托福阅读7类常考背景知识全在这
托福阅读技巧完整版ppt课件
According to the paragraph, which of the following is true of X?
According to the paragraph, X occurred because…
According to the paragraph, X did Y because…
高分技巧 2
Negative factual information questions （非事实信息题 / 否定事实信息题）
问题形式：又称EXCEPT 列举题，即排除列举题。要求判断 哪些信息的是对的（true），哪些信息是错的（false），哪 些是未提及的（not given）。
题目中常会见大写的“NOT”或“EXCEPT”
真题演练 经营者提供商品或者服务有欺诈行为 的，应 当按照 消费者 的要求 增加赔 偿其受 到的损 失，增 加赔偿 的金额 为消费 者购买 商品的 价款或 接受服 务的费 用
直接对比推理
段2：Some nations, especially those who colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The …
经营者提供商品或者服务有欺诈行为 的，应 当按照 消费者 的要求 增加赔 偿其受 到的损 失，增 加赔偿 的金额 为消费 者购买 商品的 价款或 接受服 务的费 用
托福阅读历史类单词
托福阅读历史类单词1. Civilization 文明，指人类社会在特定地区和特定时期的文化、社会、政治、经济等方面的高度发展和成就。
2. Dynasty 朝代，指一系列统治者在同一家族内继承权力的时期，如中国的汉朝、唐朝等。
3. Empire 帝国，指一个国家或地区通过征服和统一其他地区而扩展的领土和权力。
4. Revolution 革命，指一种突变或变革，通常是指政治、社会或经济体制的彻底改变。
5. Colony 殖民地，指一个国家或地区通过占领和统治其他地区而建立的属地，通常是为了经济或政治目的。
6. Independence 独立，指一个国家或地区摆脱外部控制，获得自主权和自决权。
7. Renaissance 文艺复兴，指15至17世纪欧洲发生的一系列文化和艺术变革，标志着中世纪向现代的转变。
8. Industrialization 工业化，指社会经济结构从农业为主向工业为主转变的过程，通常伴随着技术进步和城市化。
9. Nationalism 民族主义，指对自己民族的独特性和利益的认同和追求，通常伴随着对国家独立和自主性的追求。
10. Revolutionaries 革命家，指参与或领导革命运动的人，通常具有改革社会或政治体制的目标。
11. Dictatorship 独裁政权，指一个国家或地区由一个人或少数人掌握绝对权力的政治体制。
12. Cold War 冷战，指二战后期到1990年代初期，美国和苏联之间的政治、军事和经济对抗。
13. Colonialism 殖民主义，指一个国家或地区通过占领和统治其他地区的政策和实践。
14. Revolutionize 彻底改变，指通过革命性的变革来彻底改变某个领域或行业。
15. Monarchy 君主制，指一个国家或地区由君主（国王或女王）统治的政治体制。
这些单词只是托福阅读历史类单词的一小部分，但它们涵盖了不同历史时期和概念。
在备考托福阅读时，建议多阅读相关历史类文章，提升对这些单词的理解和应用能力。
托福阅读第三篇tpo75R -3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读第三篇tpo75R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文 (1)译文 (4)题目 (7)答案 (13)背景知识 (14)原文Seismic Waves①Seismic waves-energy waves produced by earthquakes-permit scientists to determine the location,thickness,and properties of Earth's internal zones.They are generated when rock masses are suddenly disturbed,such as when they break or rupture.Vibrations spread out in all directions from the source of the disturbance, traveling at different speeds through parts of Earth's crust and interior that differ in chemical composition and physical properties.The principal categories of these waves are primary,secondary,and surface. All three types of waves are recorded on an instrument called a seismograph.②Primary waves,or P-waves,are the speediest of the three kinds of waves and therefore the first to arrive at a seismograph station after there has been an earthquake.They travel through the upper crust of Earth at speeds of4to5kilometers per second,but near the base of the crust they speed along at6or7kilometers per second.In these primary waves,pulses of energy are transmitted as a succession of compressions and expansions that parallel the direction of propagation of the wave itself.Thus,a given segment of rock set in motion during an earthquake is driven into its neighbor and bounces back.The neighbor strikes the next particle and rebounds and subsequent particles continue the motion.Vibrational energy is an accordion-like push-pull movement that can be transmitted through solids,liquids and gases.Of course,the speed of Pwave transmission will differ in materials of different density and elastic properties.③Secondary waves,or S-waves,travel1to2kilometers per second slower than do P-waves.Unlike the movement of P-waves,rock vibration in secondary waves is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the energy.This type of wave is easily demonstrated by tying a length of rope to a hook and then shaking the free end.A series of undulations will develop in the rope and move toward the hook-thatis,in the direction of propagation.Any given particle along the rope, however,will move up and down in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation.It is because of their more complex motion that S-waves travel more slowly than Pwaves.They are the second group of oscillations to arrive at a seismograph station.Unlike Pwaves, secondary waves will not pass through liquids or gases.④Both P-and S-waves are sometimes also termed body waves because they are able to penetrate deep into the interior or body of our planet.Body waves travel faster in rocks of greater elasticity,and their speeds therefore increase steadily as they move downward into more elastic zones of Earth's interior and then decrease as they begin to make their ascent toward Earth's surface.The change in velocity that occurs as body waves invade rocks of different elasticity results in a bending or refraction of the wave.The many small refractions cause the body waves to assume a curved travel path through Earth.⑤Not only are body waves subjected to refraction,but they may also be partially reflected off the surface of a dense rock layer in much the same way as light is reflected off a polished surface.Many factorsinfluence the behavior of body waves.An increase in the temperature of rocks through which body waves are traveling will cause a decrease in velocity,whereas an increase in confining pressure will cause a corresponding increase in wave velocity.In a fluid where no rigidity exists,S-waves cannot propagate and P-waves are markedly slowed.⑥Surface waves are large-motion waves that travel through the outer crust of Earth.Their pattern of movement resembles that of waves caused when a pebble is tossed into the center of a pond.They develop whenever P-or S-waves disturb the surface of Earth as they emerge from the interior.Surface waves are the last to arrive at a seismograph station.They are usually the primary cause of the destruction that can result from earthquakes affecting densely populated areas.This destruction results because surface waves are channeled through the thin outer region of Earth,and their energy is less rapidly scattered into the large volumes of rock traversed by body waves.译文地震波①地震波是由地震产生的能量波，它们使科学家能够确定地球内部区域的位置、厚度和性质。
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理新托福阅读背景学问汇总，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
新托福阅读背景学问：太空城休士顿太空城休士顿休士顿是US的第五大都市，人类第一次登上月球的阿波罗飞船11号就在这里升空，因而使它也成为全球著名的城镇。
这一城镇是在1836年当德克萨斯州自墨西哥获得独立时，随之而诞生。
通往墨西哥湾的休士顿港，是US第三大港，在那里出口的棉花和石油产品，其数量占全美第一位。
自从US国家航空太空总署NASA在近效设置太空中心以来，休士顿正在连续不断地急速进展。
阿斯托洛圆顶运动场Astrodome耗资3，100万美元，于1965年兴建完成的这一运动场是目前世界上最大的一座室内运动场，内部装有冷暖气设备。
棒球、足球、骞马，以至于马戏团表演，都可以在室内进行。
紧邻的Afterworld是一个规模极大的消遣中心，游客可以欣赏欧洲各种村落的景色，也能够观赏各类表演。
圣哈新托古战场SanJacintoBattlefield1836年，休士顿将军为了争取德州独立，率军与墨军激战的地方。
现在已成为州立公园，纪念塔高达174公尺，可乘电梯登上塔项。
塔下是历史博物馆。
距休士顿市约26公里。
US航空太空总署太空飞行中心NASAMannedSpacecraft因阿波罗11号在此升空而全球著名。
US国家航空太空总署NASA于1961年设立于休士顿东南方45公里处的克利阿湖畔。
四周有GeneralElectric和InternationalBusinessMachines等重要的电子工业企业，是名符其实的航空太空科学中心。
展览馆Exhibit Hall的一号馆中，陈设着太空飞行员使用的器具、太空食物、太空船模型、月球上采集的岩石，对一般观光客公开。
太空飞行中心内部极为宽阔，可在进入中心的问讯处索取地图，备作参考。
太空中心内也有礼品店，出售太空船模型、月球石头模型，以及阿波罗帽等。
托福阅读背景知识材料补充
托福阅读背景知识材料补充托福阅读背景知识材料补充, 站着办公的风险你知道吗?今天给大家带来了托福阅读背景知识材料补充，希望能够帮助到大家，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。
托福阅读背景知识材料补充站着办公的风险你知道吗?托福阅读背景知识*：站着办公的风险A new study says that standing up at your desk doesn’t actually decrease your risk of death-by-office, unless you’re physically active otherwise.新研究表明：除非经常锻炼，否则站着工作也不会降低猝死风险。
After several studies asserted that sitting at work all day is slowly killing us, researchers at the University of Exeter and University College London took another look at the claims. The Washington Post reports:此前，已有多项研究表明，久坐会慢慢地致人死亡。
但埃克塞特大学和伦敦大学学院的几位研究员却从另一角度进行了研究。
华盛顿邮报报道：Researchers tracked 16 years’ worth of health data from 5,132 people in the Whitehall II study cohort. Participants reported their total time sitting and how long they sat during four different situations: at work, watching television, leisure time andnon-television leisure time. Researchers also tracked time spent walking daily and on physical activity.此次研究的调查对象来自白厅二级定群研究，共5132人。
托福阅读文章类型
托福阅读文章类型随着全球化的进程，越来越多的人选择参加托福考试，其中阅读部分是考生们最为头痛的一部分。
托福阅读的难度很高，主要考察考生对各种不同类型文章的阅读能力和理解能力。
本文将介绍托福阅读的文章类型，帮助考生更好地应对考试。
一、学术类文章学术类文章是托福阅读中最常见的类型之一，它主要来自于各个知名大学的教科书、学术期刊和学术会议论文。
这类文章通常较长，内容涉及各个学科领域，比如生物学、化学、历史、心理学等。
考生在备考过程中需要了解各种学科的基本知识，并提前阅读一些相关的学术文章进行积累和理解。
二、社会科学类文章社会科学类文章是托福阅读的另一种常见类型。
这类文章主要涉及社会学、经济学、政治学等领域，通常以一种科学的方法来分析和解释社会现象。
考生在备考过程中需要了解社会科学的基本理论和方法，并能够辨别和理解文章中的数据、实验和统计信息。
三、自然科学类文章自然科学类文章是托福阅读中的一大类，主要包括物理学、天文学、地质学等各个自然科学领域的文章。
这类文章通常涉及到一些自然现象、实验过程和科学理论，考生需要具备一定的自然科学知识和科学思维能力，才能够准确理解和分析文章内容。
四、历史类文章历史类文章是托福阅读中的另一常见类型。
这类文章主要讲述历史事件、人物和文化。
考生在备考过程中需要熟悉不同历史时期的重大事件和主要人物，并能够理解和分析文章中的历史背景、原因和结果。
五、文学类文章文学类文章在托福阅读中较为罕见，但也不可避免地会出现。
这类文章通常是一些文学作品的片段或者相关评论和分析，考生需要具备一定的文学素养和理解能力，才能够理解和分析文章中的意义和主题。
六、实验类文章实验类文章在托福阅读中属于比较典型的类型之一。
这类文章主要描述了一些科学实验的目的、方法、结果与结论。
考生需要具备一定的科学实验的基本知识，并能够分析和理解实验结果和结论。
七、新闻报道类文章新闻报道类文章在托福阅读中也会偶尔出现。
这类文章主要是一些新闻媒体对一些社会事件、科技进展等进行报道。
托福阅读题材有哪些
托福阅读题材有哪些为了让大家在备考托福的阅读时有针对性地选择练习文章，下面小编给大家分享一些托福阅读有哪些题材，望喜欢~托福阅读题材有哪些?托福阅读的题材一共涉及到以下几个部分：第一，自然和自然科学，大约占比30%左右，也就是所有题材中占比最大的一部分，这个部分包含天体、地理、气候和化学等学科内容;第二，生物科学，大约占比20%左右，这一部分包含，动物学、植物学、细胞学和生物化学等学科的相关学习内容，接下来排的第三的是艺术和美国历史，这部分内容大致涵盖音乐、表演、电影和电视等艺术形式再有就是社科类文章和人文类文章，分别占比10%左右，社科类文章包括经济学、考古学、人类学、通信和媒体等内容，而人文类文章则更多涵盖历史和语言学等内容，占比最少并且基本很少考察的题材则是人物传记类，这类文章更容易出现在GRE、SAT等北美升学类考试中。
那么，如果把这些题材占比从高到底排序的话，就形成了一条题材的线索线，即人类文明的发展史。
首先，在人类出现之前，宇宙中存在天体、地理、气候条件等一系列的客观因素，这是第一类题材，随后，地球上开始形成了生物体，比如动物、植物、微生物等，再接着，人类出现了，并且从繁衍生息的过程中积淀了文化和艺术，比如音乐、油画等，再后来，人类开始意识到科学的重要性，例如经济学、通信等现代科学技术，最后人类开始回顾自己的历史，就有了考古学，传记等题材。
综上所述，托福阅读中涉及更多的则是自然科学类的文章，考生在备考的过程中，可以对相关文章和知识进行一定的了解和学习，这样在考场之上对于文章的理解就会更加深刻。
历年托福真题阅读题材：植物学S/P1 树叶为何变颜色82/11 海藻83/1 地衣S1/P12386/1 植物演化86/5 藤蔓植物，86/10 地衣S1/P788/1 树的防御机理S1/P1788/5 植物形成层和树皮结构S1/P99S/P69 植物的根90/8 浮游生物P3291/8 植物学P54 普样题192/8 树的重要性P71P89/ 植物拟态的性质和作用P138/ 沙漠植物的生存95/10 植物内部运水的机理96/1 植物的防御机理北美题96/5 兰花96/10 一种野草和牛的传说98/5 赤扬和森林环境的关系99/8 菌类和植物的区别及破坏性和用途历年托福真题阅读题材：动物学81/11 鸟类适应的演化82/1 蝙蝠的生物声纳83/5 蚊子利用水产卵83/5 有机椎动物和无脊椎动物中ALLEOMIMETIC的作用S1/P9583/8濑鱼S1/P6283/11 海獭84/5 响尾蛇的响声84/11 旋木雀S1/P78 85/5 蜜蜂酿蜜S1/P86 86/1牛胃S1/P6786/3 蜜蜂结构适宜社会化S1/P7586/8 恐龙绝迹的解释87/1 鸟类学87/5 动物为何不生轮子S1/P1687/8 北美野牛S1/P103 87/10 猴子尾巴88/1 蜜蜂意识测试S1/P20S/P24 沼泽中的动物S1/P24S/P37 蜜蜂的社会结构S1/P37S/P39 美洲鳄鱼交配后S1/P39S/P52 莺科鸣禽划分树上食物S1/P52S/P56 食物网S1/P56 S/P93考拉S1/P9388/5 北极熊S1/P98 S/P109 灵长类动物的社会行为S1/P109S/P112猿S1/P11288/10鲸鱼S1/P13389/1 树懒的习性P289/5 美国蝗虫灾害P9 来历年托福真题阅读题材：人物篇文学家，艺术家，尤其是歌唱家，舞蹈家的女性(ETS重女轻男，阴盛阳衰)编号考题年月职业性别姓名1. 81/11 小说家女 EDITH WHARTON2. 82/1 护士女 GLARA LOUIS3. 82/8 天文艺术男 LUCIEN RUDAUX4. 82/11 新闻摄影女 M.B.WHITE5. 85/5 政治家男马丁路德·金6. 85/11 文学家女 C.F.WOOLSON7. 86/3 女权主义女 F.D.ROOSEVELT夫人8. 87/8 雕塑家女 M.ESCOBAR9. 87/12 印第安人女 ELLA GARSSO10. 89/1 P1 小说家男 ROBERT HERRICK11. 89/8 P11 歌唱家女 ELLA FITZGERALD12. 89/10P20 芭蕾舞女 AGNES DE MILLE13. 90/1 P25 闹剧作家女 MERRY OTIS WARREN14. 90/5 P29 文学家女 GERTRUDE STEIN15. 90/10P40 农化学家男 G.W.CARVER16. 91/1 P43 诗人女艾米丽狄金森17. 91/5 P46 画家女 GRANDMA MOSES18. 91/10P59 画家女 C.L.GRAZA19. 92/1 P64 舞蹈家女 LUCINA CHILDS20. 92/5 P68 舞蹈家女 MARTHA GRAHAM21. 92/8 P72 舞蹈家女 MARTHA GRAHAM22. P81 文学家女 PEARL.S.BUCK23. P88 发明家男 MCCOY 润滑油24. P93 舞蹈家女 ISADORA DUNCAN25. P100 小丑演员男 JOHN DURANG26. P104 艺术支持女 G.V.WHITNEY27. P112 数学女 MARJORIE RICE28. P115 画家女 G.O.KEEFFE29. P117 发明家男 THOMAS.A.EDISON30. P123 画家男 WINSLOW HOMER31. P131 画家女 GRANDMA MOSES32. P143 诗人女 HILDA DOOLITTLE33. P146 雕塑家女 LOUIS NEVELSON34. 普样1 诗人女 MARIANNE MOORE35. 96/1 文学家女 JOICE CAROL OATES。
托福背景知识
背景知识（BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE）听力背景知识Troy 特洛伊“荷马史诗”包括《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》两部长诗，被认为是古希腊最伟大的作品，也是欧洲文学中最古老、最杰出的叙事诗。
相传史诗的作者是古希腊盲诗人荷马。
他生于爱奥尼亚（今土耳其西海岸），生存年代约是公元前8世纪的后半叶。
《伊利亚特》共24卷，15693行，记载了希腊联军攻陷特洛伊城的10年战争，而主要描述战争最后一年的一个事件，着重描绘了希腊英雄阿基里斯的的伟大形象。
相传在古希腊的弗提亚地方，有个叫珀琉斯的国王举行婚礼。
他邀请了奥林匹斯山上的众神出席，却把专管争吵的女神厄里斯给忘记了。
厄里斯便挑起是非，偷偷把一个写着“送给最美丽的女神”的金苹果放在了婚礼宴席上。
参加喜宴的天后赫拉、智慧女神雅典娜、爱与美之神阿芙罗狄蒂（即罗马神话中的维纳斯）都认为自己是美丽的，应该得到这个金苹果，于是争吵起来。
天神宙斯无法，只得让她们去特洛伊，让特洛伊王子帕里斯判定金苹果该给谁。
当3位女神见到帕里斯后，都争着向他许愿：赫拉愿给他权力和财宝；雅典娜愿给他胜利和智慧；阿芙罗狄蒂愿让他挑选世界上最美丽的女子为妻。
结果，帕里斯把金苹果判给了阿芙罗狄蒂。
阿芙罗狄蒂便与帕里斯约定帮他得到世界第一美女。
大约在公元前12世纪，希腊半岛上建立了许多小王国，斯巴达是其中的一个。
一天，斯巴达王宫来了两位尊贵的客人，他就是特洛伊国王普里阿摩斯和他的二儿子帕里斯。
特洛伊是小亚细亚半岛（今土耳其）上的一个小王国。
斯巴达国王米雷劳斯以隆重的礼节欢迎两位贵宾，连年轻的王后海伦也亲自出来接待。
海伦是当时全希腊最美丽的女人。
帕里斯禁不住看了她两眼，顿时动心。
海伦见了这位英俊的王子，也感到满心欢喜。
当晚，趁斯巴达国王外出的时候，帕里斯在阿芙罗狄蒂的帮助下，拐走了海伦，乘船逃回特洛伊。
蒙受奇耻大辱的斯巴达国王，立刻找到他的哥哥、另一个小国迈锡尼的国王阿加米农商量，决定向全希腊各王国求助。
新托福阅读详细按话题分类
新托福阅读详细按话题分类
新托福阅读部分按话题分类，主要涵盖以下几个大的话题领域：
1. 科学与自然，这个话题包括生物学、化学、物理学、地理学
等自然科学领域的文章。
文章可能涉及到动植物的生态、自然现象
的解释、科学实验与研究等方面。
2. 社会科学与人文，这个话题涵盖社会学、心理学、历史学、
经济学等人文社科领域的文章。
文章可能涉及到社会问题、人类行为、历史事件、经济理论等方面。
3. 教育与学术，这个话题涉及到教育领域的文章，包括教育理论、教育政策、学术研究等方面。
文章可能涉及到教育改革、学习
方法、教育评估等话题。
4. 商业与经济，这个话题涉及到商业管理、市场经济、国际贸
易等方面的文章。
文章可能涉及到企业管理、市场趋势、国际经济
关系等话题。
5. 历史与文化，这个话题涉及到历史事件、文化传统、艺术作
品等方面的文章。
文章可能涉及到历史人物、文化遗产、艺术形式
等话题。
6. 环境与可持续发展，这个话题涉及到环境保护、可持续发展、气候变化等方面的文章。
文章可能涉及到环境问题、能源利用、环
保政策等话题。
7. 科技与创新，这个话题涉及到科技发展、创新成果、信息技
术等方面的文章。
文章可能涉及到科技应用、科技影响、创新趋势
等话题。
以上是新托福阅读部分常见的话题分类，考生在备考过程中可
以针对不同的话题领域进行有针对性的练习和准备，以提高对各个
领域文章的理解和解题能力。
托福阅读题材分类
托福阅读题材分类一、自然科学类自然科学类的阅读题材主要涉及物理、化学、生物等自然科学领域的知识。
这类文章通常会介绍一种现象、理论或实验，并对其进行解释和分析。
例如，文章可能会讲述光的折射、化学反应的速率、生物进化的原理等等。
这些文章要求考生具备一定的科学知识和理解能力，能够理解和应用科学原理。
二、社会科学类社会科学类的阅读题材主要涉及人类社会、人类行为、经济学、政治学等社会科学领域的知识。
这类文章通常会讲述社会问题、经济理论、政治事件等，要求考生能够理解和分析这些社会现象，并根据文章内容回答问题。
例如，文章可能会讲述社会不平等的原因、经济增长的影响、政治决策的影响等等。
三、历史类历史类的阅读题材主要涉及历史事件、历史人物、历史文化等方面的知识。
这类文章通常会讲述历史事件的背景、原因和影响，要求考生能够理解和分析这些历史事件，并根据文章内容回答问题。
例如，文章可能会讲述二战的起因、美国独立战争的影响、中国古代文化的发展等等。
四、文学类文学类的阅读题材主要涉及文学作品、文学理论、文学批评等方面的知识。
这类文章通常会讲述文学作品的主题、风格、语言运用等，要求考生能够理解和分析这些文学作品，并根据文章内容回答问题。
例如，文章可能会讲述莎士比亚的戏剧作品、现代小说的风格特点、文学理论的发展等等。
五、科学研究类科学研究类的阅读题材主要涉及科学研究领域的知识。
这类文章通常会介绍一项科学研究的方法、结果和结论，要求考生能够理解和分析这些科学研究，并根据文章内容回答问题。
例如，文章可能会讲述一项关于医学治疗的研究、一项关于环境保护的研究、一项关于心理学的研究等等。
托福阅读题材涵盖了自然科学、社会科学、历史、文学和科学研究等多个领域的知识。
考生在备考阅读部分时，需要对不同领域的知识有一定的了解，并具备分析和解释文章内容的能力。
通过大量的阅读练习和积累，考生可以在托福考试中取得好成绩。
托福阅读tpo71R-1原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo71R-1Electrical Energy from the Ocean原文 (1)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)原文Electrical Energy from the Ocean①Solar energy reaching Earth is responsible for differential heating of the atmosphere and thus air circulation as wind. Some of the energy of wind is transferred to the oceans, where it causes waves and is partly responsible for oceanic currents, although Earth’s rotation also plays a role in currents. Gravitational attraction between Earth and the Sun and Moon generates tides and, along with Earth’s rotation, causes most coastal areas to experience a twice-daily rise and fall of sea level. In short, the oceans possess a tremendous reservoir of largely untapped energy.②If we could effectively harness the energy possessed by the oceans, an almost limitless, largely nonpolluting energy supply would be ensured. Unfortunately, ocean energy is diffuse, meaning that the amount of energy for a given volume of water is small and thus difficult to concentrate and use. Several ways of using ocean energy are being considered or are under development, and one is currently in use, although it accounts for only a tiny proportion of all energy production. Of the several sources of ocean energy ---temperature differences with depth; currents; waves; and tides ---only the last shows much promise for the near future.③Ocean water at depth might be as much as 25℃colder than surface water, a difference that allows for ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). OTEC exploits this temperature difference to run turbines and generate electricity. The amount of energy available is enormous, but a number of practical problems must be solved before it can be used. For one thing, any potential site must be close to land and also have a sufficiently rapid change with depth to result in the required temperature difference. Furthermore, enormous quantities of warm and cold seawater would have to circulate through an electrical-generating plant, thus requiring that large surface areas bedevoted to this purpose.④The concept of OTEC is more than a century old, but despite several decades of research, no commercial OTEC plants are operating or even under construction, although small experimental ones have been tested in Hawaii and Japan.⑤Wind-generated ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which flows along the east coast of North America, also posses energy that might be tapped to generate electricity. Unlike streams that can be dammed to impound a reservoir, any electrical-generating facility exploiting oceanic currents would have to concentrate currents’diffuse energy and contend with any unpredictable changes in direction. In addition, whereas hydroelectric generating plats on land depend on the rapid movement o water from the higher elevation to the turbines, the energy of ocean currents comes from their flow velocity, which is at most a few kilometers per hour.⑥The most obvious form of energy in the oceans lies in waves.Harnessing wave energy and converting it to electricity is not a new idea, and it has been used on an extremely limited scale. Unfortunately, the energy possessed by a wave is distributed along its crest and is difficult to concentrate. Furthermore, any facility would have to be designed to withstand the effects of storms and saltwater corrosion. The Japanese have developed wave-energy devices to power lighthouses and buoys, and a facility capable of providing power to about 300 homes began operating in Scotland during September 2000.⑦Perhaps tidal power is the most promising form of ocean energy. In fact, it has been used for centuries in some coastal areas to run mills, but its use at present for electrical generation is limited. Most coastal areas experience a twice-daily rise the fall of tides, but only a few areas are suitable for exploiting this energy source. One limitation is that the tidal range must be at least five meters, and there must also be a coastal region where water can be stored following high tide.⑧Suitable sites for using tidal power are limited not only by tidal range but also by location. Many areas along the U.S. Gulf Coast would certainly benefit from tidal power plants, but a tide range of generallyless than one meter precludes the possibility of development. Even areas with an appropriate tidal range such as the Arctic islands of Canada offer little potential because of their great distances from population centers.译文海洋电能①太阳能对地球的影响及海洋能量的潜力到达地球的太阳能是大气层差异加热的根源，进而导致空气循环，即我们所知的风。
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (36)阅读-3 (40)原文 (40)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Clutch Size in Birds①Each year the emperor penguin lays one egg,the pigeon lays one or two eggs,the gull typically lays three eggs,the Canada goose four to six eggs,and the American merganser ten or eleven eggs.What determines clutch size in birds?The ultimate factors that determine clutch size are the requirements for long-term(evolutionary)survival. Clutch size is viewed as an adaptation under the control of natural selection.②Natural selection will favor those birds that leave the most descendants to future generations.At first thought we might hypothesize that natural selection favors a clutch size that is the physiological maximum the bird can lay.We can test this hypothesis by taking eggs from nests as they are laid.When we do this,we find that some birds,such as the common pigeon,are determinate layers;they lay a given number of eggs,no matter what.The pigeon lays two eggs, if you take away the first,it will incubate the second egg only.If you add a third egg,it will incubate all three.But many other birds areindeterminate layers;they will continue to lay eggs until the nest is "full".If eggs are removed once they are laid,these birds will continue laying.When this subterfuge was used on a mallard female,she continued to lay one egg per day until she had laid100of them. Evidence from other,similar experiments suggests that most birds under normal circumstances do not lay their physiological limit of eggs but that ovulation is stopped long before this limit is reached.③The British ornithologist David Lack was one of the first ecologists to recognize the importance of evolutionary thinking in understanding adaptations in life history traits.In1947Lack put forward the idea that clutch size in birds was determined by the number of young that parents can provide with food.If his hypothesis is correct,the total production of young ought to be highest at the normal clutch size.And if one experimentally increased clutch size by adding eggs to nests, increased clutches should suffer greater losses because the parents could not feed the extra young in the nest.④One way to think about this problem of optimum clutch size is to usea simple economic approach.Everything an organism does has somecosts and some benefits.The benefits of laying more eggs are very clear--more descendants in the next generation.The costs are less clear.There is an energy cost to make each additional egg,and there is a further cost to feed each additional nestling.If the adult birds must work harder to feed their young,there is also a potential cost in adult survival-the adults may not live until the next breeding season.If adults are unable to work harder,there is a risk of reduction in offspring quality.Models of this type are useful because they help us think about the costs and benefits for a particular ecological strategy. No organism has an infinite amount of energy to spend on its activities. The reproductive rate of birds can be viewed as one sector of a bird's energy balance,and the needs of reproduction must be maximized within the constraints of other energy requirements.The total requirements involve metabolic maintenance,growth,energy used for predator avoidance,competitive interactions,and reproduction. According to Lack's hypothesis,if enough additional eggs are placed in a bird's nest,reproductive energy requirements escalate and the whole brood will suffer from starvation so that,in fact,fewer young birds will fledge from nests containing large numbers ofeggs.⑤In England,the blue tit normally lays a clutch of nine to eleven eggs.What would happen if blue tits had a brood of twelve or thirteen?A researcher artificially manipulated broods at hatching by adding or subtracting chicks and found that the survival of the young blue tits in manipulated broods was poor.Blue tits feed on insects and apparently cannot feed additional young adequately,so more of the young starve. Consequently,it would not benefit a blue tit in the evolutionary sense to lay more eggs and the results are consistent with Lack's hypothesis. Individual birds appear to produce the clutch size that maximizes their reproductive potential.译文鸟窝的大小①每年，皇帝企鹅会产下一枚蛋，鸽子会产下一颗或两颗蛋，海鸥通常会产下三颗蛋，加拿大鹅会产下四到六颗蛋，而美洲红颈潜鸭则会产下十到十一颗蛋。
盘点那些你必须知道的托福“奇葩”背景知识
盘点那些你必须知道的托福“奇葩”背景知识很多同学会有疑问，托福背景知识有那么重要吗？但是同一篇文章，如果你熟悉这些知识，文章理解起来会更容易，答题准确率也会更高。
10秒看全文↓掌握学科常见背景知识帮助熟悉托福阅读和听力常考话题，有干货！常考分类及词汇总结见文末。
三大奇葩背景知识——心理学界的皮亚杰，考古界的滚筒印为首的早期人类文明与艺术，经济历史政治界的腐国工业革命，排名不分先后。
一、常见学科分类众所周知，托福考试在阅读和听力部分会涉及一些专业学科，学科和话题涵盖社会科学、人文科学以及Hard Science，看到每个大分类下的学科分类，有的同学可能已经好“方”（慌）了，备考的畏难情绪又增加了不少，借口无非是“文科生看不懂理科文章”、“这个学科我都没听说过怎么搞”之类。
然而，ETS命题人表示：这些内容虽然涉及学科广泛，考生可能并没有相关学科经验，但是涉及的内容只是基本的理论和概念——对于理解背景知识相当基础、相当宽泛的内容。
比如，读到一篇选自物理学课本的文章，出题人并不要求我们能够掌握具体的物理原理或者做出一道物理题。
相反，题目内容只会涉及到一些概念或者理论，以及文中提到解释这个理论的细节和例子。
我们要做的，也仅仅在英语听力和阅读理解过程中，了解理论并清楚文中是如何阐述和证明这个理论的。
在复习过程中，我们会有这样的体验——如果我们对话题内容非常熟悉，理解过程中回读次数会更少，甚至会更好地理解内容，做对题目。
因此，做够了句子分析精听跟读磨嘴皮练口语，补充一些学科背景知识，调剂一下备考生活未尝不可。
常见的托福学科背景知识简单分类可以见下表：学科分类具体学科TPO相关话题示范Social Science（社会科学）Psychology（心理学）婴幼儿遗忘、儿童自传式记忆Sociology（社会学）社会群组形式Anthropology（人类学）迁入普韦布洛Hard Science（硬科学）Physics（物理学）逃逸速度、宇宙速度Astronomy（天文学）火星话题、陨石话题、太阳星系、彗星话题Chemistry（化学）彗星的化学组成Biology（生物学）温血海龟、物种灭绝、植物起源进化Geology（地质学）地下水、沙漠中水源、风力发电、地热能、绿色冰山Meteorology（气象学）闪电的形成、城市气候Humanities（人文科学）History（历史学）太平洋群岛居民起源、古代罗马和希腊Art（艺术）中国陶瓷、古埃及雕塑拉斯科岩洞画Art History（艺术史）摄影术的诞生、戏剧起源Music（音乐）钢琴及乐器历史Literature（文学研究）Philosophy（哲学）二、奇葩典型盘点众多学科中，今日盘点典型有三，分享和总结主要原则是：贵精不贵多，概括起来大概是一人一物一事件。
tpo50三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识
tpo50三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (16)背景知识 (18)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (37)阅读-3 (41)原文 (41)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (54)背景知识 (55)阅读-1原文American Railroads①In the United States,railroads spearheaded the second phase of the transportation revolution by overtaking the previous importance of canals.The mid-1800s saw a great expansion of American railroads. The major cities east of the Mississippi River were linked by a spiderweb of railroad tracks.Chicago's growth illustrates the impact of these rail links.In1849Chicago was a village of a few hundred people with virtually no rail service.By1860it had become a city of100,000, served by eleven railroads.Farmers to the north and west of Chicago no longer had to ship their grain,livestock,and dairy products down the Mississippi River to New Orleans;they could now ship their products directly east.Chicago supplanted New Orleans as the interior of America's main commercial hub.②The east-west rail lines stimulated the settlement and agricultural development of the Midwest.By1860Illinois,Indiana,and Wisconsin had replaced Ohio,Pennsylvania,and New York as the leading wheat-growing states.Enabling farmers to speed their products to the East,railroads increased the value of farmland and promotedadditional settlement.In turn,population growth in agricultural areas triggered industrial development in cities such as Chicago,Davenport (Iowa),and Minneapolis,for the new settlers needed lumber for fences and houses and mills to grind wheat into flour.③Railroads also propelled the growth of small towns along their routes.The Illinois Central Railroad,which had more track than any other railroad in1855,made money not only from its traffic but also from real estate speculation.Purchasing land for stations along its path, the Illinois Central then laid out towns around the stations.The selection of Manteno,Illinois,as a stop of the Illinois Central,for example,transformed the site from a crossroads without a single house in1854into a bustling town of nearly a thousand in1860, replete with hotels,lumberyards,grain elevators,and gristmills.By the Civil War(1861-1865),few thought of the railroad-linked Midwest as a frontier region or viewed its inhabitants as pioneers.④As the nation's first big business,the railroads transformed the conduct of business.During the early1830s,railroads,like canals, depended on financial aid from state governments.With the onset of economic depression in the late1830s,however,state governments scrapped overly ambitious railroad projects.Convinced that railroads burdened them with high taxes and blasted hopes,voters turnedagainst state aid,and in the early1840s,several states amended their constitutions to bar state funding for railroads and canals.The federal government took up some of the slack,but federal aid did not provide a major stimulus to railroads before1860.Rather,part of the burden of finance passed to city and county governments in agricultural areas that wanted to attract railroads.Such municipal governments,for example,often gave railroads rights-of-way,grants of land for stations, and public funds.⑤The dramatic expansion of the railroad network in the1850s, however,strained the financing capacity of local governments and required a turn toward private investment,which had never been absent from the picture.Well aware of the economic benefits of railroads,individuals living near them had long purchased railroad stock issued by governments and had directly bought stock in railroads, often paying by contributing their labor to building the railroads.But the large railroads of the1850s needed more capital than such small investors could generate.Gradually,the center of railroad financing shifted to New York City,and in fact,it was the railroad boom of the 1850s that helped make Wall Street in New York City the nation's greatest capital market.The stocks of all the leading railroads were traded on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange during the1850s. In addition,the growth of railroads turned New York City into thecenter of modern investment firms.The investment firms evaluated the stock of railroads in the smaller American cities and then found purchasers for these stocks in New York City,Philadelphia,Paris, London,Amsterdam,and Hamburg.Controlling the flow of funds to railroads,the investment bankers began to exert influence over the railroads'internal affairs by supervising administrative reorganizations in times of trouble.译文美国铁路①在美国，铁路超越了运河从前的重要性，成为运输革命第二阶段的先锋。
托福阅读生物类背景知识及真题
托福阅读生物类背景知识及真题生物类话题是托福阅读中最常见话题之一，当然对于生物的考察也不仅仅局限于陆地，还会延伸至海洋，说到海洋生物，大家对珊瑚(coral)一定并不陌生，但是珊瑚礁(coral reef)是如何形成、又如何分类呢?今天我们就一起来看一看托福阅读生物类背景知识及真题。
托福阅读生物类背景知识珊瑚礁珊瑚礁(coral reef)是指造礁石珊瑚群体死后其遗骸(remains)构成的岩体。
珊瑚礁的主体是由珊瑚虫(polyp)组成的。
珊瑚虫是海洋中的一种腔肠动物在生长过程中能吸收海水中的钙和二氧化碳，然后分泌出石灰石(limestone)，变为自己生存的外壳。
每一个单体的珊瑚虫只有米粒那样大小，它们一群一群地聚居在一起，一代代地新陈代谢(metabolism)，生长繁衍，同时不断分泌出石灰石，并粘合在一起。
这些石灰石经过以后的压实、石化，形成岛屿和礁石，也就是所谓的珊瑚礁(coral reef)。
达尔文根据礁体与岸线的关系，划分出岸礁(fringing reef)、堡礁(barrier reef)和环礁(atoll)。
fringing reef暗礁沿大陆(mainland)或岛屿(island)岸边(shore)生长发育，亦称裙礁或边缘礁。
现代最长的岸礁沿红海沿岸发育，绵延约2700多公里，分布水深约36米。
中国台湾恒春半岛和海南岛沿岸也有岸礁发育。
barrier reef堡礁又称堤礁，是离岸有一定距离的堤状礁体，它与陆地隔以泻湖(环礁湖)(lagoon)。
现代规模最大的堡礁是澳大利亚昆士兰大堡礁，全长约2000公里，分布水深约30米。
atoll环礁礁体呈环带状围绕泻湖(lagoon)，有的与外海有水道相通。
环礁直径在几百米至几十公里，形态多样。
已知的环礁有330个之多,主要分布在西太平洋的信风带和印度洋热带海域。
环礁多坐落在大洋火山锥上，孤立于汪洋大海之中，展布受洋底火山(volcano)作用的控制，某些也可在大陆架(continental shelf)上见到。
托福阅读tpo75R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo75R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文 (1)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)原文The Palaces of Minoan Crete①The palaces built by the Minoan people of Crete(an island in the eastern Mediterranean)between1950B.C.and1450 B.C.were centers of power,both sacred and secular,with wealth based on the stores of agricultural produce from the fertile hinterland that they controlled.What happened within them?Presumably they were busy places.The receipt, recording,and storage of goods brought in from the surrounding countryside must have been a major job, particularly at those tunes of the year when the corn was harvested,the olive ripe,or the wine newly made. Administration of the goods and commodities leaving the storerooms for consumption in the palace,for use in theworkshops,or for wider distribution must have taken place throughout the year.We may imagine the storage areas as busy by day,and probably carefully guarded at night.②The craft workers creating precious works in such materials as gold,Ivory,and semiprecious stones may well have been fulltime craft specialists,totally dependent on the palaces and working constantly within them,their products in demand both tor immediate use and possibly foe exchange quite far afield.Their raw materials were part of palatial wealth,and must have been kept under strict control.Similarly bronze workers,whose raw material would have been carefully recorded,no doubt worked close by.Pottery workshops seem to have been further afield,situated near the clay beds and fuel for the kilns(pottery ovens)rather than within palace confines,though their products could still have been largely or totally under palace control.The production of textiles was probably always an important palace-based activity,though we do not know in which rooms,precisely,spinning and weaving took place.③Some revisionist interpretations of the palace of Knossos have questioned whether people lived within it to any great extent.We must face squarely the fact,implicit in the above account,that unequivocal evidence for human residence as opposed to human use,is hard to find.Nonetheless,it seems overwhelmingly probable that all the palaces were lived in by some,if not all,of the people engaged in the many activities for which they show evidence.Many nonspecific rooms could have been lived in by various dependents--craft workers, guards,textile workers,servants,or slaves.This remains true even if we follow those interpretations that would prefer "temple"to"palace"as the buildings'prime identification.④In fact,the choice of"temple"rather than“palace"is a change of emphasis rather than a change of interpretation. From the early twentieth-century work of archaeologist Arthur Evans onwards,the ingrained and embedded religious nature of the palaces has been accepted,as has the fact that "palace"is inadequate shorthand for the buildings' complexities.There are,though,good reasons not to change wholesale to"temple"which in truth is similarly inadequate.The most obvious problem with such a change is the fact that, while a society based on large palaces with no temples has always been recognized as anomalous in the ancient world, large-scale temples with no palaces would be equally so. Unless there is a truly huge gap in our excavated evidence possible,but as time goes on increasingly unlikely--these complex buildings are all we have.The most logical conclusion remains that they fulfilled two sets of functions simultaneously.Accurate terminology that did not privilege one function over another would require the coinage of a portmanteau term such as"palace-temple"or "temple-palace,"but this seems an undesirable deviation from terminology that is long established,whatever its shortcomings.⑤What,though,of the ruling elite,whether priests,kings,or both?Is there evidence that the palaces housed a royal family? The attempt to see royal apartments throws into high relief not only the difficulty of identifying precisely the function of a room from its form,but also the fact that we do not really know who,in Minoan society,held the reins of power.TheMinoan tradition indicates a king-yet power may have been wielded by a priest,or by a priest-king,combining functions that we would divide into sacred and secular.Nonetheless,it still seems overwhelmingly likely that the ruling elite lived in the palaces,or perhaps in both the palaces and the important houses in their immediate vicinity.译文克里特岛米洛斯的宫殿①克里特岛（位于东地中海的一个岛屿）上的米诺斯文明在公元前1950年至公元前1450年间建造的宫殿，既是宗教也是世俗权力的中心，其财富源自于他们控制的肥沃内陆地区所产出的农产品。
美国的历史
英法为争夺海上霸权和掠夺殖民地而进行的七年战争，以英国胜利告终。英国在北美接管了加拿大，控制了密西西比河以东的新法兰西，对北美殖民地全面加强控制。1774年9月5日，除佐治亚外的各殖民地代表在费城召开了第1届大陆会议，通过了和英国断绝一切贸易关系的决议向英王呈递请愿书。1775 年4月18日，在波士顿附近的列克星敦和康科德，殖民地爱国者打响了反抗的枪声，揭开了独立战争的序幕。5月，第2届大陆会议召开。次年7月大陆会议通过独立宣言，宣布13个殖民地脱离英国独立。
如今越来越多的同学选择到美国留学，不过要问大家个问题:关于美国历史你了解多少？下面就来看一下这些托福阅读常考的关于美国的背景知识。
1) 英属北美殖民地的建立(1607--1733)
北美洲原始居民为印第安人。16-18世纪，正在进行资本原始积累的西欧各国相继入侵北美洲。法国人建立了新法兰西(包括圣劳伦斯流域下游大潮区，密西西比河流域等处);西班牙人建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美国西南部的广大地区)。1607年，英国建立了第1个殖民据点—詹姆士城，此后在大西洋沿岸陆续建立了13个殖民地。到达殖民地的大多数是西欧贫苦的劳动人民，也有贵族、地主、资产阶级，以英国人、爱尔兰人、德意志人和荷兰人最多。移民中有逃避战祸和宗教迫害者，有自愿和非自愿的“契约奴”以及乞丐、罪犯;还有从非洲被贩运来的黑人。
杜鲁门主义 (Truman Doctrine)
马歇尔计划 (Marshall Plan)
共同安全法 (Mutan Missile Crisis)
尼克松主义 (Nixon Doctrine)
60年代民主党J.F.肯尼迪和L.B.约翰逊相继执政，实行长期财政赤字政策，扩大军费开支，增加福利费用，经济持续上升。同时，由于他们卷入越南战争，支付巨额军费，消耗了美国大量财富，使美国经济实力大为削弱，而联邦德国和日本经济迅速发展，逐渐成为美国的竞争对手。
托福阅读背景知识汇总
托福阅读背景知识汇总托福考试中，阅读想要做的又快有准确，不仅需要提升英语阅读能力，还要掌握阅读背景知识。
下面就和大家分享托福阅读背景知识知多少，来欣赏一下吧。
托福阅读背景知识知多少阅读背景知识汇总一.考古学(archaeology)题材1.文化(cultural )考古学形态(physical)考古学(多见)2.化石(fossil )化石构成。
化石比原物更沉重(矿物质环境)化石形成原因。
坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手使用工具。
证据：敲击的划痕;手柄的形状。
牙齿上的划痕。
大脑左右半球的大小差别;趾骨的粗细差别。
作画时人像的方向4.古代陶瓷的考古。
Clay，model，wheel (转盘)，glaze，kiln5.古代文字的考古。
二.印第安题材1.白令海峡移民理论2.印第安文化3.印第安宗教观4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize，squash，bean，pea。
三.动植物题材(必考)1.植物学题材(不多见)地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
树冠上方生物。
植物在生态平衡中的作用。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)考普通动物为多。
最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
考动物进化(evolution)。
考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum)—门class—纲order—目family—科genus—属species—种carnivore/predator—食肉动物herbivore—食草动物omnivore—杂食动物动物的生活习性最为多见。
群居(social animal)动物的习性蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(caste)：交流方式—信息素—气味;生活****;外来物种的有害性。
蜜蜂：群居个性;“8”字舞;蜜蜂智能;防御;天敌—大黄蜂。
tpo46三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识
tpo46三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (17)原文 (17)译文 (21)题目 (23)答案 (30)背景知识 (31)阅读-3 (34)原文 (34)译文 (38)题目 (40)答案 (48)背景知识 (49)阅读-1原文The Origins of Writing①It was in Egypt and Mesopotamia(modern-day Iraq)that civilization arose,and it is there that we find the earliest examples of that key feature of civilization,writing.These examples,in the form of inscribed clay tablets that date to shortly before3000B.C.E.,have been discovered among the archaeological remains of the Sumerians,a gifted people settled in southern Mesopotamia.②The Egyptians were not far behind in developing writing, but we cannot follow the history of their writing in detail because they used a perishable writing material.In ancient times the banks of the Nile were lined with papyrus plants, and from the papyrus reeds the Egyptians made a form of paper;it was excellent in quality but,like any paper,fragile. Mesopotamia’s rivers boasted no such useful reeds,but its land did provide good clay,and as a consequence the clay tablet became the standard material.Though clumsy and bulky it has a virtue dear to archaeologists:it is durable.Fire, for example,which is death to papyrus paper or otherwriting materials such as leather and wood,simply bakes it hard,thereby making it even more durable.So when a conqueror set a Mesopotamian palace ablaze,he helped ensure the survival of any clay tablets in it.Clay,moreover, is cheap,and forming it into tablets is easy,factors that helped the clay tablet become the preferred writing material not only throughout Mesopotamia but far outside it as well,in Syria,Asia Minor,Persia,and even for a while in Crete and Greece.Excavators have unearthed clay tablets in all these lands.In the Near East they remained in use for more than two and a half millennia,and in certain areas they lasted down to the beginning of the common era until finally yielding,once and for all,to more convenient alternatives.③The Sumerians perfected a style of writing suited to clay. This script consists of simple shapes,basically just wedge shapes and lines that could easily be incised in soft clay with a reed or wooden stylus;scholars have dubbed it cuneiform from the wedge-shaped marks(cunei in Latin)that are its hallmark.Although the ingredients are merely wedges and lines,there are hundreds of combinations of these basic forms that stand for different sounds or words.Learningthese complex signs required long training and much practice;inevitably,literacy was largely limited to a small professional class,the scribes.④The Akkadians conquered the Sumerians around the middle of the third millennium B.C.E.,and they took over the various cuneiform signs used for writing Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language.The Babylonians and Assyrians did the same,and so did peoples in Syria and Asia Minor.The literature of the Sumerians was treasured throughout the Near East,and long after Sumerian ceased to be spoken,the Babylonians and Assyrians and others kept it alive as a literary language, the way Europeans kept Latin alive after the fall of Rome. For the scribes of these non-Sumerian languages,training was doubly demanding since they had to know the values of the various cuneiform signs for Sumerian as well as for their own language.⑤The contents of the earliest clay tablets are simple notations of numbers of commodities—animals,jars, baskets,etc.Writing,it would appear,started as a primitive form of bookkeeping.Its use soon widened to document the multitudinous things and acts that are involved in daily life,from simple inventories of commodities to complicated governmental rules and regulations.⑥Archaeologists frequently find clay tablets in batches.The batches,some of which contain thousands of tablets, consist for the most part of documents of the types just mentioned:bills,deliveries,receipts,inventories,loans, marriage contracts,divorce settlements,court judgments, and so on.These records of factual matters were kept in storage to be available for reference-they were,in effect, files,or,to use the term preferred by specialists in the ancient Near East,archives.Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order,writings that do not merely record some matter of fact but involve creative intellectual activity.They range from simple textbook material to literature-and they make an appearance very early,even from the third millennium B C E.译文文字的起源①文明就是在埃及和美索不达米亚（今天的伊拉克）兴起的，在那里我们找到了文明的关键特征——书写的最早例子。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
托福阅读7类常考背景知识全在这在托福阅读考试当中，如果大家能够提前了解托福阅读的背景知识，那么大家在考试时就可以轻松的应对托福阅读的各类题型。
今天文都国际教育小编为大家整理了托福阅读7类常考背景知识，大家一起来学习一下吧。
托福阅读常考背景知识一、印第安题材
1.白令海峡移民理论
2.印第安文化
3.印第安宗教观
4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize, squash, bean, pea。
托福阅读常考背景知识二、动植物题材(必考)
1.植物学题材(不多见)
a. 地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
b. 树冠上方生物。
c. 植物在生态平衡中的作用。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)
a. 考普通动物为多。
最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
b. 考动物进化(evolution)。
c. 考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum) —门class—纲order—目family—科genus—属species—种carnivore/predator—食肉动物herbivore—食草动物omnivore—杂食动物
d. 动物的生活习性最为多见。
群居(social animal)动物的习性
a) 蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(caste)：交流方式—信息素—气味;生活来源;外来物种的有害性。
b) 蜜蜂：群居个性; “8”字舞;蜜蜂智能;防御;天敌—大黄蜂。
c) 大猩猩：智能：猩际关系
k) 迁徙(migration)
野鸭、大雁：日照长短;辨别方向。
伪装(camouflage)、花拟态(mimicry)
托福阅读常考背景知识三、考古学(archaeology)题材
1.文化(cultural)考古学形态(physical)考古学(多见)
2.化石(fossil)
j 化石构成。
化石比原物更沉重(矿物质环境)
k 化石形成原因。
坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
l 化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手
j 使用工具。
证据：敲击的划痕;手柄的形状。
k 牙齿上的划痕。
l 大脑左右半球的大小差别;趾骨的粗细差别。
m 作画时人像的方向
4.古代陶瓷的考古。
Clay, model, wheel (转盘)，glaze, kiln
5.古代文字的考古。
托福阅读常考背景知识四、美国历史题材
1.美国发展线索
j 发现美洲阶段
哥伦布(意)，为黄金、茶叶、香料
West/East Indian
影响：世界观变化;国家形势变化;(爱尔兰——土豆饥荒) k 英国定居阶段(English settlement)
1607第一个定居点Captain John Smith影响清教徒1620五月花号
l 殖民时期(colonial era)
m 独立战争(American Revolution)
n 新的国家(new nation)：南北不均衡
o 南北战争(Civil War)
p 战后重建。
持续近100年。
q 西进运动(Westward movement )
r 工业化大增长
s world war I & II
End ：1960
2.“大熔炉”：地理位置;民族融合1960’s;文化融合。
3.邮政。
j 小马快递;k 铁路邮政。
托福阅读常考背景知识五、地理学题材
1.地理现象、土壤构成、降雪降雨。
2.冰川(glacier)、形成(foundation) 移动冰川(surge glacier)
3.地球构成：地心构成
M计划、DSDP(deep sea drill project)计划、地震波探测、超高温高压地壳(crust)
地幔(mantle) upper mantle; lower mantle
地核(core)
4.板块构成学说
converge 碰撞; spread 张裂
mantle plume 地粒、热点; a dive into b ; slide past each other
托福阅读常考背景知识六、天文学题材
多考木星、太阳，近期多考彗星、小行星。
1.宇宙(universe、cosmos)，星系(galaxy)，星云(nebulae)，恒星(star、sun )，行星(planet)，卫星(satellite、moon )，小行星(asteroid)，彗星(comet)，陨星(meteorite)
2.八大行星
Mercury —水星，Venus—金星，earth—地球，Mars—火星，Jupiter —木星，Saturn —土星，Uranus —天王星，Neptune —海王星(第九大行星Pluto —-冥王星已被天文学界逐出行星之列)
3.物质粒子
molecule —分子，particle —粒子，proton—质子，electron —电子，neutron —中子，photon —光子，ion —离子
托福阅读常考背景知识七、文学艺术题材
1.文学
j 文学流派;k 作家、作品; l 文学体裁; m 作家生平。
2.艺术
j 流派，主考画派、雕塑
k 发展：19世界以前美国落后，之后改善原因：经济发达。
l 改善方法：向欧洲，尤其是英法学习。
m 艺术品向英法进口：当地没有; 生产技术水平落后。
以上就是小编为大家分享的托福阅读7类常考背景知识全在这的全部内容，希望对参加托福考试的考生有所帮助。
最后，预祝大家考出满意的成绩，出国顺利。
文章来源于文都国际教育：/kaopei/toefl/reading/13151.shtml。