridge弯桥curved bridge坡桥bridge on slope斜桥skew bridge正桥right bridge上承式桥deck bridge中承式桥half-through bridge下承式桥through bridge梁桥beam bridge简支梁桥simple supported team bridge 连续梁桥continuous beam bridge悬臂梁桥cantilever beam bridge联合梁桥composite beam bridge板桥slab bridge拱桥arch bridge双曲拱桥two-way curved arch bridge空腹拱桥open spandrel arch bridge实腹拱桥filled spandrel arch bridge系杆拱桥bowstring arch bridge桁架桥truss bridge钢构桥rigid frame bridgeT形钢构桥T-shaped rigid frame bridge连续钢构桥continuous rigid frame bridge 斜腿钢构桥rigid frame bridge with inclinedlegs斜拉桥(斜张桥) cable stayed bridge悬索桥suspension bridge漫水桥submersible bridge浮桥pontoon bridge开启桥movable bridge装配式桥fabricated bridge装拆式钢桥fabricated steel bridge涵洞culvert管涵pipe culvert拱涵arch culvert箱涵box culvert盖板涵slab culvert无压力式涵洞non-pressure culvert压力式涵洞pressure culvert半压力式涵洞partial pressure culvert倒虹吸涵siphon culvert 上部结构superstructure主梁main beam横梁floor beam纵梁longitudinal beam，stringer挂梁suspended beam拱圈arch，ring拱上结构spandrel structure腹拱spandrel arch拱上侧墙spandrel wall桥面系floor system，bridge decking桥面铺装bridge deck pavement伸缩缝expansion and contraction joint 桥面伸缩装置bridge floor expansion andcontraction installation安全带afety belt桥头搭板transition slab at bridge head下部结构substructure桥墩pier墩身pier body墩帽coping盖梁bent cap破冰体ice apron重力式桥墩gravity pier实体桥墩solid pier空心桥墩hollow pier柱式桥墩column pier排架桩墩pile bent pier柔性墩flexible pier制动墩braking pier单向推力墩single direction thrusted pier桥台abutment台身abutment body前墙front wall翼墙wing walls台帽coping锥坡conical slope耳墙wing wallsU形桥台U—shaped abutment八字形桥台flare wing wall abutment一字形桥台head wall abutment，straight abutment 重力式桥台gravity abutment埋置式桥台buried abutment扶壁式桥台counterforted abutment锚锭板式桥台anchored bulkhead abutment 支撑式桥台supported type abutment地基subsoil加固地基consolidated subsoil天然地基natural subsoil基础foundation扩大基础spread foundation沉井基础open caission foundation管柱基础cylindrical shaft foundation桩基础pile poundation桩pile预制桩precast pile就地灌注桩cast-in—place concrete pile摩擦桩friction pile支承桩bearing pile承台bearing platform支座bearing固定支座fixed bearing活动支座expansion bearing索塔cable bent tower索鞍cable saddle调治构造物regulating structure丁坝spur dike顺坝longitudinal dam桥位bridge site桥梁全长total length of bridge主桥main bridge引桥approach span跨径span桥涵计算跨径computed span桥涵净跨径clear span矢跨比rise span ratio计算矢高calculated rise of arch桥下净空clearance of span桥面净空clearance above bridge floor桥梁建筑高度construction height of bridge 荷载load永久荷载permanent load可变荷载variable load偶然荷载accidental load荷载组合loading combinations车辆荷载标准loading standard for design vchicle 设计荷载design load施工荷载construction load梁beam简支梁simple-supported beam连续梁continuous beam悬臂梁cantilever beam板slab拱arch桁架truss刚构rigid frame柱column强度strength刚度stiffness ，rigidity 抗裂度crack resistance稳定性stability位移displacement变形deformation挠度deflection预拱度camber流域catchment basin集水面积runoff area径流runoff水文测验hydrological survey河床river bed河槽river channel主槽main channel边滩side shoal河滩rlood land河床宽度bed width河槽宽度channel width过水断面discharge section水位water level最高(或最低)水位maximum(minimum)water level 通航水位navigable water level设计水位design water level水面比降water surface slope河床比降gradient of river bed湿周weffed perimeter糙率coefficient of roughuess水力半径hydraulic radius水文计算hydrological computation设计流量designed discharge设计流速designed flow velocity行近流速approach velocity洪水调查floor survey洪水频率floor frequency设计洪水频率designed flood frequency潮汐河流tidal river悬移质suspended load推移质bed material load水力计算hydraulic computation水头water head冲刷scour桥下一般冲刷general scour under bridge桥墩（或墩台)局部冲刷local scour near pier自然演变冲刷natural scour冲刷系数coefficient of scouring淤积silting壅水back water流冰ice drift先张法pretensioning method后张法post-tensioning method缆索吊装法erection with cableway悬臂拼装法erection by protrusion悬臂浇筑法cast-in—place cantilever mathod移动支架逐跨施工法span by span method纵向拖拉法erection by longtitudinal pullingmethod顶推法incremental launching method 转体架桥法construction by swing浮运架桥法erecting by floating顶入法jack-in method围堰cofferdam护筒pile casing隧道tunnel洞门tunnel portal衬砌tunnel lining明洞open cut tunnel围岩surrounding rork隧道建筑限界structural approach limit of runnels 明挖法open cut method矿山法mine tunnelling method盾构法shield tunneling method沉埋法(沉管法）lmmersed tunnel导坑heading隧道支撑tunnel support构件支撑element support喷锚支护lock bolt support with shotcrete 隧道通风tunnel ventilation隧道照明tunnel lighting养护maintenance定期养护periodical maintenance巡回养护patrol maintenance大中修周期maintenance period小修保养routine maintenance中修intermediate maintenance大修heavy maintenance改善工程road inprovement抢修emergency repair of road加固strengthening of structure回砂sand sweeping罩面overlay of pavement路面翻修pavement recapping路向补强pavement strengthening车辙rutting路面搓板surface corrugation路面网裂net-shaped cracking路面龟裂alligator cracking路面碎裂pavement spalling反射裂缝reflection crack路面坑槽pot holes 路面冻胀surface frost heave路面沉陷pavement depression路面滑溜surface slipperiness露骨suiface angularity啃边edge failure泛油bleeding拥包upheaval拱胀blow up错台faulting of slab ends错位slab staggering滑坡slide坍方land slide崩塌collapse碎落debris avalanche沉降settlement沉陷subsidence泥石流mud avalanche（振动）液化liquefaction翻浆frost boiling岩溶karst沙害sand hazard雪害snow hazard水毁washout好路率rate of good road养护质量综合值general tating of maintenancequality路容road appearance路况road condition路况调查road condition survey路政管理rlad administration民工建勤civilian labourers working onpublic project养路费toll of road maintenance养路道班maintenance gang粒料granular material集料（骨料）aggregate矿料mineral aggregate矿粉mineral powder砂sand砾石gravel砂砾sand gravel卵石cobble stone碎石broken stone,crushed stone片石rubble块石block stone料石dressed stone石屑chip工业废渣industrial solid waste结合料binder有机结合料organic binding agent沥青bitumen地沥青asphalt天然沥青natural asphalt石油沥青petroleum asphalt煤沥青coal tar乳化沥青emulsified bitumen氧化沥青oxidized asphalt路用沥青road bitumen无机结合料inorganic binding agent粉煤灰fly ash混合料mixture沥青混合料bituminous mixture沥青混凝土混合料bituminous concrete mixture 沥青碎石混合料bituminous macadam mixture 沥青砂asphalt sand沥青膏asphalt mastic水泥砂浆cement mortar石灰砂浆lime mortar水泥混凝土混合料cement concrete mixture水泥混凝土cement concrete钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete预应力（钢筋)混凝土prestressed concrete早强混凝土early strength concrete干硬性混凝土dry concrete贫混凝土lean concrete轻质混凝土light-wehght concrete纤维混凝土fibrous concrete外掺剂admixture减水剂water reducing agent加气剂air entraining agent早强剂early strength agent缓凝剂retarder钢筋steel bar预应力钢材prestressing steel高强钢丝high tensile steel wire钢铰线stranded steel wire冷拉钢筋cold-stretched steel bar冷拔钢丝cold—drawn steel wire高强螺栓high strength bolt空隙率porosity孔隙比void ratio粒径grain size颗粒组成grain composition细度fineness筛分sieve analysis级配gradation级配曲线grading curve最佳级配optimum gradation含水量water content 最佳含水量optimum water content稠度界限consistency limit液限liquid limit塑限plastic limit缩限shrinkage limit塑性指数plasticity index水泥标号cement mark水泥混凝土标号cement concrete mark水泥混凝土配合比proportioning of cement concrete 水灰比water cement ratio和易性workabillty坍落度slump硬化hardening水硬性hydraulicity气硬性air hardening离析segregation徐变creep老化ageing(沥青)稠度consistency （of bitumen)针入度penetration粘(滞）度viscosity软化点softening point延度ductility闪点flash point溶解度dissolubility热稳性hot stability水稳性water stability油石化asphalt—aggregate ratio含油率bitumen content压碎率rate of crushing磨耗率abrasiveness弹性模量modulus of elasticity回弹模量modulus of resilience劲度（模量) stiffness modulus模量比modulus ratio泊松比poisson’s ratio疲劳试验fatigue test劈裂试验splitting test三轴试验triaxial test击实试验compaction test触探试验cone penetration test弯沉试验deflection test环道试验circular track test承载板试验loading plate test透水性试验perviousness test车辙试验wheel tracking test马歇尔试验Marshall stability test压实度试验compactness test铺砂法sand patch method硬练胶砂强度试验earth-dry mortar strength –test 软练胶砂强度试验plastic mortar strength—test (水泥）安定性试验soundness test（of cement）击实仪compaction test equipment长杆贯入仪penetration test equipment承载板loading plate杠杆完沉仪beam lever deflectometer路面曲率半径测定仪surface-curvature apparatus路面平整度测定仪viameter路面透水度测定仪surface permeameter五轮仪fifth—wheel tester制动仪skiddometer速度检测器speed detector万能试验机universal testing machine三轴（剪切)仪triaxial shear ratiotester加州承载比(CBR)测定仪California bearingratiotester标准筛standard sieves（沥青）针入度仪penetrometer（沥青)粘度仪viscosimeter(沥青）延度仪ductilometer(沥青）软化点仪(环—球法）softening pointtester（ringball method)闪点仪(开口杯式) flash point tester（open cupmethod)马歇尔稳定度仪Marshall stability apparatus （沥青混合料）抽提机bitumen extractor砂浆稠度仪mortar penetration tester坍落度圆锥筒slump cone标准工业粘度计standard concrete consistometer 饱和面干吸水率试模saturated—surface—duiedmoisture retention tester撞击韧度试验机impact toughness machine圆盘耐磨硬度试验机wear hardness machine狄法尔磨耗试验机Deval abrasion testing machine 洛杉矶磨耗试验机Los Angeles abrasiontestingmachine压碎率试模crushing strength tester单斗挖掘机single-bucket excavator推土机bulldozer除根机rootdozer铲运机scraper平地机grader挖沟机trencher耕耘机cultivator松土机ripper松土搅拌机pulvi-mixer稳定土拌和机stabilizer凿岩机rock breaker碎石机stone crusher 碎石撒布机stone spreader装载机loader羊足压路机sheep—foot roller手扶式单轮压路机walk behind single drum蛙式打夯机frog rammer内燃夯实机internal comtustion compactor 铁夯(铁撞柱) tamping iron压路机roller振动压路机vibratory roller沥青加热器asphalt heater沥青泵asphalt pump沥青洒布机asphalt sprayer沥青洒布车asphalt distributor沥青混合料拌和设备asphalt mixing plant沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt paver散装水泥运输车cement deliver truck水泥混凝土混合料拌和设备concrete mixing plant (水泥混凝土混合料）搅拌运输车concrete delivertruck水泥混凝土混合料摊铺机concrete paver振捣器concrete vibrator水泥混凝土混合料整面机concrete finisher真空泵vacuum pump水泥混凝土路面切缝机concrete joint cutter水泥混凝土路面锯缝机concrete saw水泥混凝土路面清缝机concrete joint cleaner水泥混凝土路面填缝机concrete joint sealer水泵pump泥浆泵mud pump张拉钢筋油泵prestressed steel bar drawing oil pump 砂浆泵mortar pump水泥混凝土混合料泵concrete pump钢筋切断机bar shear钢筋冷轧机cold—rolling mill钢筋冷拉机steel stretcher钢筋冷拔机steel bar cold-extrudingmachine钢筋冷镦机steel bar heading press machine 钢筋拉伸机steel extension machine钢筋弯曲机steel bar bender钢筋调直机steel straighten machine对焊机butt welder钻孔机boring machine打桩机pile driver拔桩机pile extractor千斤顶jack张拉预应力钢筋千斤顶prestressed steel bar drawingjack手拉葫芦chain block起重葫芦hoisting block卷扬机hoister缆索吊装设备cableway erecting equipment 起重机crane架桥机bridge erection equipment砂筒sand cylinder盾构shield全气压盾构compressed air shield半盾构roof shield隧道掘进机tunnel boring machine全断面隧道掘进机tunnel boring machine for fullcection喷枪shotcrete equipment装碴机mucker盾构千斤顶main jack拉合千斤顶pull-in jacks复拌沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt remixer路面铣削机pavemill回砂车sand sweeping equipment除雪机snow plough装雪机snow loader洗净剂喷布车detergent spray truck清扫车sweeper洒水车water truck划标线机line maker振动筛vibrating screen撒布机spreader输送机conveyer提升机elevator翻斗车dump—body car自卸汽车dumping wagon牵引车tow truck拖车头tractor truck挂车trailer平板车flat truck工程车shop truck万能杆件fabricated universal steel members 交通规划traffic rules交通事故traffic accident交通事故率traffic accident rate人口事故率population accident rate车辆事故率vehicle accident rate运行事故率operating accident rate交通控制traffic control中央控制台central control unit点控制spot control线控制line control面控制area control交通信号traffic signal交通信号灯traffic signal lamp 信号周期signal cycle绿信比split ratio信号相位signal phase相位差phase difference 绿波green wave交通监视系统traffic surveillance 交通公害vehicular pollution。
道路毕业设计英文翻译
道路毕业设计英文翻译Road Graduation Design: English TranslationIntroductionRoads play a crucial role in our daily lives, connecting people, places, and goods. As a civil engineering student, I had the opportunity to work on a graduation design project focused on road infrastructure. In this article, I will share the key aspects of my project and discuss the importance of road design and its impact on society.The Significance of Road DesignRoad design is a multidisciplinary field that encompasses various aspects, including engineering, urban planning, and environmental considerations. A well-designed road network ensures efficient transportation, reduces traffic congestion, and enhances road safety. Moreover, it contributes to economic growth by facilitating the movement of goods and services.Designing Sustainable RoadsSustainability is a crucial factor in road design. As our society becomes more conscious of environmental issues, it is essential to consider the environmental impact of road construction and operation. During my graduation project, I focused on incorporating sustainable practices into road design.One aspect of sustainable road design is the use of environmentally friendly materials. For example, I explored the possibility of using recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) in road construction. RAP not only reduces the demand forvirgin materials but also minimizes waste and energy consumption. Additionally, I studied the implementation of green infrastructure along roads. Green infrastructure refers to the integration of vegetation and natural elements into the road design. This approach helps mitigate the urban heat island effect, improves air quality, and enhances the aesthetic appeal of the road network. Innovative Technologies in Road DesignAdvancements in technology have revolutionized road design and construction. During my project, I explored the application of various innovative technologies that can improve road performance and durability.One such technology is the use of intelligent transportation systems (ITS). ITS utilizes sensors, cameras, and communication networks to monitor traffic conditions, manage congestion, and enhance road safety. Integrating ITS into road design helps optimize traffic flow, reduces travel time, and minimizes accidents.Another technology I investigated was the use of 3D modeling and visualization. By creating virtual models of roads, engineers can better assess the design's feasibility, identify potential challenges, and make informed decisions. This approach improves the accuracy and efficiency of the design process.The Role of Public ParticipationRoad design is not solely a technical endeavor; it also involves the community and its needs. Public participation plays a vital role in ensuring that road projects meet the expectations and requirements of the people.During my graduation project, I conducted surveys and organized public consultations to gather feedback from the community. This input helped me understand the local context, identify concerns, and incorporate them into the road design. By involving the public, we can create roads that are more user-friendly, inclusive, and responsive to the community's needs.ConclusionRoad design is a complex and multifaceted discipline with significant implications for society. By focusing on sustainability, incorporating innovative technologies, and involving the public, we can create road networks that are efficient, environmentally friendly, and meet the needs of the community. As a civil engineering student, my graduation project allowed me to gain valuable insights into the world of road design and its potential to shape our future.。
公路工程毕业设计摘要及翻译 汇总
摘要交通运输事业是国民经济的重要组成部分，是国民经济的命脉，是联系工业和农业、城市和乡村、生产和消费的纽带。
它在国家的政治、经济、军事、文化建设中具有重要作用。
一级公路是连接高速公路或是某些大城市的城乡结合部、开发区经济带及人烟稀少地区的干线公路，一级公路的建成对长春市和沈阳市这两个省会城市的政治、经济、文化的交流和发展会起到积极的作用。
对东北地区来说，公路的建设意义深远，选择交通作为合作的突破口，无疑是注重实效的选择。
实现交通的多面化，既是行业协调发展，为社会提供优良交通环境的需要，也是振兴东北老工业基地，全面实现小康社会目标的需要，是实现经济一体化，促进区域经济共同协调发展的需要。
**一级公路全长2350m，主要设计的有横断面设计,平面线形设计,纵断面设计,路面结构设计等。
平面设计的主要内容是线形设计，同时要考虑行车视距问题。
纵断面设计主要是纵坡及坡长设计。
路面为沥青混凝土路面结构类型，**一级公路的建成将对于两个省会城市区域间的发展和建设具有重要意义。
关键词：一级公路；路线设计；路面ABSTRACTTransport industry is an important part of the national economy，the lifeline of national economy，and. It is associated industry and agriculture, urban and rural areas, production and consumption of a link. It plays an important role in the country's political, economic, military,and culture.A highway is to connect some of the urban cities, economic development zones and sparsely populated areas with the main highway，Northeast region, the construction of roads far-reaching, select traffic as a breakthrough, and no doubt a pragmatic choice，To achieve transport of multi-faceted, coordinated development of both industries, and provide good traffic environment needs, but also the revitalization of northeast old industrial base, the full realization of the objectives of a well-off society needs to achieve economic integration, promoting regional economic co-coordinated development.The length of Shen Chang-arterial road is 2350m. The main design elements are cross-sectional design, the design of horizontal alignment, vertical section design, pavement structure design.The main elements of graphic design is the linear design, at the same time horizon to consider the issue of traffic.Profile Design is the design of longitudinal and slope length. Asphalt concrete pavement is the type of pavement structure It is great significance of Shen Chang-arterial road-building for regional development and building .Keywords: Arterial road ; Route design ; Pavement design摘要本设计是平原微丘区一级公路的方案设计。
道路工程毕业设计外文翻译---高速公路设计与施工
原文Highway Design and Construction: The Innovation Challenge Author: Robert E. Skinner Jr.Innovations and advances in research are changing the way highways are built in America.The Egyptians were pouring concrete in 2500 BC, and the Romans used it to construct the Pantheon and the Colosseum. By the mid-1800s, Europeans were building bridges with concrete, and the first “modern” concrete highway pavements appear ed in the latter part of the 19th century. Naturally occurring asphalts, which have been used for waterproofing for thousands of years, came into common use in road construction in the 1800s. The first iron bridge was constructed in 1774, but by the end of the 19th century steel had largely replaced iron in bridge construction. These materials—concrete, asphalt, and steel—are now the mainstays of highway and bridge construction throughout the world, as well as of most types of public works infrastructure. Concrete and steel, the most versatile of these materials, are used for bridges and other highway structures; concrete and asphalt are used for roadway pavements.Everyone is familiar with concrete, asphalt, and steel, and some of us have worked with them, perhaps on home improvement projects. This familiarity, coupled with the long history of their many uses, has led many otherwise technically savvy people to believe that these materials are well understood, that their performance can be easily and reliably predicted, and that the technical challenges in using them for highways were overcome long ago. However, such notions are largely incorrect and misleading.For example, consider concrete, which is a mixture of portland cement, sand, aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), and water. Its performance characteristics are determined by the proportions and characteristics of the components, as well as by how it is mixed and formed. The underlying chemical reactions of concrete are surprisingly complex, not completely understood, and vary with the type of stone. Steel may be added for tensile strength (reinforced concrete), and a variety of additives have been identified to improve the workabilityand performance of concrete in particular applications and conditions. Damage and deterioration to concrete can result from excessive loadings and environmental conditions, such as freeze-thaw cycles and chemical reactions with salts used for deicing._________________________Many factors contribute to theurgent need for innovation inhighway construction._________________________Concrete is the most heavily used substance in the world after water (Sedgwick, 1991). Worldwide, concrete construction annually consumes about 1.6 billion tons of cement, 10 billion tons of sand and crushed stone, and 1 billion tons of water (M.S. Kahn, 2007). Given transportation costs, there is a huge financial incentive to using local sources of stone, even if the properties of that stone are less than ideal. Thus concrete is not a homogenous material. In truth, an unlimited number of combinations and permutations are possible.Much the same can be said of asphalt—technically, asphaltic concrete—which is also a mixture of aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), sand, and cement (asphalt binder); economics promote the use of locally available materials; and the underlying chemistry is not well understood. The characteristics of asphalt binder, for instance, vary depending on the source of crude oil from which it is derived.The metallurgy of steel is probably better understood than the chemistry of either asphalt or concrete, but it too is a mixture with virtually limitless combinations. Strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and weldability are some of the performance characteristics that vary with the type of steel alloy used and the intended applications.As uses evolve and economic conditions change, we have a continuing need for a more sophisticated understanding of these common materials. Even though they are “mature” products, there is still room for significant incremental improvements in their performance. Because fundamental knowledge is still wanting, there is also considerable potential for breakthroughs in their performance.Factors That Affect Highway ConstructionAll other things being equal, stronger, longer lasting, less costly highway materials are desirable and, given the quantities involved, there are plenty of incentives for innovation. In highway transportation, however, all other things are not equal. A number of other factors contribute to the urgent and continuing need for innovation.First, traffic volume and loadings continue to increase. Every day the U.S. highway network carries more traffic, including heavy trucks that were unimagined when the system wasoriginally conceived and constructed. The 47,000-mile interstate highway system today carries more traffic than the entire U.S. highway system carried in 1956 when the interstates were laid out. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) estimates that in metropolitan areas the annual cost of traffic congestion for businesses and citizens is nearly $170 billion (PB Consult, Inc., 2007).On rural interstates, overall traffic more than doubled between 1970 and 2005; at the same time, the loadings on those highways increased six-fold, mainly due to the increase in the number of trucks and the number of miles they travel. (Truck traffic increased from about 5.7 percent of all vehicle-miles traveled on U.S. highways in 1965 to 7.5 percent in 2000 [FHWA, 2005]).Second, traffic disruptions must be kept to a minimum during construction. Our overstressed highway system is not very resilient. Thus disruptions of any sort, such as lane and roadway closings, especially in major metropolitan areas and on key Interstate routes, can cause massive traffic snarls. This means that repair and reconstruction operations must often be done at night, which introduces a variety of additional complexities and safety issues. Occasionally, heroic measures must be taken to keep traffic moving during construction. For example, during construction of the “Big Dig” in Boston, the elevated Central Artery was in continuous service while cut-cover tunnels were constructed directly below it.Third, environmental, community, and safety requirements have become more stringent. For many good reasons, expectations of what a highway should be, how it should operate, and how it should interact with the environment and adjacent communities are constantly evolving. Designs to promote safety, measures to mitigate a growing list of environmental impacts, and attention to aesthetics have fundamentally changed the scope of major highway projects in the United States. For example, on Maryland’s $2.4 billion Intercounty Connector project in suburban Washington, D.C., which is now under construction, environmental mitigation accounts for 15 percent of project costs, or about $15 million per mile (AASHTO, 2008). Fourth, costs continue to rise. Building and maintaining highways cost effectively is an ever-present goal of good engineering. But cost increases in highway construction have been extraordinary due in part to the expanded scope of highway projects and construction in demanding settings. In addition, the costs of the mainstay materials—portland cement, asphalt binder, and steel—have risen dramatically as the world, particularly China, has gone on a construction binge. The Federal Highway Administration’s cost indices for portland cement concrete pavement, asphalt pavement, and structural steel increased by 51 percent, 58 percent, and 70 percent respectively between 1995 and 2005 (FHWA, 2006).Fortunately, research and innovation in construction have never stopped, although they are not always sufficiently funded and they seem to fly beneath the radar of many scientists and engineers. Nevertheless, there have been great successes, which are cumulatively changing how highways are built in America.The Superpave Design SystemIn response to widespread concerns about premature failures of hot-mix asphalt pavements in the early 1980s, a well funded, congressionally mandated, crash research program was conducted to improve our understanding of asphalt pavements and their performance. The seven-year Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), which was managed by the National Research Council, developed a new system of standard specifications, test methods, andengineering practices for the selection of materials and the mix proportions for hot-mix asphalt pavement.The new system has improved matches between combinations of asphalt binder and crushed stone and the climatic and traffic conditions on specific highways. State departments of transportation (DOTs) spend more than $10 billion annually on these pavements, so even modest improvements in pavement durability and useful life can lead to substantial cost savings for agencies and time savings for motorists (TRB, 2001).SHRP rolled out the Superpave system in 1993, but it took years for individual states and their paving contractors to switch to the new system, which represents a significant departure, not only in design, but also in the procedures and equipment used for testing. Each state DOT had to be convinced that the benefits would outweigh the modest additional costs of Superpave mixes, as well as the time and effort to train its staff and acquire necessary equipment.A survey in 2005 showed that 50 state DOTs (including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico) were using Superpave (Figure 1). The remaining two states indicated that they would be doing so by the end of 2006. Throughout the implementation period, researchers continued to refine the system (e.g., using recycled asphalt pavements in the mix design [TRB, 2005]).It may be years before the cost benefits of Superpave can be quantified. A 1997 study by the Te xas Transportation Institute projected that, when fully implemented, Superpave’s annualized net savings over 20 years would approach $1.8 billion annually—approximately $500 million in direct savings to the public and $1.3 billion to highway users (Little et al., 1997).Moreover, analyses by individual states and cities have found that Superpave has dramatically improved performance with little or no increase in cost. Superpave is not only an example of a successful research program. It also demonstrates that a vigorous, sustained technology-transfer effort is often required for innovation in a decentralized sector, such as highway transportation.Prefabricated ComponentsThe offsite manufacturing of steel and other components of reinforced concrete for bridges and tunnels is nothing new. But the need for reconstructing or replacing heavily used highway facilities has increased the use of prefabricated components in startling ways. In some cases components are manufactured thousands of miles from the job site; in others, they are manufactured immediately adjacent to the site. Either way, we are rethinking how design and construction can be integrated.When the Texas Department of Transportation needed to replace 113 bridge spans on an elevated interstate highway in Houston, it found that the existing columns were reusable, but the bent caps (the horizontal connections between columns) had to be replaced. As an alternative to the conventional, time-consuming, cast-in-place approach, researchers at the University of Texas devised new methods of installing precast concrete bents. In this project, the precast bents cut construction time from 18 months to slightly more than 3 months (TRB, 2001).As part of a massive project to replace the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, the California Department of Transportation and the Bay Area Toll Authority had to replace a 350-foot, 10-lane section of a viaduct on Yerba Buena Island. In this case, the contractor, C.C. Myers, prefabricated the section immediately adjacent to the existing viaduct. The entire bridge was then shut down for the 2007 Labor Day weekend, while the existing viaduct was demolished and the new 6,500-ton segment was “rolled” into place (Figure 2). The entire operation was accomplished 11 hours ahead of schedule (B. Kahn, 2007).Probably the most extensive and stunning collection of prefabricated applications on a single project was on the Central Artery/Tunnel Project (“Big Dig”) in Boston. For the Ted Williams Tunnel, a dozen 325-foot-long steel tunnel sections were constructed in Baltimore, shipped to Boston, floated into place, and then submerged. However, for the section of the tunnel that runs beneath the Four Points Channel, which is part of the I-90 extension, bridge restrictions made this approach infeasible. Instead, a huge casting basin was constructed adjacent to the channel where 30- to 50-ton concrete tunnel sections were manufactured The basin was flooded and the sections winched into position with cables and then submerged.An even more complicated process was used to build the extension tunnel under existing railroad tracks, which had poor underlying soil conditions. Concrete and steel boxes were built at one end of the tunnel, then gradually pushed into place through soil that had been frozen using a network of brine-filled pipes (Vanderwarker, 2001).Specialty Portland Cement ConcretesNew generations of specialty concretes have improved one or more aspects of performance and allow for greater flexibility in highway design and construction. High-performance concrete typically has compressive strengths of at least 10,000 psi. Today, ultra-high-performance concretes with formulations that include silica fume, quartz flour, water reducers, and steel or organic fibers have even greater durability and compressive strengths up to 30,000 psi. These new concretes can enable construction with thinner sections and longer spans (M.S. Kahn, 2007).Latex-modified concrete overlays have been used for many years to extend the life of existing, deteriorating concrete bridge decks by the Virginia DOT, which pioneered the use of very early strength latex-modified concretes for this application. In high-traffic situations, the added costs of the concrete have been more than offset by savings in traffic-control costs and fewer delays for drivers (Sprinkel, 2006).When the air temperature dips below 40， costly insulation techniques must be used when pouring concrete for highway projects. By using commercially available admixtures that depress the freezing point of water, the U.S. Cold-Weather Research and Engineering Laboratory has developed new concrete formulations that retain their strength and durability at temperatures as low as 23?F. Compared to insulation techniques, this innovation has significantly decreased construction costs and extended the construction season in cold weather regions (Korhonen, 2004).As useful as these and other specialty concretes are, nanotechnology and nanoengineering techniques, which are still in their infancy, have the potential to make even more dramatic improvements in theperformance and cost of concrete.Waste and Recycled MaterialsHighway construction has a long history of using industrial waste and by-product materials. The motivations of the construction industry were simple—to help dispose of materials that are otherwise difficult to manage and to reduce the initial costs of highway construction. The challenge has been to use these materials in ways that do not compromise critical performance properties and that do not introduce substances that are potenti-ally harmful to people or the environment. At the same time, as concerns about sustainability have become more prominent in public thinking, the incentives to use by-product materials have increased. In addition, because the reconstruction and resurfacing of highways create their own waste, recycling these construction materials makes economic and environmental sense.Research and demonstration projects have generated many successful uses of by-product and recycled materials in ways that simultaneously meet performance, environmental, and economic objectives. For example, “crumb rubber” from old tires is increasingly being used as an additive in certain hot-mix asphalt pavement designs, and a number of patents have been issued related to the production and design of crumb rubber or asphalt rubber pavements (CDOT, 2003; Epps, 1994).Several states, notably California and Arizona, use asphalt rubber hot mix as an overlay for distressed flexible and rigid pavements and as a means of reducing highway noise. Materials derived from discarded tires have also been successfully used as lightweight fill for highway embankments and backfill for retaining walls, as well as for asphalt-based sealers and membranes (Epps, 1994; TRB, 2001).Fly ash, a residue from coal-burning power plants, and silica fume, a residue from metal-producing furnaces, are increasingly being used as additives to portland cement concrete. Fly-ash concretes can reduce alkali-silica reactions that lead to the premature deterioration of concrete (Lane, 2001), and silica fume is a component of the ultra-high-performance concrete described above.After many years of experimentation and trials, reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is now routinely used in virtually all 50 states as a substitute for aggregate and a portion of the asphalt binder in hot-mix asphalt, including Superpave mixes. The reclaimed material typically constitutes 25 to 50 percent of the “new” mix (TFHRC, 1998). The National Asphalt Pavement Association estimates that 90 percent of the asphalt pavement removed each year is recycled and that approximately 125 millions tons of RAP are produced, with an annual savings of $300 million (North Central Superpave Center, 2004).Visualization, Global Positioning Systems, and Other New Tools For more than 20 years, highway engineers have used two-dimensional, computer-aided drafting and design (CADD) systems to accelerate the design process and reduce costs. The benefits of CADD systems have derived essentially from automating the conventional design process, with engineers doing more or less what they had done before, although much faster and with greater flexibility.New generations of three- and four-dimensional systems are introducing new ways of designing roads, as well as building them (Figure 4). For example, three-dimensional visualization techniques are clearly useful for engineers. But, perhaps more importantly, they have improved the communication of potential designs to affected communities and public officials; in fact, they represent an entirely new design paradigm. Four-dimensional systems help engineers and contractors analyze the constructability of proposed designs well in advance of actual constructionGlobal positioning systems are being used in surveying/layout, in automated guidance systems for earth-moving equipment, and for monitoring quantities. Other innovations include in situ temperature sensors coupled with data storage, transmission, and processing devices that provide onsite information about the maturity and strength of concrete as it cures (Hannon, 2007; Hixson, 2006).ConclusionThe examples described above suggest the wide range of exciting innovations in the design and construction of highways. These innovations address materials, roadway and bridge designs, design and construction methods, road safety, and a variety of environmental, community, and aesthetic concerns. Looking to the future, however, challenges to the U.S. highway system will be even more daunting—accommodating more traffic and higher loadings; reducing traffic disruptions during construction; meeting more stringent environmental, community, and safety requirements; and continuing pressure to reduce costs. Addressing these challenges will require a commitment to innovation and the research that supports innovation.中文翻译高速公路设计与施工：创新的挑战作者：小罗伯特·E·斯金纳研究方式的创新和进步正在改变着美国公路建设的方式。
道路路面毕业设计外文翻译
毕业论文（外文翻译）（2012届）学院名称土木与水利工程学院专业（班级）土木工程七班姓名（学号）李小润（20083650）指导教师扈惠敏系（教研室）负责人方诗圣PavementHighway pavements are divided into two main categories: rigitand flexible.The wearing surfaceof a rigid pavement is usually constructed of Portland cement concrete such that it acts like a beam over any irregularities in the underlying supporting material.The wearing surface of flexible pavements, on the other hand, is usually constructed of bituminous material such that they remain in contact with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur.Flexible pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface underlaid with a layer of granular material and a layer of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials.Coarse aggregatesFine aggregatesTraffic loads are transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials through the interlocking of aggregates, the frictionaleffect of the granular materials, and the cohesion of the fine materials.Flexible pavements are further divided into three subgroups: high type, intermediate type, and low type. High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that adequately support the expected traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather conditions.Intermediate-type pavements have wearing surfaces that range from surface treated to those with qualities just below that of high-type pavements. Low-type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing surfaces that range from untreated to loose natural materials to surface-treated earth.✹The components of a flexible pavement include the subgradeor prepared roadbed, the subbase, basecourse, and the surface course (Fig.11.1).✹Upper surface courseMiddle surface courseLower surface courseThe performance of the pavement depends on the satisfactory performance of each component, which requires proper evaluation of the properties of each component separately.✹The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of the pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure.✹The subgrademay also consist of a layer of selected borrow materials, well compacted to prescribedspecifications.✹Compacting plantCompaction deviceCompactnessIt may be necessary to treat the subgrade material to achieve certain strength properties required for the type of pavement being constructed.Located immediately above the subgrade, the subbase component consists of a superior quality to that which generally is used for subgrade construction. The requirements for subbase materials are usually given in terms of the gradation, plastic characteristics, and strength. When the quality of the subgrade material meets the requirements of the subbase material, the subbase component may be omitted.In cases where suitable subbase material is not readily available ,the available material can be treated with other materials to achieve the necessary properties. This process of treating soils to improve their engineering properties is know as stabilization.✹The base course lies immediately above the subbase. It is placed immediately above the subgrade if a subbase course is not used.✹This course usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone, crushed or uncrushed.The specifications for base course materials usually include stricter requirements than those for subbase materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity, gradation, and strength.Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base materials if they are properly stabilized with Portland cement, asphalt, or lime .In some cases, high-quality base course materials may also be treated with asphalt or Portland cement to improve the stiffness characteristics of heavy-duty pavementsThe surface course is the upper course of the road pavement and is constructed immediately above the base course. The surface course in flexible pavement usually consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and asphaltic materials.It should be capable of withstanding high tire pressures, resisting the abrasive forces due to traffic, providing a skid-resistant driving surface, and preventing the penetration of surface water into the underlying layers.✹The thickness of the wearing surface can vary from 3 in. to more than 6 in.（inch，英寸，2.54cm）, depending on the expected traffic on the pavement.It was shown that the quality of the surface course of a flexible pavement depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used.✹Rigid highway pavements usually are constructed to carry heavy traffic loads, although they have been used for residential and local roads. Properly designed and constructed rigid pavements have long service lives and usually are less expensive to maintain than the flexible pavements.✹The Portland cement concrete commonly used for rigid pavements consists of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water. Steel reinforcing rods may or may not be used, depending on the type of pavement being constructed.Rigid highway pavements be divided into three general type: plain concrete pavements, simply reinforced concrete pavements, and continuously reinforced concrete pavement. The definition of each pavement type is related to the amount of reinforcement used.Plain concrete pavement has no temperature steel or dowels for load transfer.However, steel tie bars are often used to provide a hingeeffect at longitudinal joints and to prevent the opening of these joints. Plain concrete pavements are used mainly on low-volume highways or when cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase.Joints are placed at relatively shorter distances (10 to 20 ft) than with the other types of concrete pavements to reduce the amount of cracking.In some case, the transverse joints of plain concrete pavements are skewed about 4 to 5 ft in plan, such that only one wheel of a vehicle passes through the joint at a time. This helps to provide a smoother ride.Simply reinforced concrete pavements have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with these joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft. Temperature steel is used throughout the slab, with the amount dependent on the length of the slab. Tie bars are also commonly used in longitudinal joints.Continuously reinforced concrete pavements have no transverse joints, except construction joints or expansion joints when they are necessary at specific positions, such as at bridges.These pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross section of the slab. They also contain tie bars across the longitudinal joints.h/2h/25~10cm填缝料 横向施工缝构造填缝料平缝加拉杆型Bituminous Surface CoursesThe bituminous surface course has to provide resistance to the effects of repeated loading by tyres and to the effects of the environment.✹In addition, it must offer adequate skid resistance in wet weather as well as comfortable vehicle ride. It must also be resistant to rutting and to cracking.✹It is also desirable that surface course is impermeable, except in the case of porous asphalt.Hot rolled asphalt (HRA) is a gapgraded material with less coarse aggregate. In fact it is essentially a bitumen/fine aggregate/filler mortar into which some coarse aggregate is placed.The mechanical propertiesare dominated by those of the mortar. This material has been extensively used as the wearing course on major road in the UK, though its use has recently declined as new materials have been introduced.✹It provides a durablelayer with good resistance to cracking and one which is relatively easy to compact. The coarse aggregate content is low (typically 30%) which results in the compacted mixture having a smooth surface. Accordingly, the skid resistance is inadequate and precoated chippings are rolled into the surface at the time of laying to correct this deficiency.In Scotland, HRA wearing course remains the preferred wearing course on trunk roads including motorway but，since 1999 thin surfacings have been the preferred option in England and Wales. Since 1999 in Northern Ireland, HRA wearing course and thin surfacings are the preferred permitted options.Porous asphalt (PA) is a uniformly graded material which is designed to provide large air voids so that water can drain to the verges within the layer thickness. If the wearing course is to be effective, the basecourse below must be waterproof and the PA must have the ability to retain its open textured properties with time.Thick binder films are required to resist water damage and ageing of the binder. In use, this material minimizes vehicle spray, provides a quiet ride and lower rolling resistance to traffic than dense mixtures.✹It is often specified for environmental reasons but stone mastic asphalt (SMA) and special thin surfacings are generally favoured in current UK practice.There have been high profile instances where a PA wearing course has failed early in its life. The Highways Agency does not recommend the use of a PA at traffic levels above 6000 commercial vehicles per day.✹Asphaltic concrete and dense bitumen macadam (DBM) are continuously graded mixtures similar in principle to the DBMs used in roadbases and basecourses but with smaller maximum particle sizes. Asphaltic concrete tends to have a slightlydenser grading and is used for road surfaces throughout the world with the excepting of the UK.✹It is more difficult to meet UK skid resistance Standards with DBMs than HRA, SMA or PA. This problem can be resolves by providing a separate surface treatment but doing so generally makes DBM economically unattractive.✹Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) material was pioneeredin Germany and Scandinavia and is now widely used in the UK. SMA has a coarse, aggregrate skeleton, like PA, but the voids are filled with a fine aggregate/filler /bitumen mortar.✹In mixtures using penetration grade bitumen , fibres are added to hold the bitumen within the mixture (to prevent “binder drainage”).Bitumen✹oil bitumen( earth oil)✹natural bitumen✹TarWhere a polymer modified bitumen is used, there is generally no need for fibres. SMA is a gap-graded material with good resistance to rutting and high durability. modified bitumen✹SBS✹SBR✹PE\EV A✹It differs from HRA in that the mortar is designed to just fill the voids in the coarse aggregate whereas, in HRA, coarse aggregate is introduced into the mortar and does not provide a continous stone matrix. The higher stone content HRAs ,however, are rather similar to SMA but are not wide used as wearing courses in the UK, being preferred for roadbase and basecourse construction.A variety of thin and what were called ultra thin surfacings (nowadays, the tendency is to use the term ‘thin surfacings’ for both thin and ultra thin surfacings ) have been introduced in recent years, principally as a result of development work concentrated in France.These materials vary in their detailed constituents but usually have an aggregate grading similar to SMA and often incorporate a polymer modified bitumen.They may be used over a high stiffness roadbase and basecourse or used for resurfacing of existing pavements. For heavy duty pavements (i .e those designed to have a useful life of forty years), the maintenance philosophy is one of minimum lane occupancy, which only allows time for replacement of the wearing course to these ‘long life’ pavement structures. The new generation of th in surfacings allows this to be conveniently achieved.The various generic mixture types described above can be compared with respect to their mechanical properties and durability characteristics by reference to Fig.12.1. This shows, in principle, how low stone content HRA, asphaltic concrete, SMA and PA mixtures mobilize resistance to loading by traffic.Asphaltic concrete (Fig.12.1a)) presents something of a compromise when well designed, since the dense aggregate grading can offer good resistance to the shear stresses which cause rutting, while an adequate binder content will provide reasonable resistance to the tensile stresses which cause cracking.In general, the role of the aggregate dominates. DBMs tend to have less dense gradings and properties which, therefore, tend towards good rutting resistance andaway from good crack resistance.HRA (Fig.12.1b)) offers particularly good resistance to cracking through the binder rich mortar between the coarse aggregate particles. This also provides good durability but the lack of coarse aggregate content inhibits resistance to rutting.SMA and PA are shown in the same diagram ( Fig.c)) to emphasis the dominant role the coarse aggregate. In both case, well coated stone is used. In PA, the void space remains available for drainage of water, whilst in SMA, the space is occupied by a fine aggregate/ filler/ bitumen/ fibre mortar.Both materials offer good rutting resistance through the coarse aggregate content. The tensile strength of PA is low whilst that of SMA is probably adequate but little mechanical testing data have been reported to date.Drainage for Road and Airports✹Provision of adequate drainage is important factor in the location and geometric design of road and airports. Drainage facilities on any highway, street and airport should adequately provide for the flow of water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels.Inadequate drainage will eventually result in serious damage to the structure.✹In addition, traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray. The importance of adequate drainage is recognized in the amount of highway construction dollars allocated to drainage facilities. About25 percent of highway construction dollars are spent for erosion control anddrainage structures, such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.✹Highway Drainage Structures✹One of the main concerns of the highway engineer is to provide an adequate size structure, such that the waterway opening is sufficiently large to discharge the expected flow of water.Inadequately sized structures can result in water impounding, which may lead to failure of the adjacent sections of the highway due to embankments being submerged in water for long periods.✹The two general categories of drainage structures are major and minor. Major structures are those with clear spans greater than 20 feet, whereas minor structures are those with clear spans of 20 feet or less .✹Major structures are usually large bridges, although multiple-span culverts may also be included in this class. Minor structures include small bridges and culverts.Emphasis is placed on selecting the span and vertical clearancerequirements for major structures. The bridge deck should be located above the high water mark .The clearance above the high water mark depends on whether the waterway is navigable ✹If the waterway is navigable, the clearance above the high water mark should allow the largest ship using the channel to pass underneath the bridge without colliding with the bridge deck. The clearance height, type, and spacing of piers also depend on the probability of ice jams and the extentto which floating logs and debris appear on the waterway during high water.✹An examination of the banks on either side of the waterway will indicate the location of the high water mark, since this is usually associated with signs of erosion and debris deposits. Local residents, who have lived near and observed the waterway during flood stages over a number of years, can also give reliable information on the location of the high water mark. Stream gauges that have been installed in the waterway for many years can also provide data that can be used to locate the high water mark.Minor structures, consisting of short-span bridges and culverts, are the predominant type of drainage structures on highways. Although openings for these structures are not designed to be adequate for the worst flood conditions, they shouldbe large enough to accommodate the flow conditions that might occur during the normal life expectancy of the structure.✹Provision should also be made for preventing clogging of the structure due to floating debris and large boulders rolling from the banks of steep channels.✹Culverts are made of different materials and in different shapes. Materials used to construct culverts include concrete（reinforced and unreinforced）, corrugated steel, and corrugatedaluminum. Other materials may also be used to line the interiorof the culvert to prevent corrosion and abrasionor to reduce hydraulic resistance. For example, asphaltic concrete may be used to line corrugated metal culverts. The different shapes normally used in culvert construction include circular, rectangular (box), elliptical, pipe arch, metal box, and arch.✹The drainage problem is increased in these areas primarily for two reasons: the impervious nature of the area creates a very high runoff; and there is little room for natural water courses. It is often necessary to collect the entire storm water into a system of pipes and transmit it over considerable distances before it can be loosed again as surface runoff. This collection and transmission further increase the problem, since all of the water must be collected with virtually no pending, thus eliminating any natural storage; and through increased velocity the peak runoffs are reached more quickly.Also, the shorter times of peaks cause the system to be more sensitive to short-duration,high intensive rainfall.Storm sewers,like culverts and bridges,are designed for storms of various intensity-return-period relationships, depending upon the economy and amount of ponding that can be tolerated.✹Airport Drainage✹The problem of providing proper drainage facilities for airports is similar in many ways to that of highways and streets. However, because of the large and relatively flat surface involved, the varying soil conditions, the absence of natural water courses and possible side ditches, and the greater concentration of discharge at the terminus of the construction area, some phases of the problem are more complex. For the average airport the over-all area to be drained is relatively large and an extensive drainage system is required. The magnitude of such a system makes it even more imperative that sound engineering principles based on all of the best available data be used to ensure the most economical design.Overdesigning of facilities results in excessive money investment with no return, and underdesigning can result in conditions hazardous to the air traffic using the airport. In order to ensure surfaces that are smooth, firm, stable, and reasonably free from flooding, it is necessary to provide a system which will do several things.It must collect and remove the surface water from the airport surfaces; intercept and remove surface water flowing toward the airport from adjacent areas; collect and remove any excessive subsurface water beneath the surface of the airport facilities and in many cases lower the ground-water table; and provide protection against erosion of the sloping areas.路面公路的路面被分为两类：刚性的和柔性的。
道路桥梁毕业设计翻译-英文
Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9/locate/compstruc Determination of initial cable forces in prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges for given design deck pro®les usingthe force equilibrium methodD.W. Chen a, F.T.K. Au b,*, L.G. Tham b, P.K.K. Lee baDepartment of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, People's Republic of ChinabDepartment of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of ChinaReceived 14 August 1997; accepted 18 November 1998AbstractThe determination of initial cable forces in a prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge for a given vertical pro®le of deck under its dead load is an important but di•cult task that a ects the overall design of the bridge. A new method utilizing the idea of force equilibrium is presented in this paper for their determination. The method can easily account for the e ect of prestressing and the additional bending moments due to the vertical pro®le of the bridge deck. It is much more rational and simple than the traditional ``zero displacement'' method, and it is able to achieve bending moments in the bridge deck approaching those in a continuous beam over rigid simple supports. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Prestressed concrete; Cable-stayed bridge; Initial cable force; Vertical pro®le1. IntroductionThe cable-stayed bridge is a modern form of bridge which is both economical and aesthetic. It has been extensively employed in the construction of long-span bridges in the past few decades. However this kind of structure is highly statically indetermi-nate, and therefore many schemes of initial cable forces are possible. In the particular case of pre-stressed concrete cable-stayed bridges, it is especially important to choose an appropriate scheme of initial cable forces while the bridge is under dead load only. Owing to shrinkage and creep, the de¯ections * Corresponding author. Tel.: +852-2859-2668; fax: +852-2559-5337. will change with the passage of time and the internal forces may also redistribute. Should an inappropriate scheme of initial cable forces be chosen, an un-favourable pattern of internal forces may be locked in subsequently, for which there may be no simple solution.Theoretically it is possible to search for a ``stable'' scheme of initial cable forces under which there is the minimum redistribution of internal forces and time-dependent displacements. However it is usually very di•cult in view of the many factors a ecting the sub-sequent time-dependent deformations. For example, many cable-stayed bridges are constructed using cast in situ segmental cantilever construction, which gives rise to complex e ects of shrinkage and creep because of the di erent ages of concrete. The presence of longi-tudinal prestressing also complicates the problem0045-7949/00/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 4 5 - 7 9 4 9 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 3 1 5 - 02 D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9further. Inevitably some simplifying assumptions have to be made.2. Review of existing methodsThe scheme of initial cable forces giving rise to bending moments in the bridge deck approaching those of an equivalent continuous beam with all the supports from cables and towers considered as rigid simple supports is generally acknowledged to be both rational and practi-cal, as the long-term behaviour of the bridge is reason-ably ``stable''. The problem hinges upon how to achieve this scheme of initial cable forces. There are two main categories of methods in achieving an appropriate scheme of initial cable forces in prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges [1±8], namely the optimization method [2±5] and the ``zero displacement'' method [6].In the optimization method [2±5], the initial cable forces are chosen based on the optimization of certain objective functions which may either be related to structural e•ciency or economy. In this method, the total strain energy is often one of the objective func-tions to be minimized. It is necessary to impose the constraints for optimization very carefully, or else the resulting schemes may sometimes become impractical.On the other hand, the traditional ``zero displace-ment'' method [6] is more straightforward in theory, and it enables the designer to ®ne-tune the initial cable forces as well as the structural con®guration. If a straight and horizontal bridge deck is supported on a number of stay cables, the horizontal components of the cable forces have little e ect on the bending moments of the deck, and hence the bending moments are primarily governed by the vertical components of the cable forces and the dead load. In the ``zero displa-cement'' method, an appropriate scheme of initial cable forces is obtained by making the de¯ections at the cable anchorages vanish. When the deck gradient is negligible, the resulting bending moments in the deck are essentially those of an equivalent continuous beam with all supports from cables and towers con-sidered as rigid simple supports. However, when the vertical pro®le of the bridge deck is signi®cant by reason of tra•c requirements or otherwise, the basis of this method is itself questionable. As the horizontal components of the cable forces will induce additional bending moments in the deck, the resulting bending moments are likely to cause substantial redistribution in the long run. In this case, what really matter are the bending moments because they will a ect the long term behaviour of the bridge. Whether the correspond-ing displacements are zero or not is immaterial, as they can be adequately controlled by appropriate precamber or preset of the deck during construction.In this paper, a new method utilizing the idea of force equilibrium is presented for the determination of a ``stable'' scheme of initial cable forces. The method can easily account for the e ect of prestressing and the vertical pro®le of the bridge deck, and therefore it is much more rational as well as simpler than the tra-ditional ``zero displacement'' method. Two numerical examples using real cases of prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges are presented to demonstrate the versa-tility of the proposed method.3. The force equilibrium methodIn the force equilibrium method, the cable-stayed bridge is modelled as a planar structure. The method works on an evolving substructure eventually compris-ing the bridge deck and towers, and searches for a set of cable forces which will give rise to desirable bending moments at selected locations of the substructure. As the method works only on the equilibrium of forces rather than deformation, there is no need to deal with non-linearity caused by cable sag and other e ects. The method is therefore computationally e•cient.First of all, certain sections of the bridge deck andFig. 1. A typical single tower cable-stayed bridge.D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9 3Fig. 2. Stage 1 model for cable-stayed bridge shown in Fig. 1.tower are chosen as control sections where the bendingmoments are adjusted by varying the cable forces. Consider a typical single tower cable-stayed bridge, as shown in Fig. 1, in which the connection between the bridge deck and tower is monolithic. To establish the tar-get bending moments, only the bridge deck is considered. All supports from the cables and tower are replaced by rigid simple supports, as shown in Fig. 2. This is regarded as the Stage 1 model for the sake of subsequent discus-sions. The prestressing to be applied during construction is also taken into account. The bending moments caused by dead load in the bridge deck under such modi®ed sup-port conditions are then taken to be the target bending moments. It is noted that the prestressing to be intro-duced after the completion of the bridge deck is not taken into account here. These target bending moments are adopted because the e ects of creep and shrinkage of concrete tend to change the bending moments towards these target values in the long term anyway [1]. If the in-itial bending moments in the towers can be controlled at the same time, the scheme of initial cable forces is reason-ably stable. It is further assumed here that factors such as the di erences in age among deck segments are insigni®-cant in the long term and therefore they are neglected.Fig. 3 shows the same bridge as in Fig. 1, except that all cables are taken away and replaced by the in-ternal forces. This simpli®ed model applies to both Stages 2 and 3. The only di erence between these two stages lies in the degree of sophistication. The cable forces are taken as independent variables for adjust-ment of bending moments at the control sections. Normally the bending moment at each deck section where a cable is anchored is treated as a control par-ameter. It should be pointed out that wherever a model consists of a back-stay anchored at the deckabove an end pier, where the deck carries no bending moment, the corresponding cable force can be treated as an additional variable to improve the structural e•-ciency further. For example, the bending moment at the deck-tower junction or that at the tower base may be taken to be an additional control parameter as they are critical sections a ecting the long term behaviour. The target bending moments at the deck sections are those obtained from the Stage 1 model whereas the target bending moment at the chosen tower section is normally set as zero.The above arguments can also be extended to other con®gurations of cable-stayed bridges. In a symmetric single tower cable-stayed bridge without back-stays anchored above end piers, the bending moments in the tower should normally be zero under dead load, and therefore there is no need to treat any of these as a con-trol parameter. In a two-tower cable-stayed bridge of symmetric arrangement, it is only necessary to consider one half of the bridge with appropriate boundary con-ditions at the middle section to account for symmetry, and the above reasoning can similarly be applied.The main purpose for setting up the Stage 2 model is to evaluate the approximate in¯uence coe•cients, which are the bending moments at the control sections caused by a unit load in a certain cable. In order not to introduce the non-linearity of cable sti nesses, some simplifying assumptions are made. The self-weight of each cable is neglected, and hence the forces at the ends are roughly equal. The bending moments in the deck are primarily determined by the cable forces act-ing on the deck, and to a lesser degree by the cable forces acting on the tower. Therefore the cable forces acting on the tower are neglected in the calculation of bending moments in the deck. Similarly in the calcu-Fig. 3. Model for stages 2 and 3 for cable-stayed bridge shown in Fig. 1.4D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9lation of bending moment at the control section at the tower, only the cable forces acting on the tower are taken into account. The errors introduced by these simplifying assumptions will be almost eliminated by iterations in the next stage.Considering the equilibrium of the Stage 2 model, the following equation can be written:fM 0g ˆ ‰m Šf T g ‡ f M dg…1†where {M 0} is an N-dimensional vector containing thetarget bending moments M 0i derived from the Stage 1 model, [m ] is an N N matrix containing approximate in¯uence coe•cients m ij for the Stage 2 model in which m ij is the bending moment at the ith control sec-tion caused by a unit force in the jth cable, {T } is an N-dimensional vector containing the cable forcesT j , {M d} is an N-dimensional vector containing thebend-ing moments M di caused by only dead load and pres-tress in the Stage 2 model, N is the number of cables considered in the model, i is the subscript correspond-ing to the ith control section and j is the subscript cor-responding to the jth cable. If {M 0} contains the bending moments of the equiv-alent continuous beam on rigid simple supports as obtained from the Stage 1 model, and the control sec-tions are well chosen so that the matrix [m ] is non-singular, an initial estimate of the cable forces {T 0} can be calculated from the Stage 2 model asfT 0g ˆ ‰m Šÿ1ÿfM 0g ÿ f M dg {T 0…2† However the cable forces } obtained above are only rough estimates as the Stage 2 model does not take into account the interaction among tower, cables and deck. It is therefore necessary to build the Stage 3 model.In the Stage 3 model, the interaction among tower, cables and deck is taken into account by iterations. The cable forces at the deck anchorages are taken as independent variables in the optimization process, and the self-weight of each cable can also be introduced.Using the initial estimate of the cable forces {T 0}, as wellas the bending moments {M d} caused by dead load and prestress in the Stage 2 model, the updated deckbending moments {M 1} can be calculated from the Stage 3 model. Such bending moments are nor-mally dierent from the target bending moments {M 0}, and henceit is necessary to introduce some adjustments {DT 1} of the cable forces given byfDT 1g ˆ ‰m Šÿ1ÿfM 1g ÿ f M 0g 1…3†Using the updated cable forces {T } given by fT 1g ˆ f T 0g ‡ f DT 1g…4†the updated deck bending moments {M 2} can then be calculated again from the Stage 3 model. Notice that the approximate in¯uence matrix [m ] for the Stage 2 model has been used in the Stage 3 model, and hence further iterations are necessary. Furtheradjustments {DT 2} may be obtained byfDT 2g ˆ ‰m Šÿ1ÿfM 2g ÿ f M 0g…5†resulting in more accurate cable forces {T 2} given byFig. 4. Flow chart describing the present method.D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9 5fT 2g ˆ f Tg ‡ f DT1g ‡ f DT2g…6†This process can be repeated until the updated deck bending moments {M n} converge to {M 0}. This is summarized in the ¯ow chart shown in Fig. 4.4. Numerical examplesTwo numerical examples are presented to demon-strate that the present method is both rational and re-liable. Both are taken from existing prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges in China, but some minor simplifying modi®cations are made.4.1. Example 1. A single tower prestressed concretecable-stayed bridge with harp arrangementThe ®rst example is a single tower prestressed con-crete cable-stayed bridge, situated in Ningbo City, China,with spans of 90 and 105 m. The moment of inertia (I D), the cross sectional area (A D) and the Young's modulus (E D) of the deck are 4.706 m4, 12.145 m2and 3.5 107 kN/m2, respectively. The stay cables are of the harp arrangement. Three types of stay cables are used, andtheir respective cross sec-tional areas (A S) are 0.013, 0.0166 and 0.0208 m2. The Young's modulus of the stay cables (E S) is 2.1 108 kN/m2. The tower is stepped with the biggest section below the bridge deck and the smallest section over the length where the cables areanchored. The moments of inertia (I T) of the tower are 11.212, 19.939 and 79.688 m4. The corresponding cross sectional areas (A T) are 14.46, 19.0 and 45 m2, respectively, while the Young's modulus (E T) is 3 107 kN/m2. The infor-mation on the prestressing is omitted for brevity.Three di erent vertical pro®les of the bridge deck have been considered. The bridge deck is straight and horizontal in case 1. In cases 2 and 3, both the vertical pro®les consist of a symmetric parabolic summit curve of 180 m horizontal length and a straight tangent of 15 m. The highest point is precisely at the tower lo-cation. The gradients of the straight tangents for cases 2 and 3 are 3% and 9%, respectively. Fig. 5 shows an elevation of the bridge for case 3.The present method was applied to optimize the bending moments in the bridge deck for the three cases, and the tolerance value used to terminate iter-ations was 5 kNm. The results for case 3 are shown graphically in Figs. 6±8. Notice that the deck bending moments after optimization agree well with the target values obtained from an equivalent beam on rigid simple supports, except at the tower section which was not chosen as a control section. The abrupt jumps in bending moment are caused by prestressing. The bend-ing moment at the tower base is also very close to zero after optimization.The three cases were also analysed by the ``zero dis-placement'' method using 0.001 m as the tolerance value to terminate iterations. The initial cable forces for the three cases obtained by the present method are tabulated in Table 1 and compared to those obtained by the ``zero displacement'' method. It is observed that when the bridge deck has no slope, i.e. case 1, results from the above two methods are e ectively the same. There are, however, marked di erences in the other two cases, especially in the cables close to the tower.4.2. Example 2. A single tower prestressed concretecable-stayed bridge with semi-fan arrangementThe second example is also a single tower pre-stressed concrete cable-stayed bridge, situated in Jilin Province, China, with spans of 95 and 132 m. The moment of inertia (I D), the cross sectional area (A D) and the Young's modulus (E D) of the deck are 5.1 m4, 10.579 m2 and 3.5 107 kN/m2, respectively. The stay cables are of the semi-fan arrangement. Three types ofFig. 5. A single tower prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge with harp arrangement (example 1).6D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9Fig. 6. Internal forces in bridge deck of example 1 (case 3). (a) Target bending moment in kNm; (b) bending moment in kNm; (c) shear force in kN; (d) axial force in kN.stay cables are used, and their respective cross sec-tional areas (A S ) are 0.020, 0.019 and 0.013 m 2. TheYoung's modulus of the stay cables (E S ) is 2.1 108kN/m 2. The tower is stepped in a manner similar to example 1, and the moments of inertia (I T ) are 17.92,24.01 and 47.73 m 4. The corresponding cross sectionalareas (A T ) are 17.92, 13.44 and 37.20 m 2, respectively,while the Young's modulus (E T ) is 3 107 kN/m 2. The e ects of prestressing are not considered in this example for simplicity. The vertical pro®le consists of a symmetric parabolic summit curve of 190 m horizon-tal length and a straight tangent of 37 m. The highestpoint is again precisely at the tower location. The gra-dient of the straight tangent is 6% as shown in Fig. 9. The results obtained using the present method are shown in Figs. 10±12, indicating very good agreement between the deck bending moments and the target values.5. ConclusionsA new method utilizing the idea of force equilibrium is presented for the determination of an optimumFig. 7. Cable forces of example 1 (case 3) in kN.D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9 7 Fig. 8. Internal forces in bridge tower of example 1 (case 3). (a) Bending moment in kNm; (b) shear force in kN; (c) axial force in kN.scheme of initial cable forces in a prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge for a given vertical pro®le of deck under its dead load as well as prestress. In the pro-posed method, the sti nesses of the cables do not enter into the calculations, and it therefore obviates the need Table 1Initial cable forces for example 1 (kN) for introducing non-linearity into the algorithm. The bending moments, rather than the displacements, of the deck are taken as parameters to be controlled. The additional bending moments caused by the vertical pro®le of the deck can also be taken into account.Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Present Zero displacement Present Zero displacement Present Zero displacement Cable no. method method method method method method1 14,045 14,045 14,483 14,398 15,458 15,3512 3931 3931 3969 3975 4044 40653 8832 8832 8919 8915 9130 91164 6757 6757 6798 6800 6836 68415 7242 7242 7200 7200 7126 71256 6900 6900 6825 6818 6637 66307 7727 7727 7561 7590 7283 73118 6676 6676 6605 6497 6224 61179 6707 6707 6016 6416 5428 582610 2889 2889 4251 2754 3971 248411 14,618 14,618 11,288 14,323 11,143 13,75812 14,619 14,619 11,298 14,339 11,118 13,76913 2887 2888 4245 2747 3961 247414 6706 6706 6013 6414 5422 582015 6680 6680 6607 6499 6222 611516 7714 7714 7552 7582 7270 729917 6948 6948 6867 6860 6678 667118 7064 7064 7024 7025 6931 693419 7304 7304 7340 7339 7427 742120 6998 6998 7027 7032 7028 704421 10,768 10,768 10,922 10,912 11,560 11,52422 8924 8924 9306 9311 9908 99248 D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9Fig. 9. A single tower prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge with semi-fan arrangement (example 2).Fig. 10. Internal forces in bridge deck of example 2. (a) Target bending moment in kNm; (b) bending moment in kNm; (c) shear force in kN; (d) axial force in kN.Fig. 11. Cable forces of example 2 in kN.D.W. Chen et al. / Computers and Structures 74 (2000) 1±9 9Fig. 12. Internal forces in bridge tower of example 2. (a) Bending moment in kNm; (b) shear force in kN; (c) axial force in kN.Two real prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges have been investigated using the proposed method, which demonstrate that it is both rational and practi-cal.It is also observed that, as far as the initial bending moments of the tower are concerned, the harp arrange-ment is less favourable than the fan or semi-fan arrangement, as the cables are anchored over a larger length in the former case. The proposed method is also a handy tool for optimizing the bending moments in the tower. AcknowledgementsThe ®nancial support of the block grant from the University Research Committee, The University of Hong Kong is acknowledged.References[1] Analysis of secondary stresses in prestressed concretecable-stayed bridges due to creep. Shanghai Institute of Design and Research in Municipal Engineering, Shanghai, 1983 (in Chinese).[2] Furukawa K, Sugimoto H, Egusa T, Inoue K, Yamada Y.Studies on optimization of cable prestressing for cable-stayed bridges. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Cable-stayed Bridges, Bangkok, 1987. p.723±34.[3] Lu Q, Xu YG. Optimum tensioning of cable-stays.Chinese Journal of Highway and Transport 1990;3(1):38± 48 (in Chinese).[4] SimoÄes LMC, NegraÄo JHO. Optimization of cable-stayed bridges with box-girder decks. In: Proceedings of the 1997 5th International Conference on Computer Aided Optimum Design of Structures, Rome, Italy, 1997.p. 21± 32.[5] NegraÄo JHO, SimoÄes LMC. Optimization of cable-stayed bridges with three-dimensional modelling.Computers and Structures 1997;64(14):741±58.[6] Wang PH, Tseng TC, Yang CG. Initial shape of cable-stayed bridges. Computers and Structures 1993;46(6):1095±106.[7] Wang XW, Xin XZ, Pan JY, Cheng QG. Determination ofrational cable forces under dead load of prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridges. Bridge Construction 1996;4:1±5 (in Chinese).[8] Xiao RC, Xiang HF. Optimization of cable forces incable-stayed bridges using the method of in¯uence matrix. In: Proceedings of the 12th National Conference of Bridge Engineering, Guang Zhou, 1996. p. 547±55 (in Chinese).。
毕设必备道路桥梁专业毕业设计英文翻译(英文原文+中文翻译)
Accident Analysis and PreventionThis paper describes a project undertaken to establish a self-explaining roads (SER) design programmeon existing streets in an urban area. The methodology focussed on developing a process to identifyfunctional road categories and designs based on endemic road characteristics taken from functionalexemplars in the study area. The study area was divided into two sections, one to receive SER treatments designed to maximise visual differences between road categories, and a matched control area to remainuntreated for purposes of comparison. The SER design for local roads included increased landscaping andcommunity islands to limit forward visibility, and removal of road markings to create a visually distinctroad environment. In comparison, roads categorised as collectors received increased delineation, additionof cycle lanes, and improved amenity for pedestrians. Speed data collected 3 months after implementationshowed a significant reduction in vehicle speeds on local roads and increased homogeneity of speeds onboth local and collector roads. The objective speed data, combined with r esidents’ speed choice ratings,indicated that the project was successful in creating two discriminably different road categories.2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. Introduction1.1. BackgroundChanging the visual characteristics of roads to influencedriver behaviour has come to be called the self-explaining roads(SER) approach (Theeuwes, 1998; Theeuwes and Godthelp, 1995;Rothengatter, 1999). Sometimes referred to as sustainable safety,as applied in the Netherlands, the logic behind the approach isthe use of road designs that evoke correct expectations and drivingbehaviours from road users (Wegman et al., 2005; Weller etal., 2008). The SER approach focuses on the three key principlesof functionality, homogeneity, and predictability (van Vliet andSchermers, 2000). In practice, functionality requires the creation ofa few well-defined road categories (e.g., through roads, distributorroads, and access roads) and ensuring that the use of a particularroad matches its intended function. Multifunctional roadslead to contradictory design requirements, confusion in the mindsof drivers, and incorrect expectations and inappropriate drivingbehaviour. Clearly defined road categories promote homogeneity intheir use and prevent large differences in vehicle speed, direction,and mass. Finally, predictability, or recognisability, means keepingthe road design and layout within each category as uniform as possibleand clearly differentiated from other categories so that thefunction of a road is easily recognised and will elicit the correctbehaviour from road users. The SER approach has been pursued tothe largest extent in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom but ithas also been of some interest inNewZealand. In 2004, the NationalRoad Safety Committee and the Ministry of Transport articulateda new National Speed Management Initiative which stated “Theemphas is is not just on speed limit enforcement, it includes perceptualmeasures that influence the speed that a driver feels is appropriatefor the section of road upon which they are driving–in effect the ‘selfexplainingroad”’ (New Zealand Ministry of Transport, 2004).In cognitive psychological terms, the SER approach attempts toimprove road safety via two complementary avenues. The first is toidentify and use road designs that afford desirable driver behaviour.Perceptual properties such as road markings, delineated lane width,and roadside objects can function as affordances that serve as builtininstructions and guide driver behaviour, either implicitly orexplicitly (Charlton, 2007a; Elliott et al., 2003; Weller et al., 2008).This work is more or less a direct development of work on perceptualcountermeasures, perceptual cues in the roading environmentthat imply or suggest a particular speed or lane position, eitherattentionally or perceptually (Charlton, 2004, 2007b; Godley et al.,1999).A second aspect of the SER approach is to establish mentalschemata and scripts, memory representations that will allowroad users to easily categorise the type of road on which they are.1.2. Localised speed managementThe traditional approaches to improving speed management,traffic calming and local area traffic management (LATM) havefocussed on treating specific problem locations or “black spots”in response to crash occurrences or complaints from the public(Ewing, 1999). A potential disadvantage of these approaches is thataddressing the problem with localised treatments can lead to are-emergence of the problem at another location nearby. Further,when applied inappropriately, localised approaches may addressthe problem from only one perspective, without considering theimpact on other types of road users or residents. When traffic calmingtreatments rely on physical obstacles such as speed humpsthey can be very unpopular with bothresidents and road users andcan create new problems associated with noise, maintenance, andvandalism (Martens et al., 1997).From an SER perspective, treatments that are highly localizedor idiosyncratic may do more harm than good by adding to themultiplicity of road categories and driver uncertainty, rather thanbuilding driver expectations around a few uniform road types.Instead of considering a single location in isolation, SER roaddesigns are considered within a hierarchy of road functions; e.g.,access roads, collector roads, and arterial roads. Although SERschemes may employ physical design elements used in trafficcalming schemes (e.g., road narrowing with chicanes and accesscontrols) they also employ a range of more visually oriented featuressuch as median and edge line treatments, road markings,pavement surfaces, and roadside furniture. For an effective SERscheme it is important to select the combination of features that will afford the desired driver speeds and to ensure their consistentuse to form distinct categories of road types (van der Horst andKaptein, 1998; Wegman et al., 2005).road category that would meet the three SER principles of functional use, homogeneous use, and predictable use. Herrstedt (2006)reported on the use of a standardised catalogue of treatments compiledfrom researcher and practitioner advice. Goldenbeld and vanSchagen (2007) used a survey technique to determine road characteristicsthat minimise the difference between drivers’ ratingsof preferred speed and perceived safe speed and select road featuresthat make posted speeds “credible”. Aarts and Davidse (2007)used a driving simulator to verify whether the “essential recognisabilitycharacteristics” of different road classes conformed to theexpectations of road users. Weller et al. (2008) employed a range of statistical techniques, including factor analysis and categoricalclustering to establish the road characteristics that drivers use tocategorise different road types.The practical difficulties of implementing an SER system thusbecome a matter of finding answers to a series of questions. Howdoes one create a discriminable road hierarchy for an existingroad network? What road characteristics should be manipulatedto establish category-defining road features? How can SER roadfeatures and selection methods be made relevant and appropriatefor a local context? (Roaddesigns appropriate for The Netherlandswould not be suitable in New Zealand, in spite of its name.) A surveyof national and international expert opinion in order establishcategory-defining road features for New Zealand roads revealedthat the regional character and local topography of roads oftenundercut the usefulness of any standardised catalogue of designcharacteristics (Charlton and Baas, 2006).1.4. Goals of the present projectThe project described in this paper sought to develop anddemonstrate an SER process based on retrofitting existing roadsto establish a clear multi-level road hierarchy with appropriatedesign speeds, ensuring that each level in the hierarchy possesseda different “look and feel”. Rather than transferring SER designs already in use internationally, the project attempted to develop amethod that would build on the features of roads in the local area;extending road characteristics with desirable affordances to otherroads lacking them and creating discriminable road categories inthe process. Of interest was whether such a process could producecost-effective designs and whether those designs would be effectivein creating different road user expectations and distinct speedprofiles for roads of different categories.2. MethodsThe research methodology/SER design process developed forthis project progressed through a series of five stages: (1) selectionof study area; (2) identification of the road hierarchy; (3) analysisof the road features; (4) development of a design template; and (5)implementation and evaluation of the SER treatments. Each of thestages is described in the sections that follow.2.1. Selection of study areaThe study area for this project (Pt England/Glen Innes in Auckland)was selected in consultation with a project steering groupcomprised of representatives from the Ministry of Transport, NewZealand Transport Agency, New Zealand Police, and other localtransport and urban agencies. The study area was an establishedneighbourhood contained amix of private residences, small shops,schools, and churches, and was selected, in part, because of its historyof cyclist, pedestrian and loss of controlcrashes, almost twicethe number。
道路工程(路桥)毕业设计外文文献翻译
外文文献翻译原文：Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory and Principles1 . ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry. The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however, and the one that will be consid ered here.Asphalt products are used to produce flexibl e pavements for highways and airports. The term “fl exible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength. This distinction is important because it provid es they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexibl e pavement structures.The flexibl e pavement classification may be further broken d own into high and l ow types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product is used. The l ow types of pavement are mad e with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country. Descriptive terminology has been devel oped in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names. However, the general process foll owed in construction is similar for most l ow-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or all owed to mix, forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some sel ected penetration grad e.Fig. ·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway. Should er striping is used as a safely feature.Fig. ·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport.They are used when high wheel l oads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation.2 . Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grad e of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size. The three groups are coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and mineral filler. These will be discussed in d etail in later chapter.Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphalt mixture, and mix proportioning or d esign is the process of ensuring that no function is negl ected. Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be consid ered so that d esign objectives can be established.A successful fl exible pavement must have several particular properties. First, it must be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under l oad. Deformation of an asphalt pavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable. Plastic d eformationof a pavement failure and which is to be avoid ed if possible. Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a l oss of resiliency and usually a d egree of roughness. This deformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure. The desirabl e type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexibl e pavements and is necessary to their long life.The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade. Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility. A durable pavement that does not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed. It must be remembered that fl exible pavements transmit l oads to the subgrad e without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential.Rapidly moving vehicl es d epend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety. The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result. The design procedure should be used to sel ect the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provid es a skid resistant roadway.Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available. Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments al ong with a so-call ed design method.The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy. Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been record ed. If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well.With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements. The functions of the aggregates is to carry the l oad imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interl ocking between the individual pieces of aggregates. The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to the surface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates. Surface texture varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surfacetexture is desired, this may not be available in some l ocalities. Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well grad ed”. This means that the fine aggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates. In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability. When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work. When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage.The asphalt cement in the fl exibl e pavement is used to bind the aggregate particl es together and to waterproof the pavements. Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement. A chief objective of all the design methods which have been devel oped is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particular combination of aggregates.3 . Mix design principl esCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have been developed. Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, some consid eration of these principles is necessary.Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids. Consid ering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space. The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely. When the asphalt cement is ad ded, a portion of these aggregate voids is fill ed and a final air-void volume is retained. The retention of thisair-void volume is very important to the characteristics of the mixture. The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the compacted mixture.An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particl e friction and interlock. If the particl es are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is d estroyed. This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt shoul d be ad ded than the aggregate voids can readily hold. However ,asphalt cement is susceptible to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use. If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overfl ow in a condition known as bleeding. The l oss of asphalt cement through bl eeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway hazard ous.Fig. ·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate framework bound together by asphalt cement.The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established. In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent shoul d not be exceed. An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes. Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hard ens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency.The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the d egree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content. For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mix will have a large voids volume and a l ower d ensity and a greater strength will result. In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of bl ows and the energy per blow. In the fiel d, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the d egree of compaction being obtained. Traffic further compact the pavement, andall owance must be mad e for this in the design. A systematic checking of the pavement over an extend ed period is needed to given factual information for a particular mix. A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however.Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem. It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy. As has been mentioned, the various design procedures are intended to provid e a means for selecting the asphalt content . These tests will be consid ered in detail in a future chapter ,butthe relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here.Fig.4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content.If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controll ed, then the strength varies in a predictable manner. The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions. The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actual testing.Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variabl e are controll ed. It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions.As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content. However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content will d ecrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically. With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume.In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix d esign. The proper design based on these principl es will result in sound pavements. If these principles are overl ooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of the recognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too ‘rich’; raveling, cracking, having low durability whe n the mix is too ‘l ean’.It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a stabilityand d oes not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength. No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure. This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of fl exible pavement work.译文：沥青混合料的应用、理论和原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。
道路工程英语
英汉术语对照索引abrasiveness 磨耗度absolute datum 绝对基面abutment 桥台abutment pier制动墩acceleration lane加速车道accidental load 偶然荷载accommodation lane 专用车道acoustic barrier 隔音墙acting circles of blasting 爆破作用圈additional stake 加桩adjacent curve in one direction 同向曲线admixture 外加剂admixture 反坡安全线aerial photogrammetry 航空摄影测量aerophoto base 航摄基线aerophoto interpretation 航摄像片判读ageing 老化aggregate 集料(骨料)air hardining 气硬性alignment design (城市道路)平面设计，线形设计alignment element 线形要素alligator cracking 路面龟裂allowable rebound deflection 容许(回弹)弯沉alternative line 比较线anchored bulkhead abutment 锚锭板式桥台anchored bulkhead abutment 锚锭板式挡土墙anchored retaining wall 锚杆式挡土墙anionic emulsified bitumen 阴离子乳化沥青annual average daily traffic 年平均日交通量anti-creep heap (厂矿道路)挡车堆anti-dizzling screen 防炫屏(遮光栅)antiskid heap (厂矿道路)防滑堆approach span 引桥aquitard 隔水层arch bridge 拱桥arch culvert 拱涵arch ring 拱圈arterial highway 干线公路arterial road (厂内)主干道，(城市)主干路asphalt distributor 沥青洒布车asphalt mixing plant 沥青混合料拌和设备asphalt remixer 沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt remixer 复拌沥青混合料摊铺机asphalt sand 沥青砂asphalt sprayer 沥青洒布机asphaltic bitumen 地沥青at-grade intersection 平面交叉auxiliary lane 附加车道average consistency (of soil) 土的)平均稠度average gradient 平均纵坡aximuth angle 方位角balance weight retaining wall 衡重式挡土墙base course 基层base line 基线basic traffic capacity 基本通行能力beam bridge 梁桥beam level deflectometer 杠杆弯沉仪bearing 支座bearing angle 象限角bearing pile 支承桩bearing platform 承台bed course 垫层bench mark 水准点benched subgrade 台口式路基bending strength 抗弯强度Benkelman beam 杠杆弯沉仪(贝克曼弯沉仪) bent cap 盖梁berm 护坡道binder 结合料binder course 联结层bitumen 沥青bitumen (沥青混合料)抽提仪bitumen-aggregate ratio 油石比bituminous concrete pavement 沥青混凝土混合料bituminous concrete mixture 沥青混凝土路面bituminous concrete moxture 沥青碎石混合料bituminous macadam pavement 沥青碎石路面bituminous moxture 沥青混合料bituminous pavement 沥青路面bituminous penetration pavement 沥青贯入式路面biuminous surface treatment (沥青)表面处治blasting crater 爆破漏斗blastion for loosening rock 松动爆破blasting for throwing rock 抛掷爆破blasting procedure 土石方爆破bleeding 泛油blind ditch 盲沟blind drain 盲沟block pavement 块料路面block stone 块石blow up 拱胀boring 钻探boring log (道路)地质柱状图boring machine 钻孔机borrow earth 借土borrow pit 取土坑boundary frame on crossing 道口限界架boundary frame on road 道路限界架boundary line of road construction 道路建筑限界bowstring arch bridge 系杆拱桥box culvert 箱涵branch pipe of inlet 雨水口支管branch road (城市)支路，(厂内)支道bridge 桥梁bridge decking 桥面系bridge deck pavement 桥面铺装bridge floor expantion and contraction installation traction installation 桥面伸缩装置bridge gerder erection equpment 架桥机bridge on slope 坡桥bridge site 桥位bridle road 驮道broken chainage 断链broken stone 碎石broken back curve 断背曲线buried abutment 埋置式桥台bus bay 公交(车辆)停靠站bypass 绕行公路cable bent tower 索塔cable saddle 索鞍cable stayed bridge 斜拉桥(斜张桥)Cableway erecting equipment 缆索吊装设备California bearing ratio (CBR) 加州承载比(CBR)California bearing ratio tester 加州承载比(CBR)测定仪camber cruve 路拱曲线cantilever beam bridge 悬臂梁桥cantilever beam bridge 悬臂式挡土墙capacity of intersection 交叉口通行能力capacity of network 路网通行能力capillary water 毛细水carriage way 车行道(行车道)cast-in-place cantilever method 悬臂浇筑法cationic emulsified bitumen 阳离子乳化沥青cattle-pass 畜力车道cement concrete 水泥混凝土cemint concrete pavement 水泥混凝土混合料cement concrete pavement 水泥混凝土路面center-island 中心岛center lane 中间车道center line of raod 道路中线center line survey 中线测量center stake 中桩central reserve 分隔带channelization 渠化交通shannelization island 导流岛channelized intrersection 分道转弯式交叉口chip 石屑chute 急流槽circular curve 圆曲线circular curve 环路circular test 环道试验city road 城市道路civil engineering fabric 土工织物classified highway 等级公路classified highway 等级道路clay-bound macadam泥结碎石路面clearance 净空clearance above bridge floor 桥面净空clearce of span 桥下净空climatic zoning for highway 公路自然区划climbing lane 爬坡车道cloverleaf interchange 苜蓿叶形立体交叉coal tar 煤沥青cobble stone 卵石coefficient of scouring 冲刷系数cohesive soil 粘性土cold laid method 冷铺法cold mixing method 冷拌法cold-stretched steel bar 冷拉钢筋column pier柱式墩combination-type road system 混合式道路系统compaction 压实compaction test 击实试验compaction test apparatus 击实仪compactmess test 压实度试验composite beam bridge 联合梁桥composite pipe line 综合管道(综合管廊)compound curve 复曲线concave vertical curve 凹形竖曲线concrete joint cleaner (水泥混凝土)路面清缝机concrete joint sealer (水泥混凝土)路面填缝机concrete mixing plant 水泥混凝土(混合料)拌和设备concrete paver 水泥混凝土(混合料)摊铺机concrete pump 水泥混凝土(混合料)泵concrete saw (水泥混凝土)路面锯缝机附录英汉术语对照索引cone penetrantion test 触探试onflict point 冲突点conical slope 锥坡consistency limit (of soil) (土的)稠度界限consolidated subsoil 加固地基consolidation 固结construction by swing 转体架桥法construction height of bridge 桥梁建筑高度construction joint 施工缝construction load 施工荷载construction survey 施工测量continuous beam bridge 连续梁桥contourline 等高线contraction joint 缩缝control point 路线控制点converging 合流convex vertining wall 凸形竖曲线corduroy road 木排道counterfout retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙counterfort abutmen 扶壁式桥台country road 乡村道路county road 县公路(县道)，乡道creep 徐变critical speed 临界速度cross roads 十字形交叉cross slope 横坡cross walk 人行横道cross-sectional profile 横断面图cross-sectional survey 横断面测量crown 路拱crushed stone 碎石crushing strength 压碎值culture 地物culvert 涵洞curb 路缘石curb side strip 路侧带curve length 曲线长curve widening 平曲线加宽curved bridge 弯桥cut 挖方cut corner for sight line (路口)截角cut-fill transition 土方调配cut-fill transition 土方调配图cutting 路堑cycle path 自行车道cycle track 自行车道deceleration lane 减速车道deck bridge 上承式桥deflection angle 偏角deflection test 弯沉试验degree of compaction 压实度delay 延误density of road network 道路（网）密度edpth of tunnel 隧道埋深edsign elevation of subgrade 路基设计高程design frequency (排水)设计重现期edsign hourly volume 设计小时交通量design of evevation (城市道路)竖向设计design of vertical alignment 纵断面设计design speed 计算行车速度(设计车速)design traffic capacity 设计通行能力design vehicle 设计车辆design water level 设计水位desiged dldvation 设计高程designed flood frequency 设计洪水频率deslicking treatment 防滑处理Deval abrasion testion machine 狄法尔磨耗试验机（双筒式磨耗试验机）diamond interchange 菱形立体交叉differential photo 微分法测图direction angle 方向角directional interchange 定向式立体交叉diverging 分流dowel bar 传力杆drain opening 泄水口drainage by pumping station (立体交叉)泵站排水drainage ditch 排水沟dressed stone 料石drop water 跌水dry concrtet 干硬性混凝土ductility (of bitumen) (沥青)延度ductilometer (沥青)延度仪dummy joint 假缝dynamic consolidation 强夯法economic speed 经济车速econnomical hauling distance 土方调配经济运距element support 构件支撑elevation 高程(标高)embankment 路堤emergency parking strip 紧急停车带emulsified bitumen 乳化沥青erecting by floating 浮运架桥法erection by longitudinal pulling method 纵向拖拉法erection by protrusion 悬臂拼装法erection with cableway 缆索吊装法evaporation pond 蒸发池expansion bearing 活动支座expansive soil 膨胀土expantion joint 胀缝expressway (城市)快速路external destance 外(矢)距fabricated bridge 装配式桥fabricated steel bridge 装拆式钢桥factories and mines road 厂矿道路factory external transportation line 对外道路factory-in road 厂内道路factory-out road 厂外道路fast lane 内侧车道faulting of slab ends 错台feeder highway 支线公路ferry 渡口fibrous concrete 纤维混凝土field of viaion 视野fill 填方filled spandrel arch bridge 实腹拱桥final survey 竣工测量fineness 细度fineness modulus 细度模数fixed bearing 固定支座flare wing wall abutment 八字形桥台flared intersection 拓宽路口式交叉口flash 闪点flash point tester (open cup method) 闪点仪(开口杯式)flexible pavement 柔性路面flexible pier 柔性墩floor system 桥面系flush curb 平缘石foot way 人行道ford 过水路面forest highway 林区公路forest road 林区道路foundation 基础free style road system 自由式道路系统free way 高速公路free-flow speed 自由车速freeze road 冻板道路freezing and thawing test 冻融试验frost boiling 翻浆frozen soil 冻土full depth asphalt pavement 全厚式沥青(混凝土)路面function planting 功能栽植general scour under bridge opening 桥下一般冲刷geological section (道路)地质剖面图geotextile 土工织物gradation 级配gradation of stone (路用)石料等级grade change point 变坡点grade compensation 纵坡折减grade crossing 平面交叉grade length limitation 坡长限制grade of side slope 边坡坡度grade separation 简单立体交叉grade-separated junction 立体交叉graded aggregate pavement 级配路面brader 平地机grain composition 颗粒组成granular material 粒料gravel 砾石gravity pier (abutment) 重力式墩、台gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙green belt 绿化带gridiron road system 棋盘式道路系统ground control-point survey 地面控制点测量ground elevation 地面高程ground stereophotogrammetry 地面立体摄影测量guard post 标柱guard rail 护栏guard wall 护墙gully 雨水口gutter 街沟(偏沟)gutter apron 平石gutter drainage 渠道排水half-through bridge 中承式桥hard shoulder 硬路肩hardening 硬化hardness 硬度haul road 运材道路heavy maintenance 大修hectometer stake 百米桩hedge 绿篱height of cut and fill at ceneter stake 中桩填挖高度high strength bolt 高强螺栓high type pavement 高级路面highway 公路highway landscape design 公路景观设计hill-side line 山坡线(山腰线)hilly terrain 重丘区horizontal alignment 平面线形horizontal curve 平曲线hot laid method 热铺法hot mixing method 热拌法hot stability (of bitumen) (沥青)热稳性hydraulic computation 水力计算hydraulic computation 水硬性imaginary intersection point 虚交点immersed tunnelling method 沉埋法inbound traffic 入境交通incremental launching method 顶推法industrial district road 工业区道路industrial solid waste (路用)工业废渣industrial waste base course 工业废渣基层inlet 雨水口inlet submerged culvert 半压力式涵洞inlet unsubmerged culvert 无压力式涵洞inorganic binder 无机结合料instrument station 测站intensity of rainstorm 暴雨强度intercepting detch 截水沟interchange 互通式立体交叉interchange woth special bicycle track 分隔式立体交叉intermediate maintenance 中修intermediate type pavement 中级路面intersection (平面)交叉口intersection angle 交叉角，转角intersection entrance 交叉口进口intersection exit 交叉口出口intersection plan 交叉口平面图intersection point 交点intersection with widened corners 加宽转角式交叉口jack-in method 顶入法kilometer stone 里程碑land slide 坍方lane 车道lane-width 车道宽度lateral clear distance of curve (平曲线)横净距lay-by 紧急停车带level of service 道路服务水平leveling course 整平层leveling survey 水准测量light-weight concrete 轻质混凝土lighting facilities of road 道路照明设施lime pile 石灰桩line development 展线linking-up road 联络线，连接道路liquid asphaltic bitumen 液体沥青liquid limit 液限living fence 绿篱load 荷载loading berm 反压护道lading combinations 荷载组合loading plate 承载板lading platetest 承载板试验local scour near pier 桥墩局部冲刷local traffic 境内交通location of line 定线location survey 定测lock bolt support woth shotcrete 喷锚支护loess 黄土longitudinal beam 纵梁longitudinal gradient 纵坡longitudinal joint 纵缝loop ramp 环形匝道Los Angeles abrasion testion machine 洛杉矶磨耗试验机machine (搁板式磨耗试验机)low rype pavement 低级路面main beam 主梁main bridge 主桥maintenance 养护maintenance period 大中修周期manhole 检查井marginal strip 路缘带marshall stability apparatus 马歇尔稳定度仪Marshall stability test 马歇尔试验masonry bridge 圬工桥maximum annual hourly volume 年最大小时交通量maximum dry unit weight (标准)最大干密度maximum longitudinal gradient 最大纵坡mine tunnelling method 矿山法mineral aggregate 矿料mineral powder 矿粉mini-roundabout 微形环交minimum height of fill (路基)最小填土高度minimum longitudinal gradient 最小纵坡minimum radius of horizontal curve 最小平曲线半径minimum turning radius 汽车最小转弯半径mixed traffic 混合交通mixing method 拌和法mixture 混合料model split 交通方式划分modulus of elasticity 弹性模量modulus of resilience 回弹模量modulus ratio 模量比monthly average daily traffic 月平均日交通量motor way 高速公路mountainous terrain 山岭区movable bridge 开启桥mud 淤泥multiple-leg intersection 多岔交叉mational trunk highway 国家干线公路(国道) matural asphalt 天然沥青natural scour 自然演变冲刷natural subsoil 天然地基navigable water level 通航水位nearside lane 外侧车道net-shaped cracking 路面网裂New Austrian Tunnelling Method 新奥法observation point 测点one-way ramp 单向匝道open cut method 明挖法open cut tunnel 明洞open spandrel arch bridge 空腹拱桥opencast mine road 露天矿山道路operating speed 运行速度iptimum gradation 最佳级配iptimum moisture conter 最佳含水量optimum speed 临界速度organic binder 有机结合料origin-destination study 起迄点调查outbound traffic 出境交通outlet submerged culvert 压力式涵洞outlet inlet main road 城市出入干道overall speed 区间速度overlay of pavement 罩面overpass grade separation 上跨铁路立体交叉overtaking lane 超车车道overtaking sight distance 超车视距paper location 纸上定线paraffin content test 含蜡量试验parent soil 原状土parking lane 停车车道parking lot 停车场parking station 公交(车辆)停靠站part out-part fill subgrade 半填半挖式路基pass 垭口passing bay 错车道patrol maintenance 巡回养护paved crosing 道口铺面pavement 路面pavement pression 路面沉陷pavement recapping 路面翻修pavement slab pumping 路面板唧泥pavement spalling 路面碎裂pavemengthening 路面补强pavement structure layer 路面结构层附录英汉术语对照索引pavemill 路面铣削机(刨路机)peak hourly volume 高峰小时交通量pedestrian overcrossing 人行天桥pedestrian underpass 人行地道penetration macadam with coated chips 上拌下贯式(沥青) chips 路面penetration method 贯入法penetration test apparatus 长杆贯入仪penetration (of bitumen) (沥青)针入度penetrometer (沥青)针入度仪periodical maintenance 定期养护permaf rost 多年冻土permanent load 永久荷载perviousness test 透水度试验petroleum asphaltic bitumen 石油沥青photo index 像片索引图(镶辑复照图)photo mosaic 像片镶嵌图photogrammetry 摄影测量photographic map 影像地图pier 桥墩pile and pland retaining wall 柱板式挡土墙pile bent pier 排架桩墩pile driver 打桩机pipe culvert 管涵pipe drainage 管道排水pit test 坑探pitching method 铺砌法plain stage of slope 边坡平台plain terrain 平原区plan view (路线)平面图plane design (城市道路)平面设计plane sketch (道路)平面示意图planimetric photo 综合法测图plant mixing method 厂拌法plasticity index 塑限plasticity index 塑性指数poisson’s ratio 泊松比polished stone value 石料磨光值pontoon bridge 浮桥porosity 空隙率porotable pendulum tester 摆式仪possible traffic capacity 可能通行能力post-tensioning method 后张法pot holes 路面坑槽preliminary survey 初测preloading method 预压法prestressed concrete 预应力混凝土prestressed concrete bridge 预应力混凝土桥prestresed steel bar drawing jack 张拉预应力钢筋千斤顶pretensioning method 先张法prime coat 透层productive arterial road 生产干线productive branch road 生产支线profile design 纵断面设计profilometer 路面平整度测定仪proportioning of cement concrete 水泥混凝土配合比protection forest fire-proof road 护林防火道路provincial trunk highway 省干线公路(省道) railroad grade crossing (铁路)道口ramp 匝道rebound deflection 回弹弯沉reclaimed asphalt mixture 再生沥青混合料reclaimed bituminous pavement 再生沥青路面reconnaissance 踏勘red clay 红粘土reference stake 护桩referencion crack 反射裂缝refuge island 安全岛regulating structure 调治构造物reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete bridge 钢筋混凝土桥reinforced concrete pavement 钢筋混凝土路面reinforced earth retaining wall 加筋土挡土墙relative moisture content (of soil) (土的)相对含水量relief road 辅道residential street 居住区道路resultant gradient 合成坡度retaining wall 挡土墙revelling of pavement 路面松散reverse curve 反向曲线reverse loop 回头曲线ridge crossing line 越岭线ridge line 山脊线right bridge 正交桥right bridge 正桥rigid frame bridge 刚构桥rigid pavement 刚性路面rigid-type base 刚性基层ring and radial road system 环形辐射式道路系统ripper 松土机riprap 抛石road 道路road alignment 道路线形road appearance 路容road eara per sitizen (城市)人均道路面积road area ratio (城市)道路面积率road axis 道路轴线road bed 路床road bitumen 路用沥青road condition 路况road condition survey 路况调查road crossing (平面)交叉口road crossing design 交叉口设计road engineering 道路工程road feasibility study (道路工程)可行性研究road improvement 改善工程road intersection 道路交叉(路线交叉)road mixing method 路拌法road netword 道路网road network planning 道路网规划road planting 道路绿化road project (道路工程)方案图road trough 路槽road way 路幅rock breaker 凿岩机rock filled gabion 石笼roller 压路机rolled cementoncerete 碾压式水泥混凝土rolling terrain 微丘区rotary interchage 环形立体交叉rotary intersection 环形交叉roundabout 环形交叉route development 展线rout of road 道路路线route selection 选线routine maintenance 小修保养rubble 片石running speed 行驶速度rural road 郊区道路saddle back 垭口safety belt 安全带safety fence 防护栅salty soil 盐渍土sand 砂sanddrain (sand pile) 砂井sand gravel 砂砾sand hazard 沙害sand mat of subgrade 排水砂垫层sand patch test 铺砂试验sand pile 砂桩sand ratio 砂率sand sweeping 回砂sand sweeping equipment 回砂机sandy soil 砂性土saturated soil 饱和土scraper 铲运机seal coat 封层secondary trunk road (厂内)次干道，(城市)次干路seepage well 渗水井segregation 离析semi-rigid type base 半刚性基层separate facilties 分隔设施separator 分隔带sheep-foot roll 羊足压路机(羊足碾)shelter belt 护路林shield 盾构(盾构挖掘机)shield tunnelling method 盾构法shoulder 路肩shrinkage limit 缩限side ditch 边沟side slope 边坡side walk 人行道sieve analysis 筛分sight distance 视距sight distance of intersection 路口视距sight line 视线sight triangle 视距三角形silty soil 粉性土simple supported beam bridge 简支梁桥singl direction thrusted pier 单向推力墩single-sizeaggregat 同粒径集料siphon culvert 倒虹涵skew bridge 斜交桥skew bridge 斜桥skid road 集材道路slab bridge 板桥slab culvert 盖板涵slab staggerting 错位slide 滑坡slope protection 护坡slump 坍落度snow hazard 雪害snow plough 除雪机soft ground 软弱地基soft soil 软土softening point tester (ring ball) (沥青)软化点议仪method (环—球法)softening point (of bitumen) 沥青）软化点solubility (of bitumen) (沥青)溶解度space headway 车头间距space mean speed 空间平均速度span 跨径span by span method 移动支架逐跨施工法spandrel arch 腹拱spandrel structure 拱上结构special vehicle 特种车辆speed-change lane 变速车道splitting test 劈裂试验spot speed 点速度spreading in layers 层铺法springing 弹簧现象stabilizer 稳定土拌和机stabilized soil base course 稳定土基层stage for heating soil and broken rock 碎落台stagered junction 错位交叉stand axial loading 标准轴截steel bridge 钢筋冷墩机steel bridge 钢桥steel exention machie 钢筋拉伸机stiffness modulus 劲度stone coating test 石料裹覆试验stone crusher 碎石机stone spreader 碎石撒布机stopping sight distance 停车视距stopping truck heap (厂矿道路)阻车堤street 街道street draianage 街道排水street planting 街道绿化street trees 行道树strengthening layer 补强层strengthening of structure 加固stringer 纵梁striping test for aggregate 集料剥落试验structural approach limit of tunnel 隧道建筑限界sub-high type pavement 次高级路面subgrade 路基subgrade drainage 路基排水submersible bridge 漫水桥subsidence 沉陷subsoil 地基substructure 下部结构superelevation 超高superelevation runoff 超高缓和段superstructure 上部结构supported type abutment 支撑式桥台surface course 面层surface evenness 路面平整度surface frostheave 路面冻胀surface permeameter 路面透水度测定仪surface roughness 路面粗糙度surface slipperinness 路面滑溜surface water 地表水surface-curvature apparatus 路面曲率半径测定仪surrounding rock 围岩suspension bridge 悬索桥swich-back curve 回头曲线Tintersection 丁字形交叉(T形交叉)T-shaped rigid frame bridge 形刚构桥tack coat 粘层tangent length 切线长tar 焦油沥青technical standard of road 道路技术标准Telford 锥形块石Telford base (锥形)块石基层terrace 台地thermal insulation berm 保温护道thermal insulation course 隔温层thirtieth highest annual hourly 年第30位最大小时volume 交通量through bridge 下承式桥through traffic 过境交通tie bar 拉杆timber bridge 木桥time headway 车头时距time mean speed 时间平均速度toe of slope (边)坡脚tonguel and groove joint 企口缝top of slope (边)坡顶topographic featurc 地貌topographic map 地形图topographic survey 地形测量topography 地形township road 乡公路(乡道)traffic assignment 交通量分配traffic apacity 通行能力traffic composition 交通组成traffic density 交通密度traffic distribution 交通分布traffic flow 交通流traffic generation 交通发生traffic island 交通岛traffic mirror 道路反光镜traffic planninng 道路交通规划traffic safety device 交通安全设施traffic square 交通广场traffic stream 车流traffic survey 交通调查traffic volume 交通量traffic volume obserbation station 交通量观测站traffic volume 交通量预测traffic volume survey 交通量调查transition curve 缓和曲线transition slab at bridge head 桥头搭板transition zone of cross section 断面渐变段transition zone of curve widening 加宽缓和段transitional gradient 缓和坡段transverse beam 横梁transverse joint 横缝traverse 导线traverse sruvey 导线测量trencher 挖沟机triaxial test 三轴试验trip 出行true joint 真缝trumpet interchange 喇叭形立体交叉trunk highway 干线公路truss bridge 桁架桥tunnel (道路)隧道trnnel boring machine 隧道掘进机tunnel ling 衬砌tunnel portal 洞门tunnel support 隧道支撑turnaround loop 回车道，回车场turning point 转点two-way curved arch bridge 双曲拱桥two-way ramp 双向匝道type of dry and damp soil base 土基干湿类型U-shaped abut ment U形桥台under-ground pipes comprethensive design 管线综合设计underground water 地下水underground water level 地下水位underpass grade separation 下穿铁路立体交叉universal photo 全能法测图urban road 城市道路valley line 沿溪线variable load 可变荷载vehicle stream 车流vehicular gap 车(辆)间净距verge 路肩vertical alignment 纵面线形vertical curb 立缘石(侧石)vertical curve 竖曲线vertical profile map (路线)纵断面图viameter 路面平整度测定仪vibratory roller 振动压路机viscosimeter (沥青)粘度仪viscosity (of bitumen) (沥青)粘(滞)度voidratio 孔隙比washout 水毁waste 弃土waste bank 弃土堆water cement ratio 水灰比water content 含水量water level 水位water reducing agent 减水剂water stability 水稳性water-bound macadam水结碎石路面wearing course 磨耗层weaving 交织weaving point 交织点weaving section 交织路段wheel tracking test 车辙试验width of subgrade 路基宽度workability 和易性Y intersection 形交叉。
道路毕设翻译
本科生毕业设计（论文）外文科技文献译文译文题目乡村双车道高速公路期望的安全变现的预测(外文题目) Prediction of the Expected Safety Performanceof Rural Two-Lane Highways学院(系) 土木工程学院专业土木工程道路方向学号学生姓名日期指导教师签名日期┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊装┊┊┊┊┊订┊┊┊┊┊线┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊乡村双车道高速公路期望的安全表现的预测1.介绍在高速公路安全管理上一个最重要的空白是缺乏估计一条现有或计划的车行道的安全表现一个可靠方法。
事故记录系统由高速公路代办处开发并且维护监测他们的车行道安全表现，但这些性能提供历史或追溯数据。
有效管理需要一个前瞻性的观点。
公路工程师需要知道没有什么巷道的安全性能是在最近或遥远的过去，但是如果特别采取建议行动起来的话它会在现在活着将来表现出来。
在过去，巷道的当前或未来的安全性能评估什么时候需要，他们已经开发四种途径：从历史的偶然平均为数据，从统计预测模型进行回归分析，结果前后研究，由经验丰富的工程师和专家判断。
每一种方法单独使用有下述重大的弱点。
结合每一种事故预测法，一种新的方法应运而生。
这种新的事故预测方法应用到农村双车道公路中，是本报告的主题。
从历史事故数据的估计历史事故数据是一个巷道的安全性能的重要指标，但是他们遭受的弱点是高度可变。
鉴于这种高变异性，使用一到三年的事故数据这样相对短期的样本来估计长期期望的事故率是很困难的。
特别是对于农村道路路段和交叉口位置，事故时非常罕见的，或者有许多地方在近几年来最多发生过一次事故。
如果一个地方在过去的几年中没有发生过事故而就认为它将永远不会发生事故是不正确的，但是这些可靠的数据对与这些地方仅仅提供了一个不足的依据来评估它长期预期的安全性能。
基于安全的行车道改进程序常常被用作事故记录来辨认高事故地点的检测系统控制。
一个高事故地点是车行道路段或交叉口，因为它比在一段时间（通常为1到3年）指定的阀值大的多。
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重载轨道基础设计寿命预测P J Gräbe1∗and F J Shaw21Department of Civil Engineering,University of Pretoria,Pretoria, South Africa2Transnet Freight Rail(Track Technology),Track Testing Centre, Jeppestown,South Africa手稿是在2009年12月9日收到并被录取修订后的2010年3月17日出版。
DOI:10.1243/09544097JRRT371文摘：南非国有铁路货运物流公用事业公司监视一条2004建造的在南非煤线上的新的轨道地基，这个网站的一个主要组成部分康复工程，旨在增加的容量线来维持未来增长的年度吨位。
复杂的仪表用于测量弹性和永久变形道基础。
初步研究结果在建设新轨道的基础不久后。
收集的5年时间的永久变形结果,现在发表给长期行为的轨道基础提供新的了解。
永久变形的测量用来计算轨道基础的预期设计寿命。
结果是用来预测永久变形,并最终设计轨道的基础在载重加载条件的寿命。
这项研究为鉴于持续的资本扩张计划康复工程和其他载重线提供了科学依据。
关键词：永久变形、弹性变形、跟踪基础,基础设计,设计寿命预测1说明1.1背景南非的煤炭线是一个煤炭出口线连接有大约40个矿山从普马兰加煤田煤码头到理查德湾(RBCT)。
这个Ogies/Blackhill-RBCT线路在1976年开通作为一个单一的线路,随后在1983–1989年翻了一番。
这条线路最初是设计来处理76组18.5吨/车轴重年产2100万吨的马车队。
这条线路改造多年来荷载200马车队(26吨/轴),总长2.5公里长,总共20800吨。
装载列车的限制坡度是1:160(0.6)和空火车是1:66(1.5%),最小曲线半径500米，轨距1065毫米。
轨道从Ogies到RBCT的距离分别是565公里(线路1)和560公里(线路2),。
装载货运大多数情况下由1号线运输,这也是两条线路中最新的。
当前线路的运输吨位是在7000万到8000万吨之间的煤炭(分析),但它也运输了一个大部分的普通货物。
当前这一个预测设计寿命为40年26吨/轴的基础设计细节,交由Hall公司,并且用S410土木工事规范充分描述。
这900毫米深设计sub-ballast路基、实行了严格的标准,但也包括稳定化处理sub-ballast层(厚度的300毫米)与水泥或石灰的可能性。
一套详尽的排水条件评估也包括一部分的基础设计和改造测试。
设计忠最重要的特性摘要由表1所示。
1.2地基失效运煤专线上地基失效的最初迹象于1994-1995年期间在弗雷海德到理查德湾部分被观察到,在它初步建成大约20年后。
根据文献,轨道基础包括自然地质(形成),放置土壤(填和底层道渣。
在南非,这个术语形成通常是用来表示地基。
这些迹象包括损失的轨道几何,白石渣,和液压泵通过分压路基稳定层和碎石渣。
大量的地基调查后开始确定失败的原因，以及问题的严重程度。
调查确定了地基失效败主要原因有以下几点：（一）由于缺乏基本层路基支持开裂的稳定化处理的分压层（即不平衡设计方面的层刚度）；（二）由于温度，湿度变化而风化分解构造层所造成的循环荷载，从而减少了功能材料的性能；（三）遗漏一些所需的土方层（在大多数情况下，一、二层）特别是在削减的特定地点；（四）排水不足和由此产生的饱和的基础，从而减少刚度和抗压强度。
在地基的调查和试验结果的基础上，一个状态测试系统被开发出来，即基础条件指数（指数）用来计算每个调查轨道区段。
基础条件指数是一个加权因素，考虑到材料的性能，地层刚度值，水分条件，和考虑中的地质学的特定轨道。
然后这些值用于区分恢复次序和显示每个轨道段的剩余使用寿命期望值。
恢复开始于1995和持续至今。
其目的是恢复所有轨道段使其基础条件指数值低于50%（两条线路）。
到目前为止，大约200公里或1125km的轨道的18%已经重建。
1.3地基的设计理念新线路基础设计所采用的理念包括以下几个方面：（一）采用优质进口砾石和碎石；（二）高密度压实；（三）大量的排水系统设计以应对高降雨模式；（四）特定场地的设计代替一般的设计；（五）指定全面品质监控作为设计的一部分。
初始S41026吨/轴基础设计和新的设计的区别如下：（一）轨道基础两侧的地下鳍排水系统。
鳍排水是一个复合排水使用流网或土工格栅层之间的土工织物并且指引地下水和/或表面水到管道排水系统（图1）；图1（二）一个多方位的排水土工布和分离层防止污染的结构层的原位材料；（三）碎石底层道渣层代替稳定层防止过早开裂和由于设计方面的层刚度不平衡产生的地基失效；（四）为更好的地表水径流，斜坡上的基础从1；5050（2%）增加到1:25（4%）。
为了验证和测试性能的新的基础设计，南非国有铁路货运物流公司（轨道技术）在煤炭生产线上一个合适的地点发起了一个全面的现场仪表项目，命名为Bloubank。
2位置说明位置描述在以往的出版物，但为明确起见，位置最重要的特色的总结列在这里。
2.1综述该bloubank试验场是位于南部60公里的弗雷海德，弗雷海德–乌伦迪轨道区段。
该地区的地质条件包括冰碛岩风化形成部份的弗雷海德地质构造。
冰碛岩是过程中颗粒，沉积岩由冰川和冰盖组成。
该试验场是在削减在双小节线轨道。
只有新建成的1号线用仪器装备，进行列车装载。
这个的别的地基将专用于完成恢复并为全面实施基础研究提供理想的机会。
期间和之后的建设新的基础，大量的仪器建立在基础层上。
第一次测量在试验现场，当轨道通车于2004年四月二日，而这一新建成的轨道基础的弹性变形和长期永久变形将进行定期监测，以便2009年三月最后读数。
2.2地基设计图1显示了Bloubank试验场基础设计的概略介绍。
设计需要开挖800mm旧的物质基础，重建4×200毫米高品质的结构层，以及大量的排水设计纳入鳍水渠和土工合成材料产品地下水切断和分离。
轨道结构包括60公斤/米接力的支持轨道风云–这一词是用于混凝土轨枕用拳头紧固件和最大设计轴重30吨–具体联系（轨枕）与但中心间距270系外型–300镇流器之间的纽带和基础。
选定材料的性能，如图1所示表2总结。
如适用，所需的最低标准是在方括号后的实际价值的土壤性质。
2.3使用仪器三个测量站（1，2，3），八条线路被选为试验段。
一些仪器在试验现场已经安装在建设基础层。
其余的仪器被安装在轨道通车。
图2显示了一个计划的网站，包括所有的应变和多深弯（MDD）仪器仪表。
钻外的左、右轨三MDDs，在该中心的铁路轨道。
对每一个MDDS洞口安装一串6MDDs模块相关层接口仪表。
在车站2，压力盘也安装在该中心的轨道基础不同层之间的交通压力测量轨道基础在不同深度。
线性运动测量线性可变差动变压器（LVD T）。
该仪器在Bloubank网站包括以下（图2和3）：图2图3（一MDDs为测量层挠度（每个地点6MDDs，每站三个地点，总数=54）；（二）轮负荷测量应变计（每一个轨道在三站，总数=6）；（三）侧向力测量应变计（每一个轨道在三站，总数=6）；（四）配合反应测量应变计（每一个轨道在三站，总数=6）；（五）基础压力测量压力板（五的压力板2站）；（六）水平和垂直运动的测量与LVD T（只在车站2，总数=4）；（七）轨道运动相对于领带（站2，总数=2）；（八）铁路，领带，和压载加速度加速度（只在车站2，总数=3）。
本文侧重于测量永久变形，因为它影响轨道基础设计。
弹性变形和地基压力测量被描述以前的文件。
2.4列车荷载大多数的交通，这是衡量在试验现场，包括20和26吨/轴煤和一般的货运车辆。
通常，煤炭列车由100或200辆车与短火车的情况一般货运交通，所有与电力机车牵引。
3轨道基础设计参数大多数铁路的轨道基础设计经验和/或经验或半经验方法。
但轴重轻，速度和频率很低时，这些方法一般产生现实的和适当的设计值。
它不过是表明，重轴荷载，经验设计方法可导致不适当的轨道结构需要昂贵的维修或故障导致过早。
这是因为影响的主应力轴旋转（1），造成非常大的增加，永久应变和减少弹性模量。
系统建模不能进行常规三轴试验，和更复杂的测试，如环状空心圆柱试验或循环单剪试验，需要估计的永久变形下轨道。
轨道基础设计方法的李和塞利格是基于双参数，其目的是防止最常见的轨道路基破坏造成的重复加载轨道基础。
测量Bloubank将被用来评价这些准则在以下段落。
3.1地基塑性应变路基破坏可以先与路基累积塑性应变（ε磷）由以下方程开发锂和锂和塞利格在ε磷是土壤累积塑性应变，在一些重复应力中的应用，σ=（σ1−σ3）偏应力造成的列车轴荷载，σ的土壤抗压强度，和，男，乙的参数依赖于土壤类型。
随行的设计准则，防止路基渐进破坏是提出了在ε是允许塑性应变在路基表面和2%，根据设计推荐李和塞利格。
3.2路基塑性变形路基破坏可其次与路基累积塑性变形（ρ）由以下方程开发锂和锂和塞利格，是路基深度。
随行的设计准则预防路基过大的塑性变形是在ρ是允许塑性变形的路基层的设计周期，是25毫米根据设计推荐李和塞利格。
在确定的主要轨道基础设计参数，现场实际数据从煤炭重载基金会将介绍和讨论。
4实地测量如前所述，该Bloubank现场仪器与一系列的mdds变形测量在三个试验站和在不同深度。
四月至2004andmarch2009，该Bloubank试验场进行大约363mgt。
总永久变形数据为每个测量站，在左，中心，和正确的地点，绘制在图4。
回归分析是用来适应曲线通过所有九套数据。
结果发现，对数函数形式=y0+蛋白（×−讨论），在节奏，讨论，和一个变量的累积，永久变形，和吨位，提供了足够的准确和精确的估计的永久变形的发展。
回归分析的决定系数（R2）产生的价值观，从0.979到0.995，平均0.986。
表3总结得出的结果的回归分析的累积塑性变形数据。
图4显示了一个典型的沉降趋势较高的初始利率的永久变形，大大减少由于吨位的增加和几乎成为不断接近年底的图。
在测量期间，不同的利率的永久变形，可以观察到，主要是因季节温度的变化和由此产生的路基条件。
减少永久变形站1是指出，和原因出人意料的变化将是调查时，更多的数据是可用的。
图4测量在图4被用来计算路基累积塑性应变（ε磷）在三个试验站和各自的位置（左，中，右）。
为目的的下列计算，累积应变得到总结的应变发生在整个轨道基础，即在路基以及在特殊的分压、分压层。
表4显示了地雷探测犬孔深度测量在安装的时候，这是至关重要的计算个别基础系。
图5显示了最大塑性应变的基础上大约5年后（即363mgt）。
测量证实，最大总应变（总挠度）在一个轨道结构发生在轨道中心线并没有直接下方的导轨。