胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第4版)考研模拟试题及详解(二)【圣才出品】
第四版语言学教程答案
第四版语言学教程答案【篇一：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historical development and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇二：语言学课后答案4】the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: it means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. for instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will bepredicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. in short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevantelements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. it can be further divided into the external and internal properties. take sentence the boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independentclause, while np (―the boy‖), vp (―kicked‖) and np (―theb all‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.constituent: constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a largerlinguistic unit. several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence the boy ate the apple, s (a), the boy (b), ate the apple(c), each part is a constituent. constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. if two constituents, in the case of the example above, b (the boy) and c (ate the apple), are joined to form ahierarchically higher constituent a (―s‖, here a sentence), then b and c are said to be immediate constituents of a.endocentric: endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. in the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the centre or head of this phrase or word group.exocentric: exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, andconnective (be + complement) construction. in the sentence a whole.coordination: a common syntactic pattern in english and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. this phenomenon is known as coordination. in the construction the lady or the tiger, both nps the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.subordination: subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. consequently, they can be called modifiers. in the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, forexample, include number, gender, case and countability; andof the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.agreement: agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (orcategories). for instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--.embedding: embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination.e.g., i saw the recursiveness: it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can beembedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. for example, ―i met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.grammatical subject logical subject: grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. take the sentences and as examples. since the core object noun (john in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. the cohesivedevices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexicalcollocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. in the following example, the cohesive deviceis ―reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: .2.(1) the instructor told the students to study.[np(det.+n.)+v+np(det.+n.)+inf.]【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement4.synchronic linguisticsv. answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.how can we use language to do things? please give two examples to show this point.ii. fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.the features that define our human languages can becalled_____________, which include____________,_____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.the fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ andits___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.in jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________,________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.when people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in jakobson’s version.10.in functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely,_____________,____________________,__________________.11.among halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.12.the________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.please name five main branch oflinguistics:___________________________,_________________ __,__________________, _____________________and____________________.14.in________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.in________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.the study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication iscalled_________________.19.the study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.the study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.the fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.iii. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.the description of a language at some print in time isa_______________ study.a. descriptiveb. prescriptivec. synchronicd. diachronic2. according to chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentencebecause_______a. he has come across all of them in his lifeb. he has internalized a set of rules about his languagec. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but saussure takes a ____________view of language and chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewa. sociological, psychologicalb. psychological, sociologicalc. biological, psychologicald. psychological, biological4.the fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates languageis______a. arbitraryb. rule-governedc. appliedd. illogical5.we can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______a. creativeb. arbitraryc. limitlessd. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakera. dualityb. displacementc. productivityd. arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languagea. phoneticsb. syntaxc. semanticd. pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.a.morphologyb. syntaxc. semanticd. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaninga.dualityb. arbitrarinessc .replacementd. creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousa. conventionality, arbitrarinessb. arbitrariness, replacementc. arbitrariness, conventionalityd. conventionality, arbitrariness11.when people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languagea.poeticb. creativec. phaticd. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.a. chomskyb.saussurec.jacobsond. halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.a.interpersonalb. textualc. logicald. ideational14.interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.a. socialb. experientialc. textuald. personal15.by_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.a. experientialb. referentialc. metalinguald. interpersonal16.the study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the studyof_____.a.phonologyb. phoneticsc. morphologyd. syntax17.in__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.a.articulatoryb. acousticc. auditoryd. sound18.french distinguishes between nouns likegare(station)which is feminine and nouns like train which is masculine. this shows that french is a language which____.a.is illogicalb. has grammatical genderc.has biological genderd. has two casesa.pragmatic skillb. intuitive knowledge of languagec.perfect knowledge of language skilld. communicative ability20.french has tu (means: you) aimera (means: will love) jean and english has you will love jean. this shows us that____.a. both languages are alike in expressing future timeb. both languages have a future tense but english requires more wordsc. english is loose while french is compactd. french forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____a. lexisb. syntaxc. semanticsd. pragmatics22.a(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.a. perfect language userb. ideal language userc. proficient userd. native language useriv. analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary. a.they married and had a baby.b.they had a baby and married.2.examine the way the following words are separated. comment on the way of separation in relation to bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.what is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? what kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第3、4版)笔记和考研真题详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(语言与认知)【圣才出品】
第6章语言与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics心理语言学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成3. First language acquisition第一语言习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学常考考点：语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
语言学教程复习题与答案
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)1(总19页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3.A scientific study of language is based on what the linguistthinks.4.In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based onlanguage facts and checked against the observed facts.5.General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research ofother areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7.Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studiesthe combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to formwords is called morphology.10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former notonly studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13.Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmaticsstudies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation tosociety.16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimesdescriptive.17.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of languageat some point in time.19.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary,not the written language.20.The distinction between competence and performance wasproposed by Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’sk__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete useof the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower levelof meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________. 26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the detailsof language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of suchapplications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Inother words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguisticof the following is not a design feature of human languageA. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC.Duality D. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativetook a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmatic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________, A. displacement B. duality C. flexibility D. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B IV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43.Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45.Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48.Morphology 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity 54.Displacement 56. Design Features 57.Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of languageas primary, not the written66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole67. How do you understand competence and performance68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similarto Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. Whatdo you think are their major differences69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary WhyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary25. syntax 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.IV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics isgenerally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words arecombined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning incontext of use is called pragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The studyof language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are usedin linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: Thestudy of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language iscalled semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the applicationof linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness:It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is nological connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to referto contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence asthe ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shar ed by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of co nventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langueis relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Paro le: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; paroleis the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the r ules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to sit uation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Gi ve examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal sym bols used for human communication. Explain it in of all, language i s a system, because elements of language are combined according to r ules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same o bject in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrar y nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of lang uage: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, acti ons, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings onl y and is very different from the communication systems of other livi ng creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their commu nicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language Illustrate th em with examples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the a rbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connect ion between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not ent irelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation o f sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some co mpound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of languagemakes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expres sions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new s ignals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted wi th respect to the number of different signals that their users can s end and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language m eans that language is a system, which consists of two sets of struct ure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which ar e meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of langua ge can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged in to sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of la nguage enables its users to talk about anything within their knowled ge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that langua ge can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contex ts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal call s are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the abi lity to acquire language, but the details of any language are not ge netically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitt ed.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammarTraditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "hi gh "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical r ules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguist ics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken lang uage data and then it studies and describes the data in an object ive and scientific way.64.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a langua ge as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particul ar point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the stu dy of the historical development of language over a period of time.65.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of languageas primary, not the written First, the spoken form is pri or to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a gre ater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conv eyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole Thedistinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous li nguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a sp eech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue inactual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which lan guage users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. L angue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situat ion.67. How do you understand competence and performance Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This i nternalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Cho msky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of h is mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes b ecause of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarr assment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at lea st in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, co mpetence is a property of the mind of each individual.69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary Why Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, becau se there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the bas is of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments andthey distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the positionof tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the li ps, and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into closevowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two wordsare said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21.A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22.A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , theyare all b_______ sounds.24.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulationor in terms of p____ of articulation.26.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31.P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effec t linguistic communication.32.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasa l cavity.33.T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.38. A. /z/ B. /d/ C. /k/ D./b/39. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. s imilar40.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.41.A. in phonemic contrast B. in complementary distribution42.C. the allophones D. minimal pair43.The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricate B. voiced alveolar stop44. C. voiceless velar fricative D. voiceless labiodental fricative45. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle46.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B.immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. semantic features47.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. sound C. allophone D. phoneme48.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:49. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. p honetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or notI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26.stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. inton ation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV.Define the terms below:: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these s ounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.50. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phonemeis not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.51.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.52.international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.53. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as in tonation.54.55. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages56. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er. 57. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are tran smitted through the air from one person to another.58. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.59.phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distin guish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.60.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.61.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》配套题库(第4版)【名校考研真题】【圣才出品】
第一部分名校考研真题2017年中山大学837语言学考研真题及参考答案考试科目：外国语言学与应用语言学I. Explain the following terms. (10 points for each term)1. allomorph【答案】Those morphs which represent the same morpheme are called the allomorphs of the same morpheme. For instance, the noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has [-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n], [-i] and other morphs, such morphs are termed as the allomorphs of the morpheme {plural}. Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, some others may have considerable variations; some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have different meanings, for instance, the morphemic shapes {-s} can express plurality in desks, person/ finiteness in speaks and case in girl’s.Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, ira-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called ALLOMORPHs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches. Other instances are such as the variation of plural forms of nouns. -s, -es, -en, -ee-, o, -ce and -yes.2. diglossia【答案】The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. The language which Ferguson used as examples are Arabic, Modem Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole. Each of these languages has two varieties: the high variety (H) and the low variety (L). The two varieties have overt recognition in the community and have commonly known and used labels. H-variety is used in government, the media, education and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety, the low variety used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlapping.3. embedding【答案】Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination which is also called center embedding in linguistics. Different languages accommodate this construction in various ways, but many of them allow for instances where a smaller, or more precise, unit of speech can be included in a fuller sentence. When this phrase is integratedwhole into the larger one, it is often referred to as center embedding. One of the most common examples of center embedded phrases involves relative clauses that get injected into larger sentences. One basic example is a sentence like this one: “The man that the woman heard left.” – In this example of center embedding, if the relative clause was entirely taken out, a shorter sentence might read like this: “The man left.” The inclusion of the relative clause serves to show the r eader that there was a woman who heard the man, and this leads to the appearance of the phenomenon of center embedding in the sentence. Thus the basic function of embedding is to demonstrate more details about the meaning of the original sentence.4. idiom【答案】An idiom is a phrase or an expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom’s figurative meaning is different from the literal meaning. There are thousands of idioms, occurring frequently in all languages. It is estimated that there are at least twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions in the English language.5. pragmatics【答案】Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process ofconveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning. Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, so they are related to as well as different from each other. It differs from the kind of meaning we studied in semantics in that it takes context into consideration while semantics concentrate on the study of literal meaning without context.6. loan translation【答案】Loan translation is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. For instance, the English word almighty is a literal translation from the Latin omnipotens. This is also called CALQUE, which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence. The English expression free ve rse was translated from Latin’s verse libre, and black humour is a loan translation from French humour noir, so is found object from French objet trouve.7. interlanguage【答案】The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learnerswho are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as Interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. It is imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native language either. However, interlanguage should not really be seen as a bridging language between or a mixture of the target language and native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Therefore, “inter” actually means between the beginning stage and the final stage. Studies on interlanguage can be done in two ways: (1) investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; (2) investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage. The former type of research has been widely conducted, whereas the latter type has not received due attention.8. communicative competence【答案】Communicative competence includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. It includes five main components of communicative competence. Namely, linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.(1) Linguistic competence ‘is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning’ (Hedge, 2000:46). More specifically, it involves spelling,pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, grammatical structure, sentence structure, and semantics. Hedge emphasises that linguistic competence is an integral part of communicative competence and it is wrong to think that communicative language teaching does not aim for high standard of linguistic correctness.(2) Pragmatic competence is concerned with the appropriate use of the language in social context. That is to say, the choice of the vocabulary and structure depends on the setting, the relative status of the speakers, and their relationships. The above tasks have illustrated this point. In Hymes’s words, to know ‘when to speak, when not, what to talk about with whom, when, where and in what manner’(3) Discourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (Canale and Swain, 1980). In other words, it is one’ s ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse such as: ‘by the same token’, ‘to put it in other words’, ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘at last’, and also the reference words such as ‘it’, ‘they’, ‘that’, etc. in the context. It is these cohesive words which hold meaning together in a sensible way. Discourse competence, according to Hedge (2000), also includes one’s ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation.(4) Strategic competence is similar to communication strategies. It refers to。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》章节题库(语 音)【圣才出品】
第2章语音I. Fill in the blanks.1. The sound /p/can be described with “______, bilabial, stop”.【答案】voiceless【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。
2. According to ______, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.【答案】The maximal onset principle【解析】当一个辅音既可放在节首也可放在节尾时，根据最大节首原则应将其放在节首。
3. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of ______ and manner of articulation.【答案】place【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
4. ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.【答案】Consonants【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。
5. The present system of the ______ derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), and his colleagues at University of London.【答案】cardinal vowels【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
语言学教程复习题与答案胡壮麟版
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studiesthe basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning notin isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point intime.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed bySaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.is one of the design features of human language which refers to the pheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmatic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.IV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. : The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the idealuser's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in of all, language is a system, beca use elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, languag e is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and mea ning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have dif ferent words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature o f language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary m edium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writin g systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that languagei s possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communica tion systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with ex amples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ev er sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning s. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not pre sent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) writte n language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Lang ue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is c oncrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is rel atively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per son to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarras sment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you thi nk are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language isarbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two el ements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , theyare all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the na sal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _________ __.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. se mantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. so und C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoust ic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21. Aspiration 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32.oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:IV. Define the terms below:: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it ai ms to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Itdoes not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue,and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth. 2) According to how wide our mouth i s opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-clo se vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowel。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs1. Speech organs2. Voiceless sounds3. Voiced sounds4. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and TriphthongsIV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions1. Coarticulation2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure3. Stress4. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)2
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of m orphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic kn owledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, th e two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitiv e phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A no un phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-struct ure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject a nd a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independ ent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question o r command. 17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually prec edes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_ ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words a re constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor an d a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to signific ant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condit ion explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete t he statement: 25.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedd ed clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinato r B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properti es. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rul esB. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case conditio n accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that g roup words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. synta ctic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentence s? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5. T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structur e of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with o ther words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally indepen dent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which conta ins a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains t wo clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "o r". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refe rs to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functi onal relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cas es, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the syst em of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43.What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a s ubject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the maj or types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major ty pes of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex se ntence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicat e and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coo rdinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating con junction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentenc e do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence li nearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after an other in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not comp osed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another f ollowing a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phra se (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:S NP VP Det N Vt NPDet N The boy likes the music. 46. Wh at are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups wo rds into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each struct ural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship am ong linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movemen t in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sent ence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A)The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the m ovement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentenc e from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meanin g, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American Engl ish but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or Ame rican English. 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different refere nces in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsi c and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. 5. Contextualism is based on t he presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context s. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analy sis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist vie w holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13.R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. W ords that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in s ound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. 16.R_________ o pposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided i nto meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. III. There are fou r choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth 22. “We shall k now a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conce ptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Whic h of the following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the lin guistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes 25. ____ _______ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “alive”and “dead”are ______ ________. A. gradable antonyms B. relational opposites C. complementary antony ms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the ling uistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. C oncept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homonyms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _ ______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic fea tures IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Ar gument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exampl es. 50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth val ues? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous re lation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? 52. According to the way synonyms di ffer, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. W hat are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5. T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homopho nes 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are fo ur choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Se mantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 32. Sense: Se nse is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Refere nce means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati onship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Synonym y :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy r efers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. 36. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homoph ones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:Wh en two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of opposite ness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief t hat the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called sema ntic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence i s governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical particip ant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical re lation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following qu estions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mea nings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mean ings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are diff erent in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mea n-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). T he meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that r elate one word syntagmatically to another. 49.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. Componential analysis, pro-pos ed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on t he belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are c alled semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usuall y written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do yo u distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily tru e, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be t rue or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he h as not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y i s an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: J ohn has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John mus t have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, Jo hn still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John doe s not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. There fore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X. 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of tr uth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y e.g. X: John ismarried. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following group s. i. Dialectal synonyms They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. Bri tish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English la nguage. For examples: British English American English autumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal synonyms can also be foun d within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They a re synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms ten d to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For exa mple: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pal, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indi cate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “colla borator” and “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in the ir collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms Semantically differe nt synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "a maze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very s ubtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest w as the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the w ords used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptua list view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to.The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Conte xtualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal co uld not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. (seal meaning an aqu atic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the kin g's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of lingui stic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The hi story of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded th e British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change i n grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a langua ge. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and move ment of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical develop ment of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntac tic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(语 音)【圣才出品】
第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs 发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；音姿的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。
本章内容索引I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs▼1. Gestures2. Speech organs3. Voiceless sounds4. Voiced sounds5. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and Triphthongs IV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions＊1. Coarticulation＊2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation＊3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure▼3. Sonority Scale▼4. Stress(1) Change of the stresses due to suffixes(2) Stresses in compounds and phrases5. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与认知）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语⾔与认知）【圣才出品】第6章语⾔与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics⼼理语⾔学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语⾔习得，语⾔的理解，语⾔的⽣成3. First language acquisition第⼀语⾔习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语⾔学常考考点：语⾔习得；第⼀语⾔习得；语⾔的理解和⽣成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”⼀词既可⽤于不同学科也可⽤于相关学科。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(语言的使用)【圣才出品】
第8章语言的使用8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论4. Politeness principle礼貌原则5. Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展常考考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。
实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory1. Performatives and Constatives(1) Definition(2) Felicity Conditions2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts(1) Representatives:(2) Directives(3) Commsives(4) Expressives(5) DeclarationsIII. Cooperative Principle (CP)1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Politeness Principle (PP)VI. Post-Gricean Developments1. Relevance Theory2. The Q- and R-principles3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles▼4. A socio-cognitive approachI. Pragmatics (语用学)【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】1. Definition (定义)Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】
第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)布拉格学派与功能句子观2. The London School and context of situation伦敦学派与语境观3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar韩礼德与系统-功能语法4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar乔姆斯基与转换-生成语法常考考点：各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。
本章内容索引：I. Saussure and modern linguisticsII. The Prague School1. Main points and contribution2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)3. Communicative Dynamism (CD)III. The London School1. Introduction2. Malinowski’s theories3. Firth’s theories4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar(1) Systemic grammar(2) Functional grammarIV. American Structuralism1. Introduction2. Three stages of the developmentV. Transformational-Generative Grammar1. Introduction2. The Innateness Hypothesis3. Generative Grammar4. Stage of development of TG Grammar5. Main features of TG Grammar▼VI. Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution▼VII. Revisionists or Rebels1. Case Grammar2. Generative SemanticsI. Saussure and modern linguistics (索绪尔和现代语言学)Modern linguistics has started from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) , who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and exchange ideas. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, i.e. the signifier and the signified. The sign is the central fact of language, and therefore the study of language must start from the nature of the sign itself.Saussure identifies several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。
语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编
Chapter 2Speech soundsContents•How sounds are made?•Consonants and vowels•Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features•Suprasegmentals 超音段•Two major areas for studying speech sounds:phonetics and phonology•Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived.•Three branches of phonetics:•Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.•Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds•Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure.•It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.•Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.How speech sounds are made?• speech organs 言语器官•Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）.•Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth• organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)•Three cavities: oral cavity, nasal cavity 鼻腔, pharyngeal cavity (pharynx) 咽腔•Inside the oral cavity: tongue, hard palate 硬腭, soft palate (velum) 软腭, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus) 齿龈•Inside the pharyngeal cavity: pharynx 咽, larynx喉, vocal folds 声带•Positions of vocal folds 声带••(a) apart•speech sounds which are produced without vibration of the vocal cords are called voiceless 清音.• [p,t,k,f,s]•(b) close together•Speech sounds which are produced with the vocal cords vibrating are called voiced浊音.• [b,d,g,v,z]•When a speech sound which is normally voiced is produced without vibration or only slight vibration, this is called devoicing(清音化).Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they areat the end of a word, e.g.• Lid word crab bag• five past has to•(c) totally closed [ ʔ ]• Fatten button packIPA•IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标•Principles:• A separate letter for each distinctive sound, and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. Roman alphabet, new letters and diacritics 语音符号 only necessary•Diacritics 音符:•They are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.Consonants and vowels•Distinction between consonants and vowels: the obstruction 阻塞 of airstream•Consonants 辅音: obstruction of airstreams; voiced or voiceless •Vowels 元音: no obstruction; voiced•semi-vowel or semi-consonant ：[j] [w]Consonants•consonants are speech sounds where the airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to different degrees.•At least 2 articulators are involved：mouth and vocal tract (声道)•Classification of consonants:• Manners of articulation• Places of articulation• Voiced or voicelessManners of articulation•The relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract •Seven manners of articulation:•1) Stop 塞音 (plosive) 爆破音•three phases in the production of a stop :•the closing phase;•the hold phase;•the release phase•nasal stop (nasal) [n, m, ŋ ]•oral stop (stop) [p, b, t, d, k, g]•2) Fricative (Audible friction) 摩擦音•Close approximation of two articulators, the airstream partially obstructed, turbulent airflow is produced.• [f, v, s, z, h, , ð,∫, ʒ ]•3) (Median) Approximant 近音:•one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced.• Features:•larger gap; no turbulence• Ex. [w, j]•) Lateral (Approximant) 边音:•Obstruction of the airstream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.•Features:• a stricture of open approximation; no noise of friction•Ex. [ l ]: leaf, lead;feel, real, build•5) Trill [r] 颤音： red•6) Tap or flap 触音/ 闪音： [ Ր ]• city letter (Am.)»7) Affricates塞擦音 [ʧʤ] : •involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at thesame place of articulation.•Ex. [ʧ]: church[ʤ]: jetPlaces of articulation•The places where there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.•eleven places of articulation•1) Bilabial 双唇音•Made with two lips•[p, b, m],•[w] (a little different, IPA refers it as labial-velar approximant 唇颚近音) •2) Labiodental 唇齿音•made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.•[f, v], as in fire and via•3) dental/ interdental齿音•the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth•[ , ð]•4) alveolar齿龈音（7个）•the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge•[t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l]•5) postalveolar (palato-alveolar)后齿龈音: the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge•[∫, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]•wash garage watch•6) retroflex 卷舌音•the tip or blade curled back (retroflex) so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate•“r” of daughter•7) palatal (only 1) 硬腭音•the front of the tongue and the hard palate•[ j ], as in yes and yet.•8) velar 软腭音•the back of the tongue and the soft palate. (touched)•[k, g]: velar stops, cat, get•[ŋ]: velar nasal, sing•9) uvular 小舌音•10) Pharyngeal 咽音•11) glottal 声门音•the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other•[ h ]: glottal fricative, as in hat, hold•[ ʔ ]: glottal stop, in fat [fæʔt], pack [pæʔk],•Analyze consonants of English•Description of consonants:• 1. voiced or voiceless• 2. place of articulation• 3. manner of articulation• e.g. [p] Voiceless bilabial stop• [b] Voiced bilabial stop• [f] Voiceless labio-dental fricative• [m] Bilabial nasal•Vowels 元音•Vowel: a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usuallypronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too.•cardinal vowels 基本元音•The idea of a system of CARDINAL VOWELS was first suggested by A.J. Ellis in 1844 and was taken up by A.M. Bell in his VisibleSpeech(1867)• A set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed, and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of theactual vowels of exiting language.•[i] [e] [ ] [a] [α] [ ɔ ] [Օ] [u]•Schwa（非重读央元音•neutral vowel [ə], neither high nor low and neither front nor back•The description of vowels :• 1. The height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)• 2. The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) • 3. The length or tenseness of the vowel( tense vs. lax or long vs. short) • 4. Lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).••Description of some vowels•[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel•[u] high back lax rounded vowel•[a:] low back tense unrounded vowel•[e] mid front lax unrounded vowel•Vowel glides（元音音渡）•Vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation are called pure or monophthong vowels（纯元音/单元音）.•Vowels where there is an audible change of quality are called vowel glides.•Diphthong（双元音）: a speech sound which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves twovowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.•Triphthong (三合元音）:a term sometimes used for a combination of three vowels.•The sounds of English•Received Pronunciation (RP)标准英语is the type of British STANDARD ENGLISH pronunciation which has been regarded as theprestige variety and which shows no REGIONAL VARIATY.•It is also called by many people as BBC English, Oxford English, King’s English or Queen’s English•General American (GA) 普通美语: the widely accepted accent used by most educated speaker in the USA•Syllable 音节It is defined as the unit which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.The most common type of syllable in language has a consonant before a vowel (CV). The basic elements of a syllable are the onset (one or more consonants) and the rime/ rhyme 韵音.The rime consists of vowel, which is treated as the nucleus or peak, plus the following consonant, treated as coda 尾音.• syllable structure:• syllable•╱╲• onset rhyme•╱╲• nucleus codaMinimal pairs and minimal setsWhen two words are identical in every way except for a contrast in one sound segment occurring in the same position in the string, the two words are called a minimal pair 最小对立体.E.g: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and batA minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they are different in meaning; 2) they differ only in one sound segment; 3) the different sounds occur in the same position in the strings.E.g:Two pronunciations of the word economicsseed and sit leaf and vealWhen a group of words meet all the above three conditions, they are called a minimal set最小集合 . E.g.:1) bit beat bat bate boot bite bought2) pit bit kit sit fit knit hit3) tin fin thin sin chin gin winFree variation 自由变异When two or more different sounds occur in the same position without any change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.E.g.: economics, direct, either, neitherPhone, phoneme, allophone•Phone语音: individual sounds as they occur in speech. It appears in square brackets.•Phoneme音素: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It appears in two slanting lines.•The allophones音素变体 of a phoneme are the different versions ofa phoneme in actual speech. It appears in square brackets.• A B C• Key ski dictation• Cat scan factory• Ken skeptic deckchair•Sounds [k] are described differently in three columns:•Column A: aspirated• B: unaspirated• C: unreleasedPhonological processesPhonological process: a process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.Sounds of change: assimilation and elisionAssimilation（同化）:When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called assimilationE.g.met --- bilabial nasalcomfort --- labiodental nasalElision 省略: the process of not pronouncing a sound segmentE.g.: you and mefriendshiphe must be•Dbinary features:two values denoted by + and –Major distinctive features:voicing,place of articulation,manner of articulationistinctive featuresSuprasegmentals (超音段) or suprasegmental feature (超音段特征) Suprasegmental features:the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments such as syllables, words and sentences.The main suprasegmental features:stress, tone and intonationStress （重音）It is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.1. At the word levelThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning1) A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word.'import im'port 'increase in'crease2) Alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.• a 'blackboard a black 'board• a 'greenhouse a green 'house• 2. At the sentence level•Notional words 实义词 are normally stressed while structural words are unstressed.• a. 'John 'bought a 'red 'bicycle.• b. 'JOHN bought a red bicycle.• c. John 'BOUGHT a red bicycle.• d. John bought a 'RED bicycle.• e. John bought a red 'BICYCLE.Tone 声调Height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the words.A tone language is a language in which the meaning of a word depends on the tone used when pronouncing it.Mandarin Chinese, a tone language.妈mā high level tone麻 má high rising tone马mǎ fall-rise tone骂 mà high falling toneIntonation语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring 循环的 fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on the level of phrase or sentence.E.g.: What did you put in my drink, Jane?What did you put in my drink, Jane?What did you put in my drink, Jane。
(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案(学习必备)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案1. Design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing:pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such aslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. Theshorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with twovalues,e.g<+human>positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knowswhy and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. 149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of bothfrequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting thetarget,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》配套题库（第4版）【课后习题】-第1~12章【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》配套题库（第4版）【课后习题】-第1~12章【圣才出品】第⼆部分课后习题第1章语⾔学导论1. Define the following terms.·design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.·function:the role language plays in communication (e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e. g. religious, legal). ·synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “ point”in time.·diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time.·prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.·descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.·arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.·duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters). ·displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from thespeaker’ s immediate situation.·phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.·metalanguage: a language used for talking about language ·macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.·competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.·performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. ·langue:the language system shared by a “ speech community”.·parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “ language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.Key: All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?Key: Creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.Cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.Bang: a sudden loud noise.Roar: a deep loud continuing sound.Buzz: a noise of buzzing.Hiss: a hissing sound.Neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.Mew: the noise that a gull makes.Bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Key: No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell’?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Key: Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Key: Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3?Key: Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when l was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that...8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Key: On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little hit. For instance, nod means“OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Key: Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language,“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar withany type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?Key: When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?There is the dialogue between Ms. P and Ms. Q. on p.12. When someonesneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic co mmunion’!Have you noticed your parents or grand-parents say something special on such an occasion?Key: Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are：吃了吗？家⾥都好吧？这是去哪⾥呀？最近都挺好的？If someone is sneezing violently, maybe your parents and grandparents may say:” Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” “or something like these to show their concerns.12. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives,。
语言学教程第四版答案
语言学教程第四版答案【篇一：《语言学教程》测试题答案】xt>i.1~5 b a c c c6~10 b a c a cii.11~15 f f t f f 16~20 f f f f fiii.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function24. yo-he-ho25. scientific26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceiv.31. design feature: it refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.32. displacement: it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. competence: it is an essential part of performance. it is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.a transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. synchronic linguistics: it refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. the timestudied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as latin. synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.v.35. duality makes our language productive. a large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds,around 48 in the case of the english language. and out of the huge number of words, there can beastronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. most animal communication systems do not have this design feature ofhuman language.if language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system whichwill be highly limited. it cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36. it is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.vi.37. it should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy andobjectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against theobservable facts – come to a conclusion.第二章：语音参考答案i1~5 a c d a a6~10 d b a b bii.11~15 t t t f f 16~20 t t t f fiii.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. co-articulation29. phonemes30. air streamiv.31. sound assimilation: speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. in connected speech, under the influenceof their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. sometimes two neighboring sounds influence eachother and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. this process is called sound assimilation.32. suprasegmental feature: the phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are calledsuprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. the main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. complementary distribution: the different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. distinctive features: it refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. if we cangroup the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature. v.35. acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. when a speech soundis produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. soundsproduced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.vi. 37.omit.第三章：词汇参考答案i1~5 a a c b b6~10 b c a d bii. 11~15 f t f t t16~20 f t f f fiii.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootiv.31. blending: it is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. allomorph: it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.33. close-class word: it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. morphological rule: it is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to forma new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.vi .37. (1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) b第四章：句法参考答案i1~5 d c d d d 6~10 a d d b aii. 11~15 t t t t f16~20 f t f t tiii.21. simple 22. sentence 23. subject24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open28. adjacency29. parameters 30. caseiv.31. syntax: syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. ic analysis: immediate constituent analysis, ic analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence interms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. hierarchical structure: it is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents andshows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as np, vp and pp.34. trace theory: after the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the originalposition. this is the notion trace in t-g grammar. it’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. e.g. thepassive dams are built by beavers. differs from the active beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. if we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.v.35. an endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. a typicalexample is the three small children with children as its head. the exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. (1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers第五章：意义参考答案i1~5 a b d d b 6~10 c a c d aii. 11~15 f f t f t 16~20 t f t t tiii.21. semantics 22. direct 23. reference 24. synonyms25.homophones26. relational27. componential 28. selectional 29. argument 30. namingiv.31. entailment: it is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified withthe following sentences:a. tom divorced jane.b. jane was tom’s wife.in terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when a is true,b must be also true; when b is false, a must also be false. when b is true, a may be true or false.therefore we can say a entails b.32. proposition: it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs andwhich some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. for example, the two sentences“caesar invaded gaul” and “gaul was invaded by caesar” hol d the same proposition.33. compositional analysis: it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, orsemantic features. for example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: human, young and male. similarly girl may be analyzed into human, young andfemale.34. reference: it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationshipbetween the form and the reality.v.35. hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. (omit.)vi.37. (1)the (a) words and (b) words are male.the (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2)the (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.the (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3)the (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.the (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.第七章：语言、文化和社会参考答案i1~5 b c a a c 6~10 d a c a dii. 11~15 f t f f f 16~20 t f t f fiii.21. community22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning25.sociolects26. stylistic 27. official28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectionaliv.31. lingua franca: a lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for socialcontact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. regional dialect: regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by themembers of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. register: register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particularspeech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. sociolinguistics: defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the studyof language in relation to society. it is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.v. 35. american english is not superior to african english. as different branches of english, africanenglish and american english are equal. similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. in china, chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. so in chinese there are a lot morekinship words than in english.vi. 37. (omit.)第八章：语言的使用参考答案i1~5 d b c b a 6~10 c b c a dii. 11~15 f t t f f 16~20 f f f t tiii.21. context22. utterance 23. abstract 24. constatives 25. performatives26. locutionary 27. illocutionary28. commissive29. expressive30. quantityiv.31. conversational implicature: in our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. in other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to conversesmoothly and successfully. in accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listenershave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. this sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, orwithhold relevant information from one another. however, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. the real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. performative: in speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (= a warning).33. locutionary act: a locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. horn’s q-principle: (1) make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) say as much as you can(given r).v.35. pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationshipsbetween sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. pragmatics includes the study of(1) how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) how speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without referenceto the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. yes, b is cooperative. on the face of it, b’s statement is not an answer to a’s question. b doesn’t say“when.” however, a will immediately interpret the s tatement as meaning “i don’t know” or “i am not sure.” just assume that b is being “relevant” and “informative.” given that b’s answer contains relevant information, a can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “trafficja m,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” thus, b’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”vi.37. it occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. the context oftenhelps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.the context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. a mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. in a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. the room was wanted for a meeting. (2)a. a mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’sappearance. b. a regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c. that she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.第十二章：现代语言学理论与流派参考答案i1~5 b a c a a 6~10 a b d c cii. 11~15 f f t t f 16~20 f t t t fiii.21. synchronic22. phonetics23. j. r. firth 24. systemic25. sociologically26. distribution27. bloomfieldian 28. descriptivism29. innateness30. hypothesis-maker iv.31. fsp: it stands for functional sentence perspective. it is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to ananalysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. cohesion: the cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. lad: lad, that is language acquisition device, is posited by chomsky in the 1960s as a deviceeffectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. case grammar: it is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. it is a type ofgenerative grammar developed by c. j. fillmore in the late1960s.v. vi. omit.【篇二：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.20. in sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members of social groups. the social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historicaldevelopment and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与文学）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与文学）【圣才出品】第9章语言与文学9.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Foregrounding; literal language and figurative language前景化；字面语言和比喻语言2. The language in poetry, fiction and drama诗歌、小说和戏剧中的语言3. The cognitive approach to literature从认知角度研究文学常考考点：文体学概念；前景化；原语言和比喻语言；言语和思维的表达；了解诗歌、小说和戏剧语言的分析方法；掌握押韵和音步的概念以及正确辨别和不同的视角在小说作品中的运用。
本章内容索引：I. Stylistics1. Definition2. Literary Stylistics(1) Foregrounding(2) Literal language and Figurative Language II. The Language in Poetry1. Sound patterning2. Different forms of sound patterning3. Metrical patterning4. Conventional forms of meter and sound5. The poetic functions of sound and meter6. How to analyze poetryIII. The Language in Fiction1. Fiction prose and points of view(1) I-narrators(2) Third-person narrators(3) Schema-oriented language(4) Given vs. New information(5) Deixis2. Speech and thought presentation(1) Speech presentation(2) Thought presentation(3) Stream of consciousness writing3. Prose style(1) Authorial style(2) Text style4. How to analyze the language of fictionIV. The Language in Drama1. How to analyze drama2. Analyzing dramatic languageV. The Cognitive Approach to Literature1. Figure and Ground2. Image Schemata3. Cognitive MetaphorI. Stylistics (文体学)1. Definition (定义)It is a branch of linguistics studies the features of situationallydistinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征（即语言的多样性），并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
2胡壮麟语言学教程问题与答案12、11、8
Chapter 121.索绪尔第一个注意到语言的复杂性。
2.他认为语言是一个符号系统，为了交流思想，符号必须是整个符号系统的一部分，并且被称作"惯例"。
索绪尔不认为符号是"能指"和"所指"的联合。
通过给与语言相关的各方面问题提出答案，索绪尔使得语言研究的对象越来越清晰，并且使之成为一门科学。
他的关于语言符号的任意性和语言单位的相关性的思想，以及对"语言"和"言语"的区分、对"历时"和"共时"的区分等等，把语言学研究推进到一个崭新的阶段。
2. 布拉格学派有三个至为重要的观点：首先，它强调对语言的共时研究是完全正确的，因为共时研究可以得到全面的可控制的语言材料。
其次，布拉格学派强调语言的系统特征，指出任何语言的任何成分都不可能在孤立状态下得到令人满意的分析和评价。
换言之，语言成分在功能上是相对应或相对立的。
再次，布拉格学派把语言看作是语言社团用来实现一系列基本功能或任务的工具。
3. 布拉格学派最出名的就是它在语音方面的贡献以及对语音和音位的区分。
继索绪尔区分语言和言语之后，特鲁别茨柯依提出语音属于言语，而音位属于语言。
基于这一观点，特鲁别茨柯依进一步完善了"音位"的概念，指出"音位"是区别于实际发出的声音而存在于语音系统的抽象单位。
为了给音位的区别特征分类，特鲁别茨何依提出三条标准：（1）它们与整个对立系统的关系；（2）对立成员之间的关系；（3）区别力量的大小。
这些对立又被归纳为：a）双边对立；b）多边对立；c）均衡对立；d）孤立对立；e）否定对立；f）分级对立；g）等价对立；h）抵销对立；i）永恒对立。
4.句子功能前景是指根据话语或文句所包含的信息对它们进行分析的理论。
其原则就是，对话语各个部分的估价依赖与该部分对全句意义的贡献。
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胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第4版）考研模拟试题及详解（二）I. Fill in the following blanks.1. “Linguistic relativity”was proposed by ______ and ______.【答案】Sapir, Whorf【解析】萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为，一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反映出对于世界认识的越不同。
因此，这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。
2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an ______ force.【答案】illocutionary【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。
3. Such errors as “teached”and “womans”are caused by ______.【答案】second language learners【解析】这些错误一般是第二语言习得者犯的。
4. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______.【答案】Phonology【解析】音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。
5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without ______. 【答案】Obstruction【解析】元音与辅音的区别就在于发音过程中气流是否受阻。
6. Terms like “apple”, “banana”and “pear”are ______ of the term “fruit”. 【答案】hyponyms【解析】上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类和成员间的关系。
题中“苹果，香蕉，梨”都是“水果”的下义词。
7. ______ is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from _____and ______.【答案】Blending；smoke；fog【解析】混成法是指一个词由两个单词混合而成，一般把第一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来，或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来。
8. Syntactic relations include ______, ______ and ______.【答案】positional relation, relation of substitutability and relation of occurrence 【解析】有三种句法关系，即（1）位置关系；（2）替代关系；（3）同现关系。
9. The publication of Syntactic Structures (1957) marked the beginning of the ______. 【答案】Chomsky Revolution【解析】1957年，乔姆斯基写了一本名为《句法结构》的著作，这本书标志着“乔姆斯基改革时代”的到来，从此，乔姆斯基在语言学界的地位变得极为重要。
10. ______ refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also calledformal links between sentences and between clauses.【答案】Cohesion【解析】衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系。
II. Define the following terms.1. Back-formationKey: Back formation refers to an abnormal type of word formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word “television”appeared before “televise”, and so does “editor”to “edit”.2. paroleKey: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It varies enormously according to individuals. The speeches, the idiosyncratic utterances made by individuals are all examples of parole.3. Intercultural communicationKey: Intercultural communication: Intercultural communication, also known as cross-cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. It is frequently used to refer to communication between people from different cultures, which implies a comparison between cultures.4. Sense relationsKey: Sense relations: Words are in different sense relations with each other, and there are mainly three types of sense relations:(a) Synonymy, which refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. For example, buy and purchase.(b) Antonymy, used for the oppositeness relation. Under this heading, there are generally three sub-types: gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, and converse antonymy.(c) Hyponymy, which in fact is a matter of class membership. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, while the more specific word is called hyponym.5. deep structureKey: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic propertiesof a construction, i.e, the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.6. Violation of maximsKey: There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like “No comment”in response to a question. Although it is typically not “as informative as is required”in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer).This typical reaction to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature. When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said. For example, there is violation of the first maxim of Quantity, and sometimes the first Quantity maxim can be in conflict with the Quality maxim.7. Case GrammarKey: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s. In this grammar, the verb is regarded as the most important part of the sentence, and has a number of relationships with various noun phrases. These relationships are called“cases”.8. holophrastic stageKey: Holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to understand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them. At this stage, words are usually produced in isolation; this one-word stage can last from two months to a year. About half the words are for objects: food, body parts, clothing, vehicles, toys, household items, animals. There are words for actions, motions, and routines.9. Complementary distributionKey: When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after (s), and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. The allophones of /p/, for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The unaspirated (p=) occurs after /s/, while the aspirated(ph)occurs in all other environments except after /s/.10. corpus linguisticsKey: Corpus linguistics: an approach to investigating language structure and use。