卢卡斯批评 中文稿

合集下载

罗默《高级宏观经济学》章节题库(名义刚性)【圣才出品】

罗默《高级宏观经济学》章节题库(名义刚性)【圣才出品】

第6章名义刚性1.什么是卢卡斯批判?为什么卢卡斯批判对凯恩斯宏观经济学的政策建议有影响?答:(1)卢卡斯批判的含义卢卡斯批判,又称卢卡斯批评,是卢卡斯提出的一种认为传统政策分析没有充分考虑到政策变动对人们预期影响的观点,该名称来自卢卡斯的论文《计量经济学的政策评价:一个批判》。

卢卡斯指出,由于人们在对将来的事态做出预期时,不但要考虑过去,还要估计现在的事件对将来的影响,并且根据他们所得到的结果而改变他们的行为。

这就是说,他们要估计当前的经济政策对将来事态的影响,并且按照估计的影响采取对策,即改变他们的行为,以便取得最大的利益。

行为的改变会使经济模型的参数发生变化,而参数的变化又是难以衡量的。

因此,经济学者用经济模型很难评价经济政策的效果。

(2)卢卡斯批判的具体内容具体来说,卢卡斯批判的内容有:①任何政策都是政府与私人部门之间的博弈,双方力图猜中对方的最优策略。

假如政府把私人部门当成被动的“机器”来控制,其政策的基本假设已经错误了。

政府的每一个策略,假如已经被私人部门准确地预见到,则政策的“货币效应”将消失,政府的货币政策将是“中性”的,不会产生任何物质力量。

而政府的财政开支将以其物质力量与私人部门竞争资源,产生所谓的“挤出效应”,即以每一元政府开支从市场里挤出去一元钱的私人开支,结果政府开支仅仅是替私人花钱而已。

所以政府的任何政策,不论是货币的还是实物的,都不会产生有益于社会的效果。

②理论解释为什么在战后确实出现了持续繁荣,是否与凯恩斯政策有关系。

卢卡斯认为,凯恩斯政策假如短期内有效,那就是因为市场中存在大量“接电话”的噪音使私人听不清信号。

当大多数私人因为听不清信号而放弃行动时,政府相当于在与一个完全被动的机器博弈,所以很轻易实行“最优控制”以达到预期效果。

但是当人们反复听取信号,终于搞清楚了政府意图时,博弈就又回到主动的理性人之间的博弈了。

战后繁荣的代价就是,政府为了不断造成“惊奇”效应,必须不断使自己的政策强度升级。

西方经济学名词解释 卢卡斯批判

西方经济学名词解释 卢卡斯批判

西方经济学名词解释卢卡斯批判西方经济学名词解释卢卡斯批判一、导论在当下的经济学领域,卢卡斯批判是一个备受关注的话题。

本文将以此为主题,对西方经济学相关名词进行解释,并深入探讨卢卡斯批判对经济学的重要影响。

二、西方经济学名词解释1. 卢卡斯批判卢卡斯批判是指美国经济学家罗伯特·卢卡斯对于传统宏观经济学模型的批评和重新构建。

他认为,传统的宏观经济学在解释经济现象时忽视了人们对政策变化的反应,因此提出了新古典经济学的假设和模型。

这种理论被称为“卢卡斯批判”,对经济学领域产生了深远的影响。

2. 新古典经济学新古典经济学是20世纪50年代至70年代发展起来的一种经济学流派,强调市场机制的作用,并认为经济主体是理性的。

这一理论形成了传统宏观经济学的基础,然而在卢卡斯批判的影响下,经济学界开始重新审视和修正这一理论。

3. 传统宏观经济学模型传统宏观经济学模型以凯恩斯经济学为代表,强调政府干预和调控经济的重要性。

然而,在卢卡斯批判的影响下,人们开始思考这种模型是否过于简化了经济现实,以及忽视了市场参与者对政策变化的反应。

三、卢卡斯批判对经济学的影响卢卡斯批判对经济学的影响主要体现在以下几个方面:1. 重新思考理性预期卢卡斯指出,理性预期对经济现象的解释至关重要。

他认为,市场参与者会根据政策变化作出相应的反应,传统宏观经济学模型需要重新考虑理性预期的假设,以更准确地描述经济现实。

2. 强调市场的有效性卢卡斯批判强调市场的有效性和参与者的理性,在一定程度上否定了传统宏观经济学对政府干预的重视。

这一观点对经济政策的制定和评估产生了深远的影响。

3. 推动新古典经济学的发展卢卡斯批判的出现推动了新古典经济学的发展,使其从一个较为理论模糊的经济学流派转变为更加具体和完善的理论体系。

传统宏观经济学模型也因此得以修正和完善。

四、个人观点和理解卢卡斯批判对经济学产生了深远的影响,重新塑造了经济学领域的研究方向和方法论。

卢卡斯批评名词解释

卢卡斯批评名词解释

卢卡斯批评名词解释
卢卡斯批评名词解释,卢卡斯批评解析。

理性预期学派问世以前,卢卡斯批评经济政策制定者主要是以凯恩斯主义理论为基础构造计
量经济模型。

卢卡斯批评这种预侧模式实质上是以过去作为基础。

卢卡斯于1976年发表了一篇具有划时代意义的论文《关于使用计量经济方法进行政策评估的批评》。

卢卡斯批评他在文中指出,现有计最经济模型“模拟原则上不能对可供选择的经济政策的实际结果提供任何有用的信息”,卢卡斯批评因为以与现在不相干的过去为基础去预测未来的模型.卢卡斯批评根本是无用的。

这就是著名的“卢卡斯批评’。

基于批评话语分析的《西斯的复仇》中主人公的身份建构

基于批评话语分析的《西斯的复仇》中主人公的身份建构

86电影理论Film Theory穆军芳 基于批评话语分析的《西斯的复仇》中主人公的身份建构【作者简介】穆军芳,女,河北邢台人,河北大学外国语学院讲师,北京师范大学外国语言文学学院外国语言学及应用语言学专业 博士生,主要从事语篇语言学、系统功能语言学和外语教学研究。

【基金项目】本文系河北省社会科学基金项目(HB15YY047)和河北省教育厅青年基金项目(SQ151184)的阶段性研究成果。

作为美国经典科幻系列电影《星球大战》前传的第三部,《西斯的复仇》由乔治·卢卡斯执导,于2005年全球公映,播出后广受好评,该片的全球票房取得了当年年度票房排行榜第一的好成绩。

影片细腻地刻画了主人公阿纳金为了挽救妻子的生命,受到黑暗西斯势力的诱惑,从正义的天行者一步步地堕落成黑暗爵士的身份转变过程,但是最终的下场是妻死子散,自己也被改装成半机器人。

本文拟以批评话语分析作为理论基础,借助系统功能语法的分析方法,解析主人公阿纳金的身份建构机制。

一、 批评话语分析批评话语分析(Critical Discourse Analysis),又称为批评话语研究(Critical Discourse Studies),其前身为批评语言学(Critical Linguistics )。

批评语言学最重要的理论基础和最重要的方法来源是韩礼德的系统功能语言学。

[1]批评话语分析旨在通过分析话语中的语言特征来揭示其所隐藏的意识形态,其分析工具主要包括及物性、情态、分类和转化。

及物性是韩礼德的系统功能语法中三大元功能之一——概念功能的主要表现手段,它用来描述整个小句系统。

根据活动和事件的性质,及物性系统由六大过程类别组成:物质过程、心理过程、关系过程、言语过程、行为过程和存在过程。

[2]通过及物性分析,说(作)者的立场和意识形态可以清晰地展现出来。

情态是韩礼德的三大元功能中人际功能的主要组成部分,包括情态化和意态化两个基本类型。

前者主要通过情态动词和情态副词来体现,而后者主要电影《星球大战前传3:西斯的复仇》剧照87MOVIE REVIEW 电影评介2015年第17期借助情态动词和不同的情态词来体现。

宏观经济演讲:卢卡斯批判

宏观经济演讲:卢卡斯批判

4. Theoretical Considerations: General
f ( y, x, ) F ( y, x, , )
根据经济主体的决策法则(供 求方程)的出来的理论 最佳决 策
看到这里,那么问题来了——
NONONONO……
4. Theoretical Considerations: General
the time limit), she was awarded
这才是人生的大赢家啊! half of the prize money.
二、卢卡斯为什么批判
一方面,“滞涨”的出现使凯 恩斯主义理论受到了严重的打 击; 另一方面由于理论无法解释 “滞涨”现象,自然也无法提 不出消除滞胀的举措。
20世纪
“在 20 世纪的最后一个季度中最有 Gregory Mankiw 翻译 影响力的宏观经济学家。”——谷歌
is an American economist
at the University of Chicago. He received the
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1995.
Lucas: Certainly if new observations are better accounted for by new or modified equations, it would be foolish to continue to forecast using the old relationships.( Lucas 并不否定修正参数过程本身)
1. Introduction
First of all——理性预期
静态预期
• 考察价格波动对下一周期产量 的影响以及由此产生的均衡的 变化。

卢卡斯批评

卢卡斯批评

卢卡斯批评“卢卡斯批评”(Lucas’ critique)的要点及其对现代西方经济学发展的影响答:(1)卢卡斯批判是指:卢卡斯是根据理性预期的货币理论的朴素原理(当被预测变量发生变化时,预期的形成方式也会发生变化)对计量经济政策评估的批判。

卢卡斯批评内容:由于政策变化(或者说大众对政策预期的变化)导致计量经济模型中的关系发生变化。

这使根据以往数据估算的计量经济模型不再能正确评估政策变化带来的影响,从而可能导致错误的结论。

(2)凯恩斯主义模型评价政策效果的一般做法是,先估计出消费函数、货币需求函数等经济计量关系式,然后加进不同的政策规则,预测它们的效果。

卢卡斯在1976年发表的《对经济计量学政策评价的批评》一文中抨击了使用大规模的宏观经济计量模型来评价不同政策方案效果的做法。

他认为,凯恩斯主义的这种做法建立在这种假定之上;即当政策变化时,模型的参数保持不变,他认为,面对政策的变化,大规模的宏观经济计量模型的参数可能不会保持不变,因为经济当事人会随着经济环境的变化而调整他们的行为。

由于模型中的参数因政策规则的不同而发生变化,故无法比较不同政策产生的效果。

总之,卢卡斯认为凯恩斯主义宏观经济模型对于政策评价没有用处。

“卢卡斯批评”对制定宏观经济政策意义深远。

由于政策制定者预期不到新的和不同的经济政策对其模型参数的影响,因而利用原有模型的模拟就不能用于预测其他政策体系的后果。

不仅如此,建立在理性预期基础上的“卢卡斯批评”,使人们重新反思曾流行一时的用最优控制理论制定和评价政策的做法。

现在许多西方学者已经意识到政府运用政策调控经济完全不同于控制一部机器。

事实上,经济的运行依赖于有头脑有思想的经济主体的行为。

根据“卢卡斯批评”,如果经济主体具有理性预期,那种认为政府用经济政策来调控经济就像控制一部机器那样简单的想法是完全错误的。

有鉴于此,用最优控制理论来设计和评价政策的做法便逐渐失去了支持者。

“卢卡斯批评”对宏观经济政策理论的意义在于:其一,在所考虑的特定的政策发生变化时,它强调了模型参数稳定性的重要性,从而对政策模型和模拟产生了较为深远的影响;其二,它强调了政策问题在本质上不是一个控制问题,而是一个对策问题。

“卢卡斯批评”与宏观经济学的重建——兼述评卢卡斯和萨金特的理论成就

“卢卡斯批评”与宏观经济学的重建——兼述评卢卡斯和萨金特的理论成就

作者: 胡希宁;陈锐;黄亚娟
作者机构: 中共中央党校经济学部,北京100091
出版物刊名: 理论学刊
页码: 44-47页
年卷期: 2012年 第11期
主题词: 新古典宏观经济学;理性预期;政策无效性;经济周期理论
摘要:上世纪70年代卢卡斯提出的所谓"卢卡斯批评",是现代宏观经济学发展史上的一个标志性事件,对宏观经济学的发展起到了深远影响,也促使了之前的主流学派——新古典综合派的衰落。

"卢卡斯批评"缘起于数量经济学,因为这一批评,需要利用新的概念和方法重写宏观经济学理论,在这一发展过程中,卢卡斯和萨金特起到了重要作用。

卢卡斯和萨金特在20世纪70年代的工作打破了凯恩斯学派在宏观经济学上的一统天下,创造性地将理性预期引入宏观经济学,使得经济学理论更贴近经济现实,在一定程度上恢复了马歇尔的新古典传统,对后起的新凯恩斯主义学派和实际经济周期学派起到了直接催生作用,并在经济学方法论上产生了重大影响,宏观经济学也因此进入了新的发展阶段。

卢卡斯悖论名词解释

卢卡斯悖论名词解释

卢卡斯悖论名词解释卢卡斯悖论是古希腊哲学家卢卡斯提出的一个有关人类认识的哲学难题。

它被认为揭示了一种机制,即我们对客观现实的认识是多么的有限,以至于我们只能通过推断和归纳来理解我们所认识的东西,而非通过任何确定性的方法。

它是西方哲学发展史上最著名的哲学难题之一,也是研究人类主体内部结构和外部环境之间相互关系以及人类认识现实的一种有效方法。

卢卡斯悖论提出:我们可以通过感性或经验的方式认识现实,但是这种方式存在着有限性,因此我们无法推断出现实的真实本质或规律。

这一学说是当代哲学史上最重要的学说之一,也是许多当代哲学家的主要观点。

卢卡斯还提出,由于认识现实的感性观念在认识上是有限的,因此我们只能通过逻辑方面的东西来推断出对客观现实的认识,而不能通过任何确定性的方法。

从这种观点来看,我们对现实的认识不是完全直接的,而是需要通过推断才能得出正确的结论。

卢卡斯悖论主要由三个部分组成,即“被认识悖论”,“不可知悖论”和“卢卡斯悖论”。

“被认识悖论”指出:我们的认识是基于自己的理论的,而这些理论本身不可能是完全绝对的,因此它们可能会有误差。

“不可知悖论”指出:我们没有办法科学地获得客观现实的真实本质,因为我们无法从感性观点推断出客观现实的真实本质。

最后,“卢卡斯悖论”指出:我们对客观现实的认识只能是推断性的而不可能是确定性的,因为我们的感性观点没有办法推断出客观现实的性质。

卢卡斯悖论也受到了一些哲学家的批评,他们认为卢卡斯的理论存在着一定的缺陷,主要表现在以下几个方面:首先,卢卡斯可能有一些偏颇的观点,例如他对客观现实的真实本质的认识是因果论的,而因果论仅能判断事物之间的关系,而无法判断事物本身的特性;其次,卢卡斯的论点没有考虑到客观现实本身的主客观性,也就是说他并没有考虑到客观现实本身的特性可能有影响我们对它的认识,而这种影响其实是非常重要的。

总之,卢卡斯悖论是一个深刻而有趣的哲学难题,它提出一种有效的方法来研究人类主体内部结构和外部环境之间相互关系以及人类认识现实的有限性问题,尽管它也受到了一些哲学家的批评,但是它仍然是西方哲学发展史和当代哲学探讨中一个重要的学说。

评析《傲慢与偏见》中的夏洛特·卢卡斯

评析《傲慢与偏见》中的夏洛特·卢卡斯

如 何 , 后 再 报 有 期 望 ” 孙致 礼 P o )这 种 遮 遮 掩 掩 的 态度 让 然 ( 32 . 达 西 不 敢抱 有 希 望 , 亏 凯 瑟琳 夫 人 的 干涉 和 阻 拦 , 西 才 知 道 多 达 到 伊 丽 莎 白 对他 的 心 情 已经 发 生 改 变 .才 又鼓 起 勇气 再 一 次 向 她表 白。 若不 是 凯 瑟 琳 夫人 的无 意 帮忙 , 动 的伊 丽 莎 白恐 怕 只 被 能 一辈 子 当 老处 女 了 ,因 为她 不 会 甘 心选 择 只 有爱 情 而 没 有 金
海南
海口
5 10 ) 7 1 1
摘 要 : 多读 者 喜 欢《 很 傲慢 与偏 见 》 中伊 丽 莎 白的 形 象 , 为她 具 有 反 抗 聪 明 、 容 因 但 宽
关 键词 : 洛特 夏 精 神独 立 传 统
中图分类号 :l 0 6 1
发 展 。 文 将 重 点分 析 小 说 中重 要 的 二线 人 物 夏洛 特 . 卡 斯 小 本 卢

先 生 的求 婚 , 握 了 自己 的幸 福 。 反 观 同样 聪 明 的伊 丽 莎 白 。 把 随
着 对达 西 的 了解 , 渐 改 变对 达 西 的看 法 并 开 始 对他 产 生 好 感 。 逐 但 是 即 使知 道 达 西对 她 仍 然 未 能 忘情 . 还 要 “ 看 看 他 的态 度 却 先
文 献标识码: A
文章 编号 :6 2 1 7 ( 0 9 5 0 6 — 2 17 — 5 8 20 )— 0 8 0
随 着 对 经 典 电 影 《 慢 与偏 见》 翻拍 , 们 再 一 次 将 目光 傲 的 人 聚焦 在 简. 奥斯 丁的 代 表作 《 傲慢 与 偏 见 》 。人们 不 再 只 是 关 注 上 主人 公 , 说 的 二线 人 物也 逐 渐 成 为 阅读 的 新 焦 点 。 者 以 女性 小 作

西尔万·汤姆金斯:情动理论知识谱系与批评实践的另一路径——《情动理论、文类和悲剧的例子》导言

西尔万·汤姆金斯:情动理论知识谱系与批评实践的另一路径——《情动理论、文类和悲剧的例子》导言

2022年2期(第6卷)No.22022(Vol.6)批评理论·文论前沿·西尔万·汤姆金斯:情动理论知识谱系与批评实践的另一路径1——《情动理论、文类和悲剧的例子》导言●作者/邓肯·A.卢卡斯●译者/郭思恒,刘旭光●单位/上海大学文学院,上海,200444摘要:在本文中,卢卡斯首先梳理了情动(affect)与情感(emotion)等理论的谱系,展现了情动理论批评的现状。

卢卡斯认为汤姆金斯的理论在批评实践中没有得到应有的重视。

通过汤姆金斯的启示,卢卡斯强调情动是人类的更高层次的动力,而文学作品及其中的人物则是情感研究的重要“数据库”。

围绕上述思路,卢卡斯一方面梳理弗洛伊德、荣格以及拉康等精神分析学者的文学理论,另一方面围绕达尔文、威廉·詹姆斯以及保罗·埃克曼等学者的情感理论,从生物学、心理学以及人类学等多种角度探讨情动理论及其批评,以证明汤姆金斯情动理论的重要性。

关键词:西尔万·汤姆金斯;情动理论;文类;文学批评DOI:10.12184/wsprzkxWSP2515-528803.20220602作者简介邓肯·A.卢卡斯,加拿大莫霍克学院教授,研究方向为情动理论。

译者简介郭思恒,上海大学文学院,博士研究生在读,研究方向为西方文论与美学理论。

刘旭光,上海大学文学院教授,研究方向为中西文艺美学、艺术学理论。

1本文译自邓肯·A.卢卡斯(Duncan A.Lucas)的《情动理论、类型和悲剧的例子》(Affect Theory,Genre,and the Example of Tragedy.Springer Interna‐tional Publishing;Palgrave Macmillan,2018)的导论,题目为译者加。

——译者注。

邓肯·A.卢卡斯:西尔万·汤姆金斯:情动理论知识谱系与批评实践的另一路径所有的男人和女人都只是演员。

《狩猎》影评

《狩猎》影评

《狩猎》影评影片《狩猎》讲述了一个关于信任与被信任、怀疑与被怀疑的故事。

男主卢卡斯是一个幼儿园的老师,他善良、诚实且富有爱心,深受孩子们的喜爱。

然而,一场无妄之灾却降临到他的头上,一位名叫卡拉的早熟小女孩向园长控诉卢卡斯对她进行了猥亵。

尽管卢卡斯一再申辩自己是清白的,但在没有确凿证据的情况下,园长还是选择相信了卡拉,并将卢卡斯开除出了幼儿园。

这件事情让卢卡斯陷入了巨大的困境,他的声誉受到了严重的损害,周围的人开始对他投来怀疑和不信任的目光。

他试图解释和澄清自己的清白,但没有人愿意听他的。

他的大脑因为这种不信任产生了低落的情绪,而不是争取对方信任的力量。

他被这种情绪牢牢定住,从而没有想到应该保持头脑清醒,去解决问题、以最快的速度去争取这个人的信任。

他满脑子都在质疑:为什么园长不相信我?甚至开始愤怒。

随着时间的推移,越来越多的人开始不相信他,他越来越被“不被相信”这种事实造成的低落情绪所控制,越来越往深渊里跌,越来越无力。

他的生活变得一团糟,他失去了工作,失去了朋友,甚至连自己的女儿也不愿意和他亲近。

他完全丧失了自我拯救的力量。

其实,从头到尾,男主一直都只在关注自己为何不被人信任,别人越不相信他,他就越往深谷里跌,好比别人踩他,他不是反弹,而是更加往下倒,他从来没想怎么去解决问题。

他不知道,要想让别人相信自己,只有自己去奋力争取才行。

不被信任会让人产生低落的情绪,这是一种本能反应。

但我们不能被这种情绪所控制,而是要学会控制自己的情绪,保持头脑清醒,去解决问题。

当别人不相信我们的时候,我们不能沉浸在失望中,而应该奋力争取,用实际行动证明自己的清白。

我们要相信自己,相信自己的能力和价值,相信自己一定能够克服困难,重新赢得别人的信任。

在影片中,男主的性格弱点暴露无遗。

他是一个典型的红色性格的人,活在外界的认可中,并且容易被情绪控制。

一旦有人认可自己,自己会做的更好;但是一旦外界不认可自己,就会往下跌,没有反弹的力量,更没有理智的头脑。

卢卡斯批评(word文档良心出品)

卢卡斯批评(word文档良心出品)

卢卡斯批评“卢卡斯批评”(Lucas’ critique)的要点及其对现代西方经济学发展的影响答:(1)卢卡斯批判是指:卢卡斯是根据理性预期的货币理论的朴素原理(当被预测变量发生变化时,预期的形成方式也会发生变化)对计量经济政策评估的批判。

卢卡斯批评内容:由于政策变化(或者说大众对政策预期的变化)导致计量经济模型中的关系发生变化。

这使根据以往数据估算的计量经济模型不再能正确评估政策变化带来的影响,从而可能导致错误的结论。

(2)凯恩斯主义模型评价政策效果的一般做法是,先估计出消费函数、货币需求函数等经济计量关系式,然后加进不同的政策规则,预测它们的效果。

卢卡斯在1976年发表的《对经济计量学政策评价的批评》一文中抨击了使用大规模的宏观经济计量模型来评价不同政策方案效果的做法。

他认为,凯恩斯主义的这种做法建立在这种假定之上;即当政策变化时,模型的参数保持不变,他认为,面对政策的变化,大规模的宏观经济计量模型的参数可能不会保持不变,因为经济当事人会随着经济环境的变化而调整他们的行为。

由于模型中的参数因政策规则的不同而发生变化,故无法比较不同政策产生的效果。

总之,卢卡斯认为凯恩斯主义宏观经济模型对于政策评价没有用处。

“卢卡斯批评”对制定宏观经济政策意义深远。

由于政策制定者预期不到新的和不同的经济政策对其模型参数的影响,因而利用原有模型的模拟就不能用于预测其他政策体系的后果。

不仅如此,建立在理性预期基础上的“卢卡斯批评”,使人们重新反思曾流行一时的用最优控制理论制定和评价政策的做法。

现在许多西方学者已经意识到政府运用政策调控经济完全不同于控制一部机器。

事实上,经济的运行依赖于有头脑有思想的经济主体的行为。

根据“卢卡斯批评”,如果经济主体具有理性预期,那种认为政府用经济政策来调控经济就像控制一部机器那样简单的想法是完全错误的。

有鉴于此,用最优控制理论来设计和评价政策的做法便逐渐失去了支持者。

“卢卡斯批评”对宏观经济政策理论的意义在于:其一,在所考虑的特定的政策发生变化时,它强调了模型参数稳定性的重要性,从而对政策模型和模拟产生了较为深远的影响;其二,它强调了政策问题在本质上不是一个控制问题,而是一个对策问题。

罗伯特卢卡斯获奖演讲《货币中性》

罗伯特卢卡斯获奖演讲《货币中性》

MONETARY NEUTRALITYPrize Lecture, December 7, 1995byROBERT E. LUCAS, JR*University of Chicago, USAINTRODUCTIONThe work for which I have received this prize was part of an effort to under-stand how changes in the conduct of monetary policy can influence infla-tion, employment, and production. So much thought has been devoted to this question and so much evidence is available that one might reasonably assume that it had been solved long ago. But this is not the case: It had not been solved in the 1970s when I began my work on it, and even now this question has not been given anything like a fully satisfactory answer. In this lecture I will try to clarify what it is about the problem of bringing available evidence to bear on the assessment of different monetary policies that makes it so difficult, and to review the progress that has been made toward solving it in the last two decades.From the beginnings of modern monetary theory, in David Hume’s mar-velous essays of 1752, Of Money and Of Interest, conclusions about the effect of changes in money have seemed to depend critically on the way in which the change is effected. In formulating the doctrine that we now call the quantity theory of money, Hume stressed the units-change aspect of changes in the money stock, and the irrelevance of such changes to the behavior of rational people. “It is indeed evident,” he wrote in Of Money, “that money is nothing but the representation of labour and commodities, and serves only as a method of rating or estimating them. Where coin is in greater plenty, as a greater quantity of it is required to represent the same quantity of goods, it can have no effect, either good or bad...any more than it would make an alte-ration on a merchant’s books, if, instead of the Arabian method of notation, which requires few characters, he should make use of the Roman, which requires a great many.” (p.28)1He returns to this idea that changes in the quantity of money are just units* I thank Nancy Stokey for invaluable discussion and criticism. I am also very grateful for comments from William Brock, John Cochrane, Milton Friedman, Anil Kashyap, Randall Kroszner, Casey Mulligan, Sherwin Rosen, Allen Sanderson, Thomas Sargent, John Taylor, Neil Wallace, Warren Weber, and Jörgen Weibull.1 All page references to Hume’s essays are to Hume (1970). I have left the spelling as in the original and modernized the punctuation.Robert E. Lucas, Jr.247 changes in Of Interest: “Were all the gold in England annihilated at once, and one and twenty shillings substituted in the place of every guinea, would money be more plentiful or interest lower? No surely: We should only use sil-ver instead of gold. Were gold rendered as common as silver, and silver as common as copper, would money be more plentiful or interest lower? We may assuredly give the same answer. Our shillings would then be yellow, and our halfpence white, and we should have no guineas. No other difference would ever be observed, no alteration on commerce, manufactures, naviga-tion, or interest, unless we imagine that the color of money is of any con-sequence.” (p. 47)These are two of Hume’s statements of what we now call the quantity the-ory of money: the doctrine that changes in the number of units of money in circulation will have proportional effects on all prices that are stated in money terms, and no effect at all on anything real, on how much people work or on the goods they produce or consume. Notice, though, that there is something a little magical about the way that changes in money come about in Hume’s examples. All the gold in England gets “annihilated.”Elsewhere he asks us to “suppose that, by miracle, every man in Great Britain should have five pounds slipped into his pocket in one night.” (p. 51) Money changes in reality do not occur by such means. Is this just a matter of expo-sition, or should we be concerned about it! This turns out to be a crucial question. In fact, Hume writes: “When any quantity of money is imported into a nation, it is not at first dispersed into many hands but is confined to the coffers of a few persons, who immediately seek to employ it to advanta-ge. Here are a set of manufacturers or merchants, we shall suppose, who have received returns of gold and silver for goods which they have sent to Cadiz. They are thereby enabled to employ more workmen than formerly, who never dream of demanding higher wages, but are glad of employment from such good paymasters. [The artisan] ...carries his money to the market, where he finds every thing at the same price as formerly, but returns with greater quantity and of better kinds for the use of his family. The farmer and garde-ner, finding that all their commodities are taken off, apply themselves with alacrity to raising more...It is easy to trace the money in its progress through the whole commonwealth, where we shall find that it must first quicken the diligence of every individual before it increases the price of labour.” (p. 38) Symmetrically, Hume believes that a monetary contraction could induce depression. “There is always an interval before matters be adjusted to their new situation, and this interval is as pernicious to industry when gold and sil-ver are diminishing as it is advantageous when these metals are increasing. The workman has not the same employment from the manufacturer or mer-chant though he pays the same price for everything in the market. The far-mer cannot dispose of his corn and cattle, though he must pay the same rent to his landlord. The poverty, and beggary, and sloth which must ensue are easily foreseen.” (p. 40)Hume makes it clear that he does not view his opinions about the initial248Economic Sciences 1995effects of monetary expansions as major qualifications to the quantity theory, to his view that “it is of no manner of consequence, with regard to the domes-tic happiness of a state, whether money be in a greater or less quantity.”Perhaps he simply did not see that the irrelevance of units changes from which he deduces the long run neutrality of money has similar implications for the initial reaction to money changes as well. Why, for example, does an early recip-ient of the new money “find every thing at the same price as formerly.” If everyone understands that prices will ultimately increase in proportion to the increase in money, what force stops this from happening right away? Are peo-ple committed, perhaps even contractually, to continue to offer goods at the old prices for a time? If so, Hume does not mention it. Are sellers ignorant of the fact that money has increased and a general inflation is inevitable? But Hume claims that the real consequences of money changes are “easy to trace”and “easily foreseen.” If so, why do these consequences occur at all?These questions do not involve mere matters of detail. Hume has deduced the quantity theory of money by purely theoretical reasoning from “that principle of reason” that people act rationally and that this fact is reflected in market-determined quantities and prices. Consistency surely requires at least an attempt to apply these same principles to the analysis of the initial effects of a monetary expansion or contraction. I think the fact is that this is just too difficult a problem for an economist equipped with only verbal meth-ods, even someone of Hume’s remarkable powers.This tension between two incompatible ideas: that changes in money are neutral units changes, and that they induce movements in employment and production in the same direction, has been at the center of monetary theo-ry at least since Hume wrote. Though it has not, in my opinion, been fully resolved, important progress has been made on at least two dimensions. The first is a purely theoretical question: Under what assumptions and for what kinds of changes can we expect monetary changes to be neutral? (I take this terminology from Don Patinkin’s Money, Interest, and Prices (1965), the book that introduced so many economists of my cohort to these theoretical iss-ues.) The theoretical equipment we have for sharpening and addressing such questions has been vastly improved since Hume’s day, and I will draw on these improvements below. Of at least equal importance, an enormous amount of evidence on money, prices, and production has been accumu-lated over the past two centuries, and much fruitful thought has been ap-plied to issues of measurement. In the next section, I will examine some of this evidence.EVIDENCEIt is hard to tell from the essays what evidence Hume actually had in front of him. Certainly he wrote before systematic data on money supplies were col-lected anywhere in the world, before the invention of price indexes, and long before the invention of national income and product accounting. His devel-Robert E. Lucas, Jr.249 opment of the quantity theory was based largely on purely theoretical reason-ing, though tested informally against his vast historical knowledge, and his belief in short run correlations between changes in money and changes in pro-duction was apparently based mainly on his everyday knowledge. (He cites one Mons. du Tot for the assertion that “in the last year of Louis XIV, money was raised three sevenths but prices augmented only one.” In a footnote he char-acterizes his source as “an author of reputation,” but feels obliged to “con-fess that the facts which he advances on other occasions are often so suspicious as to make his authority less in this matter.”Even in the eighteenth century, it seems, there were tensions between theorists and econometricians!)The central predictions of the quantity theory are that, in the long run, money growth should be neutral in its effects on the growth rate of produc-tion and should affect the inflation rate on a one-for-one basis. The modifi-er “long run” is not free of ambiguity, but by any definition the use of data that are heavily averaged over time should isolate only long run effects. Figure 1, taken from McCandless and Weber (1995), plots 30 year (1960-1990) average annual inflation rates against average annual growth rates of M2 over the same 30 year period, for a total of 110 countries. One can see that the points lie roughly on the 45-degree line, as predicted by the quanti-ty theory. The simple correlation between inflation and money growth is .95. The monetary aggregate used in constructing Figure 1 is M2, but nothing important depends on this choice. McCandless and Weber report a simple correlation of .96 if Ml is used, and .92 with M0 (the monetary base). They also report correlations for subsets of their 110 country data set: .96 (with M2) with only OECD countries; .99 with 14 Latin American countries.It is clear from these data (and from the many other studies that have rea-ched similar conclusions) that the applicability of the quantity theory of money is not limited to currency reforms and magical thought experiments. It applies, with remarkable success, to co-movements in money and prices generated in complicated, real-world circumstances. Indeed, how many spe-cific economic theories can claim empirical success at the level exhibited in Figure 1? Central bankers and even some monetary economists talk know-ledgeably of using high interest rates to control inflation, but I know of no evidence from even one economy linking these variables in a useful way, let alone evidence as sharp as that displayed in Figure 1. The kind of monetary neutrality shown in this figure needs to be a central feature of any monetary or macroeconomic theory that claims empirical seriousness.McCandless and Weber also provide evidence on correlations between money growth and growth in real output, averaged over the 1960-1990 peri-od Figure 2 is their plot for the full 100 country IMF data set. Evidently, there is no relation between these 30-year averages.2 For examining short term trade-offs, of course, one does not want to use such time-averaged data. * It must be said that the evidence of long run links between money growth and output growth is more mixed than one would infer from Figure 2. McCandless and Weber find a weak positive relation for the OECD eco-nomies. Both positive and negative correlations have been found, by other investigators on other data sets.252Economic Sciences 1995War II years in the United States, real output fluctuations are modest enough to be attributable, possibly, to real sources. There is no need to appeal to money shocks to account for these movements. But an event like the Great Depression of 1929-1933 is far beyond anything that can be attributed to shocks to tastes and technology. One needs some other possibilities. Monetary contractions are attractive as the key shocks in the 1929-1933 years, and in other severe depressions, because there do not seem to be any other candidates.Sargent (1986) also examines large, sudden reductions in rates of money growth (though not reductions in the levels of money stocks). In his case, these are the monetary and fiscal reforms that ended four of the post-World War I European hyperinflations. These dramatic reductions in growth rates of the money supply dwarf anything in Friedman and Schwartz or in the post-war data used by McCandless and Weber. Yet as Sargent shows they were not associated with output reductions that were large by historical standards, or possibly by any depressions at all. Sargent goes on to demonstrate the likeli-hood that these reductions in money growth rates were well anticipated by the people they affected and, because of visible and suitable fiscal reforms, were expected by them to be sustained.In summary, the prediction that prices respond proportionally to changes in money in the long run, deduced by Hume in 1752 (and by many other theorists, by many different routes, since), has received ample - I would say, decisive - confirmation, in data from many times and places. The observation that money changes induce output changes in the same direction receives confirmation in some data sets, but is hard to see in others. Large scale reductions in money growth can be associated with large scale depressions or, if carried out in the form of a credible reform, with no depression at all. THEORETICAL RESPONSESHume was able to theorize rigorously and, as we have seen, with great empi-rical success, about comparisons of long run average behavior across econo-mies with different average rates of money growth. For short run purposes, on the other hand, he was obliged to rely on much looser reasoning and rough empirical generalizations. As economic theory evolved in the last cen-tury and most of this one, the double standard that characterized Hume’s argument was perpetuated. The quantity theoretic “neutrality theorems”were stated with increasing precision and worked through rigorously, using the latest equipment of static general equilibrium theory. The dynamics had a kind of patched-in quality, fitting the facts, but only in a manner that sug-gests they could equally well fit any facts. Patinkin interprets all of monetary theory from Wicksell’s Interest and Prices (1898) through his own Money, Interest and Prices as concerned with processes of adjustment between one quantity-theoretic equilibrium position and another, conceived as outside the framework of general equilibrium theory in a way that seems to me veryRobert E. Lucas, Jr.253 much at the level of Hume’s analysis. The passages on dynamics that I cited from Hume in Section 1 could be slipped into Keynes’s Treatise on Money (1930) or Hayek’s Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle (1933) without inducing any sense of anachronism.Yet all of these theorists want to think in general equilibrium terms, to think of people as maximizing over time,as substituting intertemporally. They resort to disequilibrium dynamics only because the analytical equip-ment available to them offers no alternative. Even in Hume’s scenario, the motives and expectations of economic actors during the transition are descri-bed, even rationalized: The adjustment to a new equilibrium is not seen as a purely mechanical tâtonnement process, the character of which is determined by forces apart from the producers and consumers of the system. Certainly Wicksell, and I would say Patinkin, too, are trying to think through the way the dynamic adjustment process appears to people as it occurs, to see the actions people take as rational responses to their situations. Though the the-oretical formalism on which they draw involves a static equilibrium com-bined with a mechanical process to describe dynamic adjustments, their ver-bal descriptions of periods of transition, like Hume’s before them, show that they are in fact thinking of people solving intertemporal decision problems.The intelligence of these attempts to deal theoretically with the real effects of changes in money is still impressive to the modern reader, but only serves to underscore the futility of attempting to talk through hard dynamic pro-blems without any of the equipment of modern mathematical economics. Hayek and Keynes and their contemporaries were willing to make assump-tions and to set out something like a model, but they were simply not able to work out the predictions of their own theories.The depression of the 1930s shifted attention away from the subtle pro-blems of monetary neutrality, and toward the potential of monetary policy for short run stimulus. Keynes’s General Theory (1936) was one product of this change of focus. Another was Tinbergen’s (1939) development of an expli-cit statistical model of the U.S. economy. Tinbergen’s model and its immedi-ate successors made little or no contact with earlier traditions in monetary theory, but in the atmosphere of the 1930s and 40s this was perhaps an advantage, and it fit well with the revolutionary rhetoric of Keynes’s book. Economic theory aside, the macroeconometric models that evolved from Tinbergen’s work had two important advantages over all earlier macroeco-nomic theory. They were mathematically explicit and so could be estimated from and tested against data in a much more disciplined way than could ear-lier theories. Moreover, they could be simulated to yield quantitative answers to policy questions. It was these features that excited younger researchers and had such a dramatic influence on future developments in the field.By the 1960s then, two very different styles of macroeconomic theory, both claiming the title of Keynesian economics, co-existed. There were attempts at a unified monetary and value theory, like Patinkin’s, based on extensions of static general equilibrium theory to accommodate money,254Economic Sciences 1995combined with some kind of tâtonnement process to provide some dynamics. These theories were developed with great attention to earlier monetary the-ory and to developments in economic theory more generally, but they lack-ed the operational character of the macroeconometric models: No one could tell exactly what their predictions were, or what normative implications they carried. On the other hand, there were macroeconometric models that could be fit to data and simulated to yield quantitative answers to policy ques-tions, but whose relation to microeconomic theory and classical monetary theory was unclear.Virtually no one at the time regarded this situation as healthy. Everyone paid lip service to the idea of unification of micro- and macroeconomics, or of discovering the microeconomic“foundations” of macroeconomic theor-ies, and a vast amount of creative and valuable economics, focused on inter-temporal decision problems, was inspired by this goal. The work of Friedman (1957) and Modigliani and Brumberg (1954) on consumption, Eisner and Strotz (1963) and Jorgenson (1963)on investment in physical capital, Becker (1962) and Ben Porath (1967) on investment in human capital, Baumol (1952), Tobin (1956), Meltzer (1963), and Brunner and Meltzer (1963) on money demand, all contributed. Mathematically inclined econo-mists who entered the profession in the 1960s were drawn to methods for stu-dying intertemporal decision problems, the calculus of variations, the theo-ry of optimal control, and Bellman’s (1957) dynamic programming. Work on optimal growth by Cass (1965), and Uzawa (1964) was followed by applica-tions of similar methods to a variety of problems in all subfields of econo-mics. In these applications, the dynamics were an integral part of the theory, not tacked-on tâtonnement processes. When Leonard Rapping and I began our collaboration on the study of labor markets over the business cycle, (Lucas and Rapping (1969)), we thought of these studies of individual inter-temporal decision problems as models of what we wanted to do.4The prevailing strategy for macroeconomic modeling in the early 1960s held that the individual or sectoral models arising out of this intertemporal theorizing could then simply be combined in a single model, the way Keynes and Tinbergen and their successors assembled a consumption function, an investment function, and so on into a model of an entire economy. But models of individual decisions over time necessarily involve expected, future prices. Some microeconomic analyses treated these prices as known; others imputed adaptive forecasting rules to maximizing firms and households. However it was done, though, the “church supper” models assembled from such individual components implied behavior of actual equilibrium prices and incomes that bore no relation to, and were in general grossly inconsis-tent with, the price expectations that the theory imputed to individual agents.As intertemporal elements and expectations came to play an increasingly 4 See Phelps et al. (1970) for several similarly motivated studiesRobert E. Lucas, Jr.255 explicit and important role, this modeling inconsistency became more and more glaring. John Muth’s (1961) “Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements” focused on this inconsistency, and showed how it could be removed by taking into account the influences of prices, including future pri-ces, on quantities and simultaneously the effects of quantities on equilibrium prices.5 The principle of rational expectations he proposed thus forces the modeler toward a market equilibrium point of view, although it took some time before a style of thinking that recognized this fact had a major effect on macroeconomic modeling.Other considerations reinforced a move in the same direction. In the late 1960s, Friedman (1968) and Phelps (1968) saw, by thinking through the issue at a general equilibrium level, that there could be no long run Phillips curve tradeoff between inflation and real output. But such long run trade-offs were implicit in all of the macroeconometric models of the day, and the econometric methods that were in standard use at that time seemed to reject the Friedman-Phelps natural rate hypothesis. This conflict led to a re-thin-king of the theoretical basis of these statistical tests, and the discovery of serious difficulties with them. Sargent (1971) and Lucas (1972), (1976) showed that the conventional rejections of the natural rate hypothesis depended critically on irrational expectations, or to put the same point back-ward, that if one assumed rational expectations these tests settled nothing. It seemed clear that it was necessary to put macroeconomics on a general equilibrium basis that incorporated rational expectations.GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MACROECONOMICSBy the 1960s, two closely related general equilibrium frameworks were in fact already available for thinking about economic dynamics. One was the mat-hematical model of general equilibrium, developed by Hicks (1939), Arrow (1951), Debreu (1954), and McKenzie (1954), in which the commodity vec-tor is defined to include dated claims to goods, possibly made contingent on random events. Prescott and I (1971) adopted this framework for the con-struction of a rational expectations model of investment in a competitive industry, taking a stochastically shifting demand curve (rather than prices) as given. And, in a paper that was to set the research agenda for the next decade, Kydland and Prescott (1982) utilized a version of the stochastic growth optimal growth model of Brock and Mirman (1972) as an operatio-nal model of a competitive economy undergoing recurrent business cycles, induced by shifts in the technology. This turned out to be a tremendously fruitful idea, whose potential is still being realized. But such a model without money is obviously not suited to the study of Hume’s problem. Economists 5 Eugene Fama’s (1965) theory of efficient markets was another application of economic reasoning directly to the behavior of equilibrium prices, in a setting in which stochastic shocks were an intrinsic part of the eco-nomic model.256Economic Sciences 1995who believed that monetary forces were at the center of the business cycle needed to look elsewhere.A second general equilibrium framework, due to Samuelson (1958), was also available, and seemed better suited to the study of monetary questions. That paper introduced a deceptively simple example of an economy in which money with no direct use in either consumption or production nonetheless plays an essential role in economic life. I used this model in my (1972) paper in an attempt to show how monetary neutrality might be reconciled with the appearance of a short-term stimulus from a monetary expansion. The model is so simple and flexible that it can be used to illustrate many issues. I will introduce a version of it here, along with enough notation to permit discus-sion of some interesting details.In Samuelson’s model, people live for two periods only, so that the on-going economy is always populated by two age cohorts, one young and the other old. Here I assume a constant population, so that per capita and eco-nomy-wide magnitudes can be used interchangeably. At each year’s end, the old die, the young become old, and a new young group arrives. It is impor-tant for my purposes (as it was for Samuelson’s) to assume that there is no family structure in this economy: no inheritances and no financial support by one cohort for another. Suppose that a young person in this economy can work and produce goods, while an old person likes to consume goods but has no ability to produce them. Denote a person’s two objects of choice by the pair (c, n), where n is units of labor supplied when young and c is units of the good consumed when old. Assume that everyone’s preferences over these two goods are given byAssume a labor-only technology in which one unit of labor yields one unit of goods.If the good were storable, everyone would produce in his youth and carry the production over for his own later consumption, solving the problem(1) Call the solution to this problem n*. But I will assume that the good cannot be stored, so that any individual acting purely on his own cannot produce for his own pleasure.6 Acting alone, the best one can do is to enjoy leisure when young and never consume anything. Clearly society as a whole should be able to do much better than that, by somehow inducing the young to produ-ce for the consumption of their contemporary old. Some institution is needed to achieve this.6 In fact, Cass and Yaari (1966) show that even if storage is possible the autarchic allocation can be improved upon, as it ties up goods in inventory permanently and unnecessarily.258Economic Sciences 1995In order to work out a rational expectations equilibrium for this model, we exploit the observation that the only thing that changes over time in this situ-ation is the money supply, which is simply multiplied by the known factor x in every period. It seems natural, then, to seek an equilibrium in which the price level is proportional to the money stock, p = km for some constant k, and in which labor is constant at some valueInserting all this information into the first order condition (3), one obtains In this circumstance, then, the price level will increase between periods at exactly the rate of growth of the money supply. The equilibrium level of employment。

《伟大的悲剧》优秀读后感700字

《伟大的悲剧》优秀读后感700字

《伟大的悲剧》优秀读后感700字《伟大的悲剧》是一本由美国学者卢卡斯·米勒所著的文化批评作品。

这本书所涉及的主题涵盖了现代主义文化和精神生活的发展与变化,具有很高的学术价值。

而它也因其深刻的思想内涵和鲜明的文学风格而深受读者喜爱。

在读完《伟大的悲剧》之后,我深深地被卢卡斯所呈现出的人性矛盾所吸引。

书中丰富的思想和独特的文风让我非常着迷。

虽然这本书的阅读并不轻松,但是收获相当丰富。

它所探讨的主题让我有了更深的人生体悟,也更加理解了自己的内心世界。

这本书并非只有对文学爱好者有用,它的思想触及了每一个人的内心,对于每个人来讲,文化的发展和变化都是必然的。

因此,这本书对于了解人类文明发展史和人类思维变化有着重要影响。

在我看来,这本书最吸引人的地方在于其独特的思想观点。

卢卡斯对于现代文化和社会现象的深刻分析使得他的观点很有说服力,他尝试揭示出一些社会和人类行为的根源,这些观点在当今社会仍然具有很高的价值。

例如,卢卡斯强调了人类的矛盾心理,探讨了在情感和行为层面上的双重性格,以及人性中存在的本质矛盾和冲突。

这种深刻带有探究性的思维方式,极大地丰富了我对于现代社会的认识,也让我更为深刻地理解了人性在现代的舞台上的表现和内在真相。

总的来说,通过《伟大的悲剧》的阅读,我深深感受到人类文明发展和精神生活变革的深度和广度。

在今天这个富有挑战性的时代,这本书对于我们指引时代潮流,认清自己内心平衡和价值观的定位是非常有帮助的。

总的来说,这本书对于我来说是除了日常生活之外,获得最大收获的一本书。

它提供了深邃的思想启示以及人性的深刻探究,这些都让我对自我认知以及对人类的理解有了更深入的认识。

我相信,在未来的日子里,这本书会一直陪伴着我,我也会不断地从中汲取智慧和启迪。

《高级英语散文赏析》课程教学大纲

《高级英语散文赏析》课程教学大纲

《高级英语散文赏析》课程教学大纲课程编号:ENGL1014课程类别:专业必修课授课对象:英语、英语教育开课学期:秋(第7学期)学分:4主讲教师:王腊宝、贾冠杰、方红、苏晓军等指定教材:黄源深主编,《英语》第七册,上海外语教育出版社,1996年第一版教学目的:通过阅读和分析高级英语散文,使学生熟悉和了解各类散文的风格和文体特点,培养学生的评判性阅读能力、英语思维和表达能力、以及跨文化交际能力,提高学生的审美情趣、文学修养、英语语言欣赏水平和文化综合素质,同时继续打好语言基本功,在教学中帮助学生进一步扩大知识面,包括英语专业知识和相关专业知识,增强对文化差异的敏感性,提高综合运用英语进行交际的能力。

教学中高度重视听说读写译五个方面的融会训练,并培养学生独立学习和思考的能力。

通过教学帮助学生听懂国外媒体各方面的专题报道以及演讲会话等;根据所给题目在规定时间内用英语进行自由交谈或辩论,所谈题目涉及国内外政治、经济、教育、科技、社会等热点议题,且内容比较抽象,具有较强的社会性;学会分析文章结构和语言特点,阅读名家名篇等英文原著速度达到每分钟150字以上并能准确把握文章的意思;掌握各种写作技巧和修辞方法,在45分钟之内写出400字的作文并做到内容充实、语言通顺、用词恰当、表达得体;能比较自如地运用英 /汉翻译理论和技巧,且翻译速度达到每小时300字。

第一课 A Field of Silence (第七册)课时:2 周,共 8 课时教学内容第1-2课时背景知识及课文讲解1、介绍美国著名女诗人散文家Annie Dillard(1945-)生平;2、介绍作家主要著作:作品探讨对世界的哲学理解和人生的意义;3、介绍作者的玄学思想;4、介绍捷克小说家Milan Kundra的小说《生命不能承受之轻》的主题;5、过渡到课文:提醒学生在学习本课时考虑课文的主题;6、课文讲解与讨论:P. 82-P. 88倒数第二段。

第3-4课时继续课文讲解继续课文讲解与讨论,完成全篇课文。

一代宏观经济理论大师卢卡斯

一代宏观经济理论大师卢卡斯

一代宏观经济理论大师卢卡斯◎ 翁 一当地时间2023年5月15日,芝加哥大学官方对外确认该校经济学教授、著名宏观经济学家小罗伯特·卢卡斯(Robert E. Lucas, Jr)已于当天早些时候去世,享年85岁。

1995年,卢卡斯被授予诺贝尔经济学奖,以表彰他“发展和应用了理性预期假设,从而转变了宏观经济分析,加深了我们对经济政策的理解”。

事实上,由卢卡斯发起的这场理性预期革命进而导致整个宏观经济理论范式的变革可追溯至20世纪70年代早期。

罗伯特·卢卡斯于1937年9月15日出生于美国华盛顿州的亚基马。

1959年获得芝加哥大学历史学学士学位。

1964年获得芝加哥大学经济学博士学位。

之后,以卡内基·梅隆大学助理教授的身份开始其职业经济学家生涯。

1975年,以正教授的身份进入芝加哥大学经济学系。

1997年,担任计量经济学会主席。

2002年,担任美国经济学会主席。

卢卡斯的主要论文有:《实际工资、就业和通货膨胀》(1969年)、《预期和货币中性》(1972年)、《关于产出与通货膨胀交替的一些国际例证》(1973年)、《经济计量政策评价》(1975年)、《菲利普斯曲线和劳动力市场》(1975年)等,主要著作有:《经济周期理论研究》(1981年)、《理性预期与计量经济学实践》(与萨金特合编,1981年)等。

理性预期革命1972年,卢卡斯发表论文《预期与货币中性》,这是第一篇把理性预期融入动态一般均衡模型的文章。

自此,一场导致宏观经济理论范式变革的理性预期革命开启。

在卢卡斯的模型中,行为主体是完全理性的:基于可用的信息,形成对未来价格和数量的预期,基2023年第3期|CHINA POLICY REVIEW| 2023年第3期于这些预期,付诸行为来最大化预期终身效用。

在此,有一个前提,即每个行为主体必须准确了解现在和未来所有其他行为主体的行为,以及这些行为如何影响价格和数量。

卢卡斯在约翰·弗雷泽·穆斯的基础上,将理性预期假说同货币主义模型结合起来分析。

卢卡斯批评

卢卡斯批评

4. Theoretical Considerations: General
根据经济主体的决策法则 (供求方程)的出来的理论 最佳决策
问题是: 假设前提(F,θ)不随{Xt}(如财政政策、货币政策等)
变化。根据动态经济理论,这个前提是不现实,不公平的。
而离开了这个前提,模拟也就毫无意义了。
Lucas:
4. Theoretical Considerations: General 一般理论思考
5. Theoretical Considerations: Examples 理论思考:举例分析 5.1 Consumption 消费 5.2 Taxation and Investment 税收和投资 5.3 Philips Curves 菲利普斯曲线 6. Policy Considerations 政策思考 7. Concluding Remarks 结论
应对:不考虑长期问题,
也希望θ 随着政策变化而变化的缓慢Policy Considerations
如何能找到能够正确进行政策评估的模型结构呢? λ 分析实质:分析和评价参数θ和
Lucas:可以期望在分析政策如何改变的基础上找到修订计量
经济模型的方法。
政策变化不事先告知 公众的反应最多只是 “噪音”,政策效果不会出现 系统性的不可预测
5. Theoretical Considerations: Examples
情况1:政策使未来的某人的永久收入发生了常量的增加
t 期实际消费会增加
比较结果:t∞,两者是随时间而趋近相同的
5. Theoretical Considerations: Examples
情况2:政策使永久收入呈指数增长
5. Theoretical Considerations: Examples 5.1 Consumption 消费
  1. 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
  2. 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
  3. 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。

计量经济政策评价:一种批评ECONOMETRIC POEICY EVALUATION: A CRITIQUE一、“卢卡斯批评”产生的历史背景20世纪70年代中期,大多数西方国家出现了“滞胀”的局面,即失业和通货膨胀并存。

根据凯恩斯主义理论,失业和通胀应该是此消彼长的关系,不可能同时并存。

因此一方面,“滞涨”的出现使凯恩斯主义理论受到了严重的打击,另一方面由于理论无法解释“滞涨”现象,自然也无法提不出消除滞胀的举措。

芝加哥大学的卢卡斯认为,凯恩斯主义通过建立计量经济模型来评估政策的效果。

但是模型中的参数是根据经验数据(过去的数据)估计出来并且假定不变的值,也就意味着没有考虑到现实经济中,理性人是会搜集信息并且根据政策变化调整行为的。

经济主体的理性预期会主动的察觉到政策变动并且做出反应,政府的财政或者货币政策也就不可能达到效果。

比如政府减少个人所得税,根据凯恩斯的理论,个人可支配收入就会增加,人们会增加消费从而刺激经济增长。

可是按照卢卡斯的想法,理性的人面对减税的政策想到的是,政府当前减税之后必然有一天会面临债务赤字,于是又会增税,因此从长远来看,最好还是别消费,把钱储蓄起来以应对后面税收的增加。

因此减税政策的效果不是增加了消费,反而是增加了储蓄。

而同时,从研究方法来讲,经济主体的理性反应会让计量经济模型中的参数值发生改变,也就意味着用参数不变的计量经济模型对政策评价的方法是有问题的。

(一篇文献提到:卢卡斯本人也做过计量分析,结果也发现拟合了长时间的数据以后,参数确实发生了变化。

)鉴于以上原因,卢卡斯认为必须将理性预期和宏观经济运行的微观基础纳入宏观经济分析框架,对现有计量经济理论修修补补解决不了问题,必须从根本上修正计量经济政策理论的研究方法,从而提出了著名的“卢卡斯批评”。

因此,“卢卡斯批评”这篇文章究竟批评什么?批评的是凯恩斯主义理论下计量经济政策评价方法的批评。

二、“卢卡斯批评”的主要内容卢卡斯认为必须将理性预期纳入宏观经济分析框架,因此“理性预期”成为了理解卢卡斯批评的关键词。

经济学中的预期是指当事人对经济变量(如价格、利率、利润或收入)在未来的变动方向和变动幅度的一种事前估计。

静态预期:Pt=Pt-1考察价格波动对下一周期产量的影响以及由此产生的均衡的变化。

静态预期是一种最不准确的预期,是指简单地把上一期的价格当作现期的价格。

外推型预期:人们形成第t期的价格时,要依据上一期的实际价格,而且要考虑上一期的实际价格和它前一期的实际价格相比较的变动幅度,比如根据上期比它前期价格上升的实际来推断第t期价格。

Pt=Pt-1+dPt-1适应性预期:运用某经济变量的过去记录去预测未来,反复检验和修订,采取错了再试的方式,使预期逐渐符合客观的过程。

Pt=F(Pt-1)共同缺点:用过去判断未来。

过分相信人的判断能力。

被动预期。

理性预期rational-expectations:指经济当事人为避免损失和谋取最大利益,会主动的设法利用一切可以取得的信息,对所关心的经济变量在未来的变动状况作出尽可能准确的估计。

其中,第一,理性预期并不保证每个人都有同样的预期,也不要求每个人的预期都正确无误,但理性预期的误差平均为零,也就是最准确的预期是理性预期。

第二人们主动的应用关切自身利益最大化进行调整的预期才是理性预期。

第三,预期的结果与预期所使用的经济理论、模型相一致的预期才是理性预期。

(穆斯于1961年第一次提出了理性预期的概念,但是将理性预期融入宏观经济学分析的并推导出宏观经济学理论和政策假设结果的是卢卡斯。

)文章主要分为以下七个部分:首先简要阐述理论背景、写作目的,然后提出凯恩斯主义的“经济政策理论”框架、研究思路和方法,以及卢卡斯对适应性预期的有关研究方法的肯定,随后在此基础上提出了自己的理论思考以及通过消费、投资和税收以及菲利普斯曲线三个例子论证观点,最后总结结论。

1.Introduction 引言提出文章的主旨:对传统计量经济政策理论的修正卢卡斯将在文中主要论证三个观点:(1)导致短期预测成功的那些因素与定量经济评价本身是无关的(2)现在主要的计量经济政策模型都只能够进行短期预测(3)原则上,使用这些模型进行模拟是不能够提供任何关于“相机抉择的政策后果”的有效信息的这些论点的论证并非基于政策实施之前“模拟估计的结构”和“真实结构”之间的偏差,而是基于政策实施之前的“真实结构”和实施之后的“真实结构”之间的偏差。

持续多年不受控制“滞胀”(凯恩斯理论无法解释,而经验研究结果即参数变化对凯恩斯计量经济政策方法也是不利的)值得我们追根寻源的探讨计量经济模拟的基础,检验这种基础本身的科学性。

2. The Theory of Economic Policy 经济政策理论文章中称,当时讨论的所有的宏观经济政策的定量分析都是在卢卡斯称为“经济政策理论”的框架下进行的。

这个框架是众所周知的,本来不需要用任何篇幅进行阐述,但是这篇文章的目的就是为了论证这个理论框架的不足,因此在此部分有必要阐述这个理论框架。

Yt+1=f(yt,xt,错误! 未找到引用源。

):用这个方程来描述。

t 和t+1 时期之间,政府政策作为外生变量产生的影响。

为了实际计算的目的,在此函数中引入固定不变的向量θ,使f(y,x,错误! 未找到引用源。

)≅错误! 未找到引用源。

F(y,x,错误! 未找到引用源。

,错误! 未找到引用源。

)。

其中Xt是强制变量的序列,被看做是任意的。

由于过去的Xt已知,所以估计θ值就比较简单了,然后知道了F和θ以后,政策评价结果就可以直接推理出来了。

因此,一项政策是被视作是由{Xt}(外生变量)序列的一部分的现值和未来值描述,同时其他组成部分也以某种方式被规定好了,于是f(yt,xt,错误! 未找到引用源。

)这个函数从现在开始就都可以描述出来了,并且由这个序列所定义的泛函数都是定义清楚的随机变量,这些随机变量的力矩也学可以根据理论计算出来或者数量模拟出来。

同样的道理,长期的菲利普斯曲线在一系列假设政策下就描绘出了“失业率-通胀”的此消彼长的关系。

而由于θ是根据过去的值估计出来的,所以是根据这个模型制定出来的政策也更加具有吸引力。

然而事实上,把θ当做已知的来处理是不可能的(因为在卢卡斯的观点中θ是变化的)因此真实的政策评价就变得更加复杂了。

凯恩斯原来的理论框架有两点需要特别评论:(1)在微观经济的方方面面,个体计量经济关系理性化都显示出惊人的力量。

更重要的是计量经济学家在描述宏观经济体系的时候却少有考量围观经济主体理性力量的。

(2)必须强调在标准框架内的短期预测与长期模拟之间的紧密联系。

短期预测的准确性意味着长期政策评估的可靠性。

3. Adaptive Forecasting 适应性预测卢卡斯提出了当前计量经济研究中三个非常显著的现象:(1)更多的样本会使参数值更加精确,但是事实上在计量时很少使用1947年以前的数据,1926-1947年以前的数据很少用来做计量经济政策模型的预测(2)计量经济学家不断的修正变量之间的计量经济关系(比如工资-价格关系),不断找到更加精确的参数值,但是根据理论估计出的参数值,但在还是与现实现象不符合。

(根据参数实施效果并没有实现。

)(3)在计量检验中,为了得到更加准确的预测,常常用估计得到的残差项去修正截距项。

(修正过程)应该强调的是,我们不能将重新计算理论与实践之间的的偏差(修正的过程)看做是计量经济预测者的批评。

当然,,如果新修正的方程能够更好的观察和预测经济,那么在使用旧的方程做预测就是很愚蠢的事情了。

在当前的经济政策理论中COOLEY 和PRESCOTT最近提出了一种可供选择的结构。

这种结构的不同是,原来的框架中参数向量错误! 未找到引用源。

是固定的,但是他们俩则视它为随机游走的随机变量,错误! 未找到引用源。

是一个独立同分布的随机变量。

COOLEY 和PRESCOT已经利用数据证明了这种适应性模型在短期预测当中相对于原来错误! 未找到引用源。

固定的时候的那种回归模型更好。

卢卡斯认为,COOLEY 和PRESCOT提出的适应性回归的方法是一种很好的方法。

4. Theoretical Considerations: General 一般理论思考因此卢卡斯在第四部分提出自己的理论思考:认为一个标准的不变参数的计量经济理论和计量政策评价方法看起来和实际的计量经济特征常常不相符合,而体现出可供选择的包含随机游走参数的一般性结构反而拟合的更好。

卢卡斯认为原来的模型依旧很重要,毕竟有效使用了多年,但是不能清楚的对未来进行预测。

因此在模型中加入适应性的分析可能能够更好的拟合现实。

在第二部分讨论了以f(y,x,错误! 未找到引用源。

)≅错误! 未找到引用源。

F(y,x,错误! 未找到引用源。

,错误! 未找到引用源。

)为特征的经济系统。

F和θ都来自于经济主体根据供求方程作出的最优化决策。

虽然没有假设(F,θ)非常容易知道,但是却有一个前提条件是一旦他们已知就再也不会随着{Xt}即政策变化而变化了。

但是根据动态经济理论,不变化是不可能的,也是不现实、不公平的。

(1)个人决策会遇到问题:当确定的参数(比如未来的价格)发生变化的时候,很难找到最优决策的法则。

(2)人们对未来的预期会影响人们现在的决策。

因此,在真实冲击变化的情况下,人们都将这种冲击视作不变的时候才能够说(F, 错误! 未找到引用源。

)的结构是稳定的,相机抉择的政策是有效的。

而离开了这个前提,各种政策的模拟也就自然毫无意义了。

5. Theoretical Considerations: Examples 理论思考:举例分析基于Section4提出理论思考,卢卡斯用消费、税收与投资,菲利普斯曲线三个例子论证在原来参数不变的计量经济模型中是无法准确预测和评价政策效果的。

5.1 Consumption 消费卢卡斯关于消费的例证基础是弗里德曼、慕斯等人所推导出的总消费方程,因为这些方程无论在理论还是经验研究中已经相当实用。

首先,引入弗里德曼的消费方程,根据其永久消费理论,永久消费取决于永久收入,关键的消费方程如下:(永久消费由永久收入决定)t期实际消费:t期实际收入:k是短期边际消费倾向,u和v是暂时影响当前实际消费和收入的暂时因素。

并且弗里德曼假设消费者能够跨期知道永久收入的状况。

根据Muth的研究得出“有关永久收入”的关键方程:(4)含义是预测出的真实永久收入后半部分是在获得一定信息条件下的真实永久收入值。

(I 体现出人们的理性预期)假设当前t期的实际收入是三个部分的组合:其中a、Wt和Vt分别是常数、独立增量、暂时性收入。

Yt+i(i=1,2,…..)的最小方差是,其中λ以某种方式取决于Wt和Vt的相对方差(也即t期收入增量和暂时性收入的变动会影响λ,从而影响)Yt+i的波动幅度。

相关文档
最新文档