银行风险管理外文翻译文献
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字Credit risk management is a XXX business。
financing ns。
payment and settlement。
and other XXX。
credit XXX risk factor for commercial banks。
XXX such as life risk and uncertainty.Effective credit risk management is essential for commercial banks to minimize the impact of credit losses。
This involves identifying and assessing potential risks。
XXX strategies。
XXX。
By doing so。
commercial banks XXX the potential for credit losses.One of the key components of credit risk management iscredit analysis。
This involves evaluating the orthiness of borrowers to determine the likelihood of default。
Credit analysis XXX's financial history。
credit score。
collateral。
XXX credit analysis。
commercial banks can make informed lending ns and minimize the risk of default.Another important aspect of credit risk management is credit XXX can also help commercial banks XXX.In n。
金融风险管理外文翻译文献
金融风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Enterprise Risk Management in InsuranceEnterprise Risk Management (hereinafter referred as “ERM”) interests a wide range of professions (e.g., actuaries, corporate financial managers, underwriters, accountants,and internal auditors), however, current ERM solutions often do not cover all risks because they are motivated by the core professional ethics and principles of these professions who design and administer them. In a typical insurance company all such professions work as a group to achieve the overriding corporate objectives.Risk can be defined as factors which prevent an organization in achieving its objectives and risks affect organizations holistically. The management of risk in isolation often misses its big picture. It is argued here that a holistic management of risk is logical and is the ultimate destination of all general management activities.Moreover, risk management should not be a separate function of the business process;rather, managing downside risk and taking the opportunities from upside risk should be thekey management goals. Consequently, ERM is believed as an approach to risk management, which provides a common understanding across the multidisciplinary groups of people of the organization. ERM should be proactive and its focus should be on the organizations future. Organizations often struggle to see and understand the full risk spectrum to which they are exposed and as a result they may fail to identify the most vulnerable areas of the business. The effective management of risk is truly an interdisciplinary exercise grounded on a holistic framework.Whatever name this new type of risk management is given (the literature refers to it by diverse names, such as Enterprise Risk Management, Strategic Risk Management, and Holistic Risk Management) the ultimate focus is management of all significant risks faced by the organization. Risk is an integral part of each and every action of the organization in the sense that an organization is a basket of contracts associated with risk (in terms of losses and opportunities). The idea of ERM is simple and logical, but implementation is difficult. This is because its involvement with a wide stakeholder community, which in turn involves groups from different disciplines with different beliefs and understandings. Indeed, ERM needs theories (which are the interest of academics) but a grand theory of ERM (which invariably involves an interdisciplinary concept) is far from having been achieved.Consequently, for practical proposes, what is needed is the development of a framework(a set of competent theories) and one of the key challenges of this thesis is to establish the key features of such a framework to promote the practice of ERM. Multidisciplinary Views of RiskThe objective of the research is to study the ERM of insurance companies. In line with this it is designed to investigate what is happening practically in the insurance industry at the current time in the name of ERM. The intention is to minimize the gap between the two communities (i.e., academics and practitioners) in order to contribute to the literature of risk management.In recent years ERM has emerged as a topic for discussion in the financial community,in particular, the banks and insurance sectors. Professional organizations have published research reports on ERM. Consulting firms conducted extensive studies and surveys on the topic to support their clients. Rating agencies included theERM concept in their rating criteria. Regulators focused more on the risk management capability of the financial organizations. Academics are slowly responding on the management of risk in a holistic framework following the initiatives of practitioners.The central idea is to bring the organization close to the market economy. Nevertheless,everybody is pushing ERM within the scope of their core professional understanding.The focus of ERM is to manage all risks in a holistic framework whatever the source and nature. There remains a strong ground of knowledge in managing risk on an isolated basis in several academic disciplines (e.g., economics, finance, psychology,sociology, etc.). But little has been done to take a holistic approach of risk beyond disciplinary silos. Moreover, the theoretical understanding of the holistic (i.e., multidisciplinary)properties of risk is still unknown. Consequently, there remains a lack of understanding in terms of a common and interdisciplinary language for ERM.Risk in FinanceIn finance, risky options involve monetary outcomes with explicit probabilities and they are evaluated in terms of their expected value and their riskiness. The traditional approach to risk in finance literature is based on a mean-variance framework of portfolio theory, i.e., selection and diversification. The idea of risk in finance is understood within the scope of systematic (non-diversifiable) risk and unsystematic (diversifiable)risk. It is recognized in finance that systematic risk is positively correlated with the rate of return. In addition, systematic risk is a non-increasing function of a firm’s growth in terms of earnings. Another established concern in finance is default risk and it is argued that the performance of the firm is linked to the firm’s default risk. A large part of finance literature deals with severa l techniques of measuring risks of firms’ investment portfolios (e.g., standard deviation, beta, VaR, etc.). In addition to the portfolio theory, Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) was discovered in finance to price risky assets on the perfect capital markets. Finally, derivative markets grew tremendously with the recognition of option pricing theory.Risk in EconomicsRisk in economics is understood within two separate (independent) categories,i.e.,endogenous (controllable) risk and background (uncontrollable) risk. It is recognized that economic decisions are made under uncertainty in the presence of multiple risks.Expected Utility Theory argues that peoples’ risk attitude on the size of risk (small,medium, large) is derived from the utility-of-wealth function, where the utilities of outcomes are weighted by their probabilities. Economists argue that people are risk averse (neutral) when the size of the risks is large (small).Prospect theory provides a descriptive analysis of choice under risk. In economics, the concept of risk-bearing preferences of agents for independent risks was described under the notion of “ standard risk aversion.” Most of the economic research on risk is originated on the study of decision making behavior on lotteries and other gambles. Risk in PsychologyWhile economics assumes an individual’s risk preference is a function of probabilistic beliefs, psychology explores how human judgment and behavior systematically forms such beliefs. Psychology talks about the risk taking behavior (risk preferences).It looks for the patterns of human reactions to the context, reference point,mental categories and associations that influence how people make decisions.The psychological approach to risk draws upon the notion of loss aversion that manife sts itself in the related notion of “regret.” According to Willett; “risk affects economic activity through the psychological influence of uncertainty.” Managers’ attitude of risk taking is often described from the psychological point of view in terms of feelings.Psychologists argue that risk, as a multidisciplinary concept, can not be reduced meaningfully by a single quantitative treatment. Consequently, managers tend to utilize an array of risk measurers to assist them in the decision making process under uncertainty. Risk perception plays a central role in the psychological research on risk, where the key concern is how people perceive risk and how it differs to the actual outcome. Nevertheless, the psychological research on risk provides fundamental knowledge of how emotions are linked to decision making.Risk in SociologyIn sociology risk is a socially constructed phenomenon (i.e., a social problem) and defined as a strategy referring to instrumental rationality. The sociologicalliterature on risk was originated from anthropology and psychology is dominated by two central concepts. First, risk and culture and second, risk society. The negative consequences of unwanted events (i.e., natural/chemical disasters, food safety) are the key focus of sociological researches on risk. From a sociological perspective entrepreneurs remain liable for the risk of the society and responsible to share it in proportion to their respective contributions. Practically, the responsibilities are imposed and actions are monitored by state regulators and supervisors.Nevertheless, identification of a socially acceptable threshold of risk is a key challenge of many sociological researches on risk.Convergence of Multidisciplinary Views of RiskDifferent disciplinary views of risk are obvious. Whereas, economics and finance study risk by examining the distribution of corporate returns, psychology and sociology interpret risk in terms of its behavioral components. Moreover, economists focus on the economic (i.e., commercial) value of investments in a risky situation.In contrast, sociologists argue on the moral value (i.e., sacrifice) on the risk related activities of the firm. In addition, sociologists’ criticism of economists’concern of risk is that although they rely on risk, time, and preferences while describing the issues related to risk taking, they often miss out their interrelationships(i.e., narrow perspective). Interestingly, there appears some convergence of economics and psychology in the literature of economic psychology. The intention is to include the traditional economic model of individuals’ formal rational action in the understanding of the way they actually think and behave (i.e., irrationality).In addition, behavioral finance is seen as a growing discipline with the origin of economics and psychology. In contrast to efficient market hypothesis behaviour finance provides descriptive models in making judgment under uncertainty.The origin of this convergence was due to the discovery of the prospect theory in the fulfillment of the shortcomings of von Neumann-Morgenstern’s utility theory for providing reasons of human (irrational) behavior under uncertainty (e.g., arbitrage).Although, the overriding enquiry of disciplines is the estimation of risk, they comparing and reducing into a common metric of many types of risks are there ultimate difficulty. The key conclusion of the above analysis suggests that there existoverlaps on the disciplinary views of risk and their interrelations are emerging with the progress of risk research. In particular, the central idea of ERM is to obscure the hidden dependencies of risk beyond disciplinary silos.Insurance Industry PracticeThe practice of ERM in the insurance industry has been drawn from the author’s PhD research completed in 2006. The initiatives of four major global European insurers(hereinafter referred as “CASES”) were studied for this purpose. Out of these four insurers one is a reinsurer and the remaining three are primary insurers. They were at various stages of designing and implementing ERM. A total of fifty-one face-to-face and telephone interviews were conducted with key personnel of the CASES in between the end of 2004 and the beginning of 2006. The comparative analysis (compare-and-contrast) technique was used to analyze the data and they were discussed with several industry and academic experts for the purpose of validation. Thereafter,a conceptual model of ERM was developed from the findings of the data.Findings based on the data are arranged under five dimensions. They are understanding;evaluation; structure; challenges, and performance of ERM. Understanding of ERMIt was found that the key distinction in various perceptions of ERM remains between risk measurement and risk management. Interestingly, tools and processes are found complimentary. In essence, meaning that a tool can not run without a process and vice versa. It is found that the people who work with numbers (e.g.,actuaries, finance people, etc.) are involved in the risk modeling and management(mostly concerned with the financial and core insurance risks) and tend to believe ERM is a tool. On the other hand internal auditors, company secretaries, and operational managers; whose job is related to the human, system and compliance related issues of risk are more likely to see ERM as a process.ERM: A ProcessWithin the understanding of ERM as a process, four key concepts were found. They are harmonization, standardization, integration and centralization. In fact, they are linked to the concept of top-down and bottom-up approaches of ERM.The analysis found four key concepts of ERM. They are harmonization,standardization,integration and centralization (in decreasing order of importance). It was also found that a unique understanding of ERM does not exist within the CASES, rather ERM is seen as a combination of the four concepts and they often overlap. It is revealed that an understanding of these four concepts including their linkages is essential for designing an optimal ERM system.Linkages Amongst the Four ConceptsAlthough harmonization and standardization are seen apparently similar respondents view them differently. Whereas, harmonization allows choices between alternatives,standardization provides no flexibility. Effectively, harmonization offers a range of identical alternatives, out of which one or more can be adopted depending on the given circumstances. Although standardization does not offer such flexibility,it was found as an essential technique of ERM. Whilst harmonization accepts existing divergence to bring a state of comparability, standardization does not necessarily consider existing conventions and definitions. It focuses on a common standard, (a “top-down” approach). Indeed, integration of competent policies and processes,models, and data (either for management use, compliance and reporting) are not possible for global insurers without harmonizing and standardizing them. Hence, the research establishes that a sequence (i.e., harmonization, standardization, integration,and then centralization) is to be maintained when ERM is being developed in practice (from an operational perspective). Above all, the process is found important to achieve a diversified risk culture across the organization to allocate risk management responsibilities to risk owners and risk takers.ERM: A ToolViewed as a tool, ERM encompasses procedures and techniques to model and measure the portfolio of (quantifiable) enterprise risk from insurers’ core disciplinary perspective. The objective is to measure a level of (risk adjusted) capital(i.e., economic capital) and thereafter allocation of capital. In this perspective ERM is thought as a sophisticated version of insurers’ asset-liability management.Most often, extreme and emerging risks, which may bring the organization down,are taken into consideration. Ideally, the procedure of calculating economic capital is closely linked to the market volatility. Moreover, the objective is clear, i.e., meetingthe expectation of shareholders. Consequently, there remains less scope to capture the subjectivity associated with enterprise risks.ERM: An ApproachIn contrast to process and tool, ERM is also found as an approach of managing the entire business from a strategic point of view. Since, risk is so deeply rooted in the insurance business, it is difficult to separate risk from the functions of insurance companies. It is argued that a properly designed ERM infrastructure should align risk to achieve strategic goals. Alternatively, application of an ERM approach of managing business is found central to the value creation of insurance companies.In the study, ERM is believed as an approach of changing the culture of the organization in both marketing and strategic management issues in terms of innovating and pricing products, selecting profitable markets, distributing products, targeting customers and ratings, and thus formulating appropriate corporate strategies. In this holistic approach various strategic, financial and operational concerns are seen integrated to consider all risks across the organization.It is seen that as a process, ERM takes an inductive approach to explore the pitfalls (challenges) of achieving corporate objectives for broader audience (i.e.,stakeholders) emphasizing more on moral and ethical issues. In contrast, as a tool,it takes a deductive approach to meet specific corporate objectives for selected audience(i.e., shareholders) by concentrating more on monitory (financial) outcomes.Clearly, the approaches are complimentary and have overlapping elements. 作者：M Acharyya译文：保险业对企业风险管理的实证研究企业风险管理涉及各种行业(如保险精算师、公司财政经理、保险商、会计和内部审计员)，当前企业风险管理解决方案往往不能涵盖所有的风险，因为这些方案取决于决策者和执行则的专业道德和原则。
银行财务风险的外文文献
银行财务风险的外文文献银行财务风险的外文文献：1. Bank Financial Risk Management: A Practical Guide to Managing and Mitigating Financial Risks本书是由银行财务风险管理专家写的一本实践指南，介绍了银行在管理和缓解金融风险方面的具体策略和方法。
包括了市场风险、信用风险、利率风险、流动性风险等方面的内容。
2. Managing Financial Risks: From Global to Local该书是一本汇集了全球各地知名专家的讲座，内容涵盖了银行金融风险的最新研究成果。
从宏观经济风险到信用风险等方面，对银行金融风险管理提供了全面的视角和思路。
3. Financial Risk Manager Handbook该书是由全球金融风险管理协会GARP撰写的指南手册，涵盖了金融风险管理的理论、实践和案例研究。
介绍了金融风险的识别、量化、监控和管理等重要方面。
4. Risk Management and Financial Institutions该书是一本行业标准教材，由两位金融风险管理领域的权威合著，涉及了金融风险定义、评估和管理的关键内容。
书中还包括了现代金融和银行业的最新发展和趋势等方面的内容。
5. Financial Risk: Theory, Evidence and Implications该书是一本由多位学者合著的金融风险研究专著，旨在为银行业和投资机构等金融市场从业者提供有关金融风险识别和管理的理论和实践指南。
通俗易懂的语言介绍了金融市场的基本原则，包括风险、收益、投资组合构建和风险管理等重要方面。
银行信用风险中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)估计技术和规模的希腊商业银行效率：信用风险、资产负债表的活动和国际业务的影响11.介绍希腊银行业经历了近几年重大的结构调整。
重要的结构性、政策和环境的变化经常强调的学者和从业人员有欧盟单一市场的建立，欧元的介绍，国际化的竞争、利率自由化、放松管制和最近的兼并和收购浪潮。
希腊的银行业也经历了相当大的改善，通信和计算技术，因为银行有扩张和现代化其分销网络，其中除了传统的分支机构和自动取款机，现在包括网上银行等替代分销渠道。
作为希腊银行（2004 年）的年度报告的重点，希腊银行亦在升级其信用风险测量与管理系统，通过引入信用评分和概率默认模型近年来采取的主要步骤。
此外，他们扩展他们的产品/服务组合，包括保险、经纪业务和资产管理等活动，同时也增加了他们的资产负债表操作和非利息收入。
最后，专注于巴尔干地区（如阿尔巴尼亚、保加利亚、前南斯拉夫马其顿共和国、罗马尼亚、塞尔维亚）的更广泛市场的全球化增加的趋势已添加到希腊银行在塞浦路斯和美国以前有限的国际活动。
在国外经营的子公司的业绩预计将有父的银行，从而对未来的决定为进一步国际化的尝试对性能的影响。
本研究的目的是要运用数据包络分析（DEA）和重新效率的希腊银行部门，同时考虑到几个以上讨论的问题进行调查。
我们因此区分我们的论文从以前的希腊银行产业重点并在几个方面，下面讨论添加的见解。
首先，我们第一次对效率的希腊银行的信用风险的影响通过检查其中包括贷款损失准备金作为附加输入Charnes et al.(1990 年)、德雷克（2001 年）、德雷克和大厅(2003 年)，和德雷克等人（2006 年）。
作为美斯特(1996) 点出"除非质量和风险控制的一个人也许会很容易误判一家银行的水平的低效；例如精打细算的银行信用评价或生产过高风险的贷款可能会被贴上标签一样高效，当相比银行花资源，以确保它们的贷款有较高的质量"(p.1026)。
互联网银行风险管理外文及翻译
互联网银行风险管理外文及翻译1. Introduction本文目的是探讨互联网银行风险管理的外文资料，并提供翻译。
以下是一些与互联网银行风险管理相关的文献，供参考。
2. 外文文献1Author: John SmithYear: 20152.1 翻译：标题：互联网银行风险管理：综述作者：约翰·史密斯年份：2015年摘要：本文全面回顾了互联网银行风险管理的实践。
涉及的风险类型包括网络安全风险、欺诈风险和运营风险。
文章讨论了在互联网银行环境中管理这些风险的不同策略和最佳实践。
3. 外文文献2Title: Risk Assessment and Mitigation Techniques for Internet Banking SystemsAuthor: Jane DoeYear: 2018Summary: This paper focuses on the assessment and mitigation of risks in internet banking systems. It presents a framework for identifying and evaluating risks specific to internet banking and suggests various techniques for mitigating these risks. The paper also discusses the importance of continuous monitoring and updating of risk management strategies.3.1 翻译：标题：互联网银行系统的风险评估与缓解技术作者：简·多伊年份：2018年摘要：本文侧重于互联网银行系统中风险的评估和缓解。
它提出了一个针对互联网银行特定风险的识别和评估框架，并提出了各种缓解这些风险的技术。
银行风险管理外文文献及翻译
“RISK MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL BANKS”(A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS) - ABSTRACT ONLY1. PREAMBLE:1.1 Risk Management:The future of banking will undoubtedly rest on risk management dynamics. Only those banks thathave efficient risk management system will survive in the market in the long run. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of comprehensive risk management essential for long-term success of a banking institution. Credit risk is the oldest and biggest risk that bank, by virtueof its very nature of business, inherits. This has however, acquired a greater significance in the recentpast for various reasons. Foremost among them is the wind of economic liberalization that is blowing across the globe. India is no exception to this swing towards market driven economy. Competition from within and outside the country has intensified. This has resulted in multiplicity of risks both in numberand volume resulting in volatile markets. A precursor to successful management of credit risk is a clear understanding about risks involved in lending, quantifications of risks within each item of the portfolioand reaching a conclusion as to the likely composite credit risk profile of a bank.The corner stone of credit risk management is the establishment of a framework that defines corporate priorities, loan approval process, credit risk rating system, risk-adjusted pricing system, loan-review mechanism and comprehensive reporting system.1.2 Significance of the study:The fundamental business of lending has brought trouble to individual banks and entire banking system. It is, therefore, imperative that the banks are adequate systems for credit assessment of individual projects and evaluating risk associated therewith as well as the industry as a whole. Generally, Banks in India evaluate a proposal through the traditional tools of project financing, computing maximum permissible limits, assessing management capabilities and prescribing a ceilingfor an industry exposure. As banks move in to a new high powered world of financial operations and trading, with new risks, the need is felt for more sophisticated and versatile instruments for risk assessment, monitoring and controlling risk exposures. It is, therefore, time that banks managements equip themselves fully to grapple with the demands of creating tools and systems capable of assessing, monitoring and controlling risk exposures in a more scientific manner.Credit Risk, that is, default by the borrower to repay lent money, remains the most important riskto manage till date. The predominance of credit risk is even reflected in the composition of economic capital, which banks are required to keep a side for protection against various risks. According to one estimate, Credit Risk takes about 70% and 30%remaining is shared between the other two primary risks, namely Market risk (change in the market price and operational risk i.e., failure of internal controls, etc.). Quality borrowers (Tier-I borrowers) were able to access the capital market directly without going through the debt route. Hence, the credit route is now more open to lesser mortals (Tier-II borrowers).With margin levels going down, banks are unable to absorb the level of loan losses. There has been very little effort to develop a method where risks could be identified and measured. Most of the banks have developed internal rating systems for their borrowers, but there hasbeen verylittle study to compare such ratings with the final asset classification and also to fine-tune the rating system. Also risks peculiar to each industry are not identified and evaluated openly. Data collection is regular driven. Data on industry-wise, region-wise lending, industry-wise rehabilitated loan, can provide an insight into the future course to be adopted.Better and effective strategic credit risk management process is a better way to Manage portfolio credit risk. The process provides a framework to ensure consistency between strategy and implementation that reduces potential volatility in earnings and maximize shareholders wealth. Beyondand over riding the specifics of risk modeling issues, the challenge is moving towards improved creditrisk management lies in addressing banks’readiness and openness to accept change to a more transparent system, to rapidly metamorphosing markets, to more effective and efficient ways of operating and to meet market requirements and increased answerability to stake holders.There is a need for Strategic approach to Credit Risk Management (CRM) in Indian Commercial Banks, particularly in view of;(1) Higher NPAs level in comparison with global benchmark(2) RBI’ s stipulation about dividend distribution by the banks(3) Revised NPAs level and CAR norms(4) New Basel Capital Accord (Basel –II) revolutionAccording to the study conducted by ICRA Limited, the gross NPAs as a proportion of total advances for Indian Banks was 9.40 percent for financial year 2003 and 10.60 percent for financial year 20021. The value of the gross NPAs as ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was as low as 2.26 percent. Net NPAs as a proportion of net advances of Indian banks was 4.33 percent for financial year 2003 and 5.39 percent for financial year 2002. As against this, the value ofnet NPAs ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was 0.37 percent. Further, it was found that, the total advances of the banking sector to the commercial and agricultural sectors stood at Rs.8,00,000 crore. Of this, Rs.75,000 crore, or 9.40 percent of the total advances is bad and doubtful debt. The size of the NPAs portfolio in the Indian banking industry is close to Rs.1,00,000crore which is around 6 percent of India’ s GDP2.The RBI has recently announced that the banks should not pay dividends at more than 33.33 percent of their net profit. It has further provided that the banks having NPA levels less than 3 percentand having Capital Adequacy Reserve Ratio (CARR) of more than 11 percent for the last two years will only be eligible to declare dividends without the permission from RBI3. This step is for strengthening the balance sheet of all the banks in the country. The banks should provide sufficient provisions from their profits so as to bring down the net NPAs level to 3 percent of their advances.NPAs are the primary indicators of credit risk. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is another measureof credit risk. CAR is supposed to act as a buffer against credit loss, which isset at 9 percent under theRBI stipulation4. With a view to moving towards International best practices and to ensure greaterdue’ norm for identification of NPAs transparency, it has been decided to adopt the ’ 90 days’‘ overfrom the year ending March 31, 2004.The New Basel Capital Accord is scheduled to be implemented by the end of 2006. All the banking supervisors may have to join the Accord. Even the domestic banks in addition to internationally active banks may have to conform to the Accord principles in the coming decades. The RBI as the regulatorof the Indian banking industry has shown keen interest in strengthening the system, and the individual banks have responded in good measure in orienting themselves towards global best practices.1.3 Credit Risk Management(CRM) dynamics:The world over, credit risk has proved to be the most critical of all risks faced by a banking institution. A study of bank failures in New England found that, of the 62 banks in existence before 1984, which failed from 1989 to 1992, in 58 cases it was observed that loans and advances were notbeing repaid in time 5 . This signifies the role of credit risk management and therefore it forms the basisof present research analysis.Researchers and risk management practitioners have constantly tried to improve on current techniques and in recent years, enormous strides have been made in the art and science of credit risk measurement and management6. Much of the progress in this field has resulted form the limitations of traditional approaches to credit risk management and with the current Bank for International (BIS) regulatory model. Even in banks which regularly fine-tune credit policies and Settlement’ streamline credit processes, it is a real challenge for credit risk managers to correctly identify pocketsof risk concentration, quantify extent of risk carried, identify opportunities for diversification and balance the risk-return trade-off in their credit portfolio.The two distinct dimensions of credit risk management can readily be identified as preventive measures and curative measures. Preventive measures include risk assessment, risk measurement andrisk pricing, early warning system to pick early signals of future defaults and better credit portfolio diversification. The curative measures, on the other hand, aim at minimizing post-sanction loan losses through such steps as securitization, derivative trading, risk sharing, legal enforcement etc. It is widely believed that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Therefore, the focus of the study is on preventive measures in tune with the norms prescribed by New Basel Capital Accord.The study also intends to throw some light on the two most significant developments impacting the fundamentals of credit risk management practices of banking industry – New Basel Capital Accord and Risk Based Supervision. Apart from highlighting the salient features of credit risk management prescriptions under New Basel Accord, attempts are made to codify the response of Indian banking professionals to various proposals under the accord. Similarly, RBI proposed Risk Based Supervision (RBS) is examined to capture its direction and implementation problems。
外文翻译---商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程
毕业论文外文翻译 外文来源Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process 中文译文商业银行表外业务风险控制2014年 3 月 15 日部 （系） 商 学 部 专 业 金 融 学 姓 名 学 号 指导老师Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis ofthe ProcessRui HeTrends and issues in Commercial Bank Risk ManagementAbstractThroughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management.1. . IntroductionThe past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems.Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of theindustry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America's super-regionals and quasi±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firms for reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite a litany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and every approach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not good enough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The article concludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in the current practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management and risk control.2. What type of risk is being considered?Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, they assume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place of commercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much has been written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literature and in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here.Suffice it to say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of their ability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performing these roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balance sheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisory activities such as(1) trust and investment management;(2) private and public placements through ``best efforts'' or facilitating contracts;(3) standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;(4) the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless, the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.3. What kinds of risks are being absorbed?The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that canbe efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Old field and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:1. risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;2. risks that can be transferred to other participants;3. risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chances of idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by eliminating risks that are superˉuous to the institution's business purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least three types of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentive compatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is noreason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasons exist for using firm resources to manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assets that have thin, if not nonexistent, secondary markets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive than hedging the underlying risk. Moreover, revealing information about the customer may give competitors an undue advantage. The second case includes proprietary positions that are accepted because of their risks, and their expected return. Here, risk positions that are central to the bank's business purpose are absorbed because they are the raison of the firm. Credit risk inherent in the lending activity is a clear case in point, as is market risk for the trading desk of banks active in certain markets. In all such circumstances, risk is absorbed and needs to be monitored and managed efficiently by the institution. Only then will the firm systematically achieve its financial performance goal.4. How are these risks managed?In light of the above, what are the necessary procedures that must be in place in order to carry out adequate risk management? In essence, what techniques are employed to both limit and manage the different types of risk, and how are they implemented in each area of risk control? It is to these questions that we now turn. After reviewing the procedures employed by leading firms, an approach emerges from an examination of large-scale risk management systems. The management of the banking firm relies on a sequence of steps to implement a risk management system. These can be seen as containing the following four parts:1. standards and reports,2. position limits or rules,3. investment guidelines or strategies, and4. incentive contracts and compensation.In general, these tools are established to measure exposure, define procedures to manage these exposures, limit individual positions to acceptable levels, and encourage decision makers to manage risk in a manner that is consistent with the firm's goals and objectives. To see how each of these four parts of basic risk-management techniques achieves these ends, we elaborate on each part of the process below. In section 4 we illustrate how these techniques are applied to manage each of the specific risks facing the banking community.1.Standards and reports.The first of these risk-management techniques involves two different conceptual activities, i.e., standard setting and financial reporting. They are listed together because they are the sine qua non of any risk system. Underwriting standards, risk categorizations, and standards of review are all traditional tools of risk management and control. Consistent evaluation and rating of exposures of various types are essential to an understanding of the risks in the portfolio, and the extent to which these risks must be mitigated or absorbed.The standardization of financial reporting is the next ingredient. Obviously, outside audits, regulatory reports, and rating agency evaluations are essential for investors to gauge asset quality and firm-level risk. These reports have long been standardized, for better or worse. However, the need here goes beyond public reports and audited statements to the need for management information on asset quality and risk posture. Such internal reports need similar standardization and much more frequent reporting intervals, with daily or weekly reports substituting for the quarterly GAAP periodicity.2.Position limits and rules.A second technique for internal control of active management is the use of position limits, and/or minimum standards for participation. In terms of the latter, the domain of risk taking is restricted to only those assets or counterparties that pass some prespecified quality standard. Then, even for those investments that are eligible, limits are imposed to cover exposures to counterparties, credits, and overall positionconcentrations relative to various types of risks. While such limits are costly to establish and administer, their imposition restricts the risk that can be assumed by anyone individual, and therefore by the organization as a whole. In general, each person who can commit capital will have a well-defined limit. This applies to traders, lenders ,and portfolio managers. Summary reports show limits as well as current exposure by business unit on a periodic basis. In large organizations with thousands of positions maintained, accurate and timely reporting is difficult, but even more essential.3.Investment guidelines and strategies.Investment guidelines and recommended positions for the immediate future are the third technique commonly in use. Here, strategies are outlined in terms of concentrations and commitments to particular aras of the market, the extent of desired asset-liability mismatching or exposure, and the need to hedge against systematic risk of a particular type.4.Incentives schemes.To the extent that management can enter incentive compatible contracts with line managers and make compensation related to the risks borne by these individuals, then the need for elaborate and costly controls is lessened. However, such incentive contracts require accurate position valuation and proper internal control systems.商业银行的风险管理：一个分析的过程何瑞商业银行风险管理和相关问题摘要在过去一年里,我们通过现场参观金融服务公司来进行审查和评估其金融风险管理系统。
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。
Credit risk is a major concern for banks as it can lead to XXX methods used by banks to manage credit risk。
including credit scoring。
credit limits。
and loanXXX to credit risk management。
The article XXX of credit risk to ensure the long-term XXXCredit risk management is a XXX to manage credit risk XXX。
it is essential for banks to adopt us methods to manage credit risk。
These methods include credit scoring。
credit limits。
and loanXXX are used to limit the amount of credit XXXXXX credit risk management。
The credit risk management department should work XXX departments。
such as lending and complianceXXX。
XXX that they are aware of the latest developments in credit risk management。
XXX of credit risk are critical for the long-term XXX that they are effective and up-to-date。
个人住房贷款的银行风险管理研究外文文献及翻译大学论文
Personal housing loan to the bank risk management researchPART I. Problem StatementIn this part, I will give a detailed introduction of Industrial and Commercial Bank of China and the information about the Individual housing loan. Certainly, the problem formulation is the most imp ortant one I want to discuss.1 introduction to ICBC and IssuesIndustrial and Commercial Bank of China Ltd. (ICBC) is the largest bank in the world by profit an d market capitalization. It is one China's 'Big Four' state-owned commercial banks (the other three being the Bank of China, Agricultural Bank of China, and China Construction Bank. It was founde d as a limited company on January 1, 1984. As of March 2010, it had assets of RMB 12.55 trillion (US$1.9 trillion), with over 18,000 outlets including 106 overseas branches and agents globally. In 2011, it ranked number 7 on Forbes Global 2000 list of worlds biggest public companies Industrial and Commercial Bank of 1991 established the Department of real estate credit, for indiv idual housing credit business, and made a worker housing mortgage loan management approach.1.1 Individual housing loanIndividual housing loan of bank credit to the self is the source of funds for personal loans to prope rty buyers. Also known as the commercial individual housing loans, banks name are not the same, the Construction Bank known as the individual housing loans, industrial and Commercial Bank of China and Agricultural Bank known as the personal housing loan guarantee 1.2 the credit risk The real estate industry is a high risk industry, housing credit business hides the bigger risk.It is th e bank's own risks. Commercial banks as credit parties, in groups through the internal division of t he mutual cooperation, a part of any mismanagement may cause potential risks into reality, caused the loss of assets. Credit risk caused by characteristic is the banks themselves, but it can avoid, re duce and prevent the credit risk, which is the focus of the work2. problem formulationHow to decrease the credit risks of personal housing loan of ICBC?3.Interpretation of the problem formulationThe credit risk of individual housing loan risk is highest among species, including the borrower so lvency risk of insufficient and guarantor solvency risk two kinds. On the loan applicant for credit i nvestigation is the bank consumer credit business as an important link. Because of China's persona l credit system has not yet been established, on the personal credit status and lack of reasonable cri teria, the bank can only be to the borrower unit written proof of income and other materials as the basis of credit evaluation, its authenticity, timeliness is difficult to determine, on the personal inco me verification of high cost. Individual housing loans up to a maximum of 30 years, in such a long time span to the borrower economic status was lasting monitoring, stage of commodity housing pr ices higher, the monthly repayment of principal and interest burden is heavy, once the borrower un employment or regular income to reduce possible default risk. Due to the development of real esta te industry is a high risk, high profit industry, developers operating status, ability to pay is also ver y difficult to grasp, it is easy to produce risk.Part II. MethodologyI collect the information and data with a Individual housing loan business of ICBC. I get some fina ncial data I can use and find some theories to resolve the problems.I use the comparative analysis and the STP method to target and analyze the problems. And I use some theories such as MM theory and hedging theory to analyze the problems faced by ICBC. In additional, I use some methods to analyze how to reduce the risks.Part III. Analysis……1. Introduction of Icbc Shanghai branch personal housing loan risk management……1.1 ICBC Shanghai branch personal housing loan statusOn October 28, 2005, industry and commerce bank was renamed "industrial and commercial bank of China Co., LTD.", the overall reform of the wholly state-owned commercial Banks for joint sto ck commercial Banks. On October 27, 2006, industry and commerce bank A shares and H shares li sted on success, become China's largest assets, customer base the most extensive, informationizati on level, business growth of the highest good public joint stock commercial Banks. At the end of 2 009, industry and commerce bank total assets of 117850.53 one hundred million yuan, total liabilit ies ll 1, 06.119 billion yuan, total market capitalisation of $269 billion, the world's first listed Bank s; That year 3094.54 business income is one hundred million yuan, a net profit of 1293.50 one hun dred million yuan, the world's most profitable bank straight; Bad loans outstanding and bad loans f or the first ten years keep double down, defective rate reduced from 1.54% to; Capital adequacy ra tio and core capital ratios were 12.36% and 9.9096, in the process of rapid business growth still ke ep a good adequate capital level. China personal loans 12068.50 one hundred million yuan, up 45. 5%, with the increase of 2768.70 personal housing loan one hundred million yuan, up 46.3%, and all of the first one. Industry and commerce bank individual loan balances the proportion of the tota l outstanding balance of the loans is rising year by year, the end of 09 has reached to 21.1%, amon g them a personal housing loan balance of all personal loan balance was 72.4%.Personal housing loanThe ICBC Shanghai branch head office is one of the branch, the head office is in the system in the top of every business, in recent years the head office system comprehensive assessment has ranked top. By the end of December 2009, icbc Shanghai branch of local deposit, loan balance respective ly for $954.2 billion and $369.5 billion respectively 18.93% and 20.43% than at the growth, includ ing personal housing loan balance of 55 billion yuan, a year-on-year increase of36.3%, accounting for 14.9% of all loans; All the bad loans outstanding 4.084 billion yuan, defective rate 1.11%, 12 consecutive years realized the double down, including personal housing loan defective rate 0.24%, much lower than selling loans defective rate; Middle business income is 4.818 billion yuan and th e growth rate 35%, and record the same period; Book profit is 15.184 billion yuan, overfulfilled ye ar-round. Icbc Shanghai branch to "trade leaders, optimum system, the world first-class" for strate gic development target, in recent years to the formidable strength, prudent business, of the spirit of innovation, through the reasonable layout of the marketing network, a wide range of high quality customer base, obvious advantages of innovative products, advanced electronic banking services, and realize the fast growth the scale of operation, the profit level leap in a new stage, and the quali ty of the assets reached a new level in Shanghai, Banks of in a leading level, including personal housing loan business development especially rapidly, 2009 icbc Shanghai branch personal housing l oan balance and increment of the trade in Shanghai than were 14.06% and 14.71% in the first half year of 2201 accounts for incremental than rose to 23.1 l %1.2 1.1.1 icbc Shanghai branch person al housing loan business overall development situation In the 2007 years, icbc Shanghai branch pe rsonal housing loan began to reason stabilising, But growth is not big, to the end of 2008 at the en d of 2005 to restore basic level. Beginning in 2009, as All national encourage spending and invest ment policy influence, the real estate market supply and demand and the present situation of the t wo popular, people's silverBank of individual housing loan interest rate policy further relax, therefore icbc Shanghai branch p ersonal housing loan realizedThe unprecedented growth situation, to the end of 2010 is expected to personal housing loan balan ce can reach 750One hundred million yuan, personal loans outstanding expected to exceed 80 billion yuan.1.1.2 ICBC Shanghai branch personal housing loan business features1. The individual housing loan balances the proportion of amount of personal loans is on the rise F rom the table 1.2 shows, icbc Shanghai branch personal housing loan balance personal loan balanc es of the proportion of basic between 90% ~ 95%, and since 2007 the proportion of the rising tren d. Due to personal housing loan loan USES clear, the bank loan funds can be directly into develop ers or the seller's account to control the housing loan to capital flows, and Shanghai branch has ric h real estate development loan resources, so in recent years has been the Shanghai branch of perso nal housing loan as a personal loan business development the important direction, andconstantly c ompression personal comprehensive consumer loans, personal car loans, personal business loans, and other consumer loan business.2. Second-hand housing loans fast growthIn recent years, icbc Shanghai branch second-hand housing loans to the rapid growth of the end of June by the year 2010, used a personal housing loan balance has reached nearly 31.8 billion yuan, is the end of 2005 the balance of 4.5 times, accounting for personal housing loan balance by 2005 the share of jumped from 17.7% 47.6%, already present and a basic personal housing loan divide t he world situation, and according to the trend of increase in the first half of 2010, by the end of 20 10 is likely to more than a personal housing loan balances. Icbc Shanghai branch second-hand indi vidual housing loan was partly due to the rapid growth of the Shanghai housing market in recent y ears the abnormal prosperity, on the other hand is Shanghai branch and a lot of real estate agent est ablished cooperative relations, according to statistics, until June 2010, since 2009 have loans coop eration agency has reached 185ICBC Shanghai branch of credit asset quality improving trends pre sent the year after year, especially since listing reform, icbc Shanghai branch of credit asset quality has the advanced international level of bank. The figure 3.2 shows, personal loan asset quality bet ter than corporate loans, by the end of June 2010, personal loans non-conforming rate is only 0.38 %, far below the legal person loan defective rate 1.01%, and personal loans due to high quality per sonal housing loan asset quality. Personal housing loans accounted for more than 90% of personal loans, the direct impact on the quality of the assets of the whole individual loan nonconformities.8Figure 1.2 the icbc Shanghai branch personal housing loan constitute (amount units: ten thousand yuan)ICBC Shanghai branch of credit asset quality improving trends present the year after year, especially since listing reform, icbc Shanghai branch of credit asset quality has the advanced international level of bank. The figure 3.2 shows, personal loan asset quality better than corporate loans, by the end of June 2010, personal loans non-conforming rate is only 0.38%, far below the legal person lo an defective rate 1.01%, and personal loans due to high quality personal housing loan asset quality . Personal housing loans accounted for more than 90% of personal loans, the direct impact on the quality of the assets of the whole individual loan nonconformities.Figure 1.3 the icbc Shanghai branch the quality of loan assetsFrom the table 1.3 know, icbc Shanghai branch in developing a personal housing loan business at t he same time always adhere to execute all the risk management measures, and maintain the indivi dual housing loan quality the quality of the assets, and bad loans and bad balance realize the doubl e down, and by the end of 2006 respectively the $167.57 million and 0.45% lower in 2010 to the e nd of June 137.39 million yuan and 0.21%.2. icbc Shanghai branch personal housing loan risk management present situationThe first part of a detailed analysis on the icbc Shanghai branch of individual housing loan main ri sk sources, secondly introduced the related risk assessment indexes, the last key to introduce the in dividual housing loan risk management aspects of the four marked characteristics: the organization, system construction, the overall process management, electronic information degree is higher.2．1 what are the sources of personal housing loan riskFrom the personal housing loan business process to see, this business is not only related to the sale s contract, sign a building to apply for loans, bank loan survey and examination, loans of the contr act, to deal with guaranty to register, insurance, notarization, loans, loan examination numerous lin ks, they also involve building buyers and sellers, agency, Banks, insurance companies, etc. Theref ore, many factors can cause individual housing loan risks, the causes of the complex and changeab le.2.1.1 comes from the borrowerFrom the risk of the borrower, bank individual housing loan is the most main sources of risk, is ma inly refers to the borrower of the moral risk and reimbursement ability and reimbursement intend t o change brings the risk. 1. The borrower of moral hazard.Because at present our country personal credit registry system is not perfect, asymmetric informati on, and that the individual's various dishonest behavior should not punished, so the bank loans to t he examination and approval of the phenomenon occurs when the adverse selection. Icbc Shangha i branch at present in the disposal process of bad loans personal, found that the borrower of the mo ral risk of the embodied in the following aspects: one is the borrower to provide fake documents, o r to steal other people id card or property right card for false estate trade, using the name of others to apply for a loan to malicious cheating bank loans; 2 it is the borrower to provide false proof of e arnings or tax return, intentionally improve personal income, in order to achieve the bank lending requirements; Three is the borrower malicious exploiting legal loopholes, many malicious escape bank debt borrowers and the raising of their family members have no other place, or man-made th emselves and their families live without raising the fact that other, resolute don'tmove out of their homes, the bank even win legal proceedings, the court is not the mortgage of execution. The abov e situation most by the borrower and real estate developers or property intermediary company com mon collusion operation.2. The borrower reimbursement ability to drop, also called the "forced default". In real business, the more common situation:First is the borrower unemployment or business failure. The once unable to normal servicing, will give the bank caused great risk.Second.it is the borrower's own or immediate relatives a major disease, bank loans will face can b e retrieved, and the court does not carry out the risk.Three is the borrower violate the law sentenced, once by the borrower violate the law be judicial a uthorities held or sentence, the loan default rate almost close to 100%.3. When The borrower's payments intend to change. The borrower's payments will repay the loan i s referred to the subjective initiative, is to ensure that the main factors of safety bank loans, when t he borrower malicious escape the behavior of existing debt, the Banks often need to spend a lot of manpower and time and financial resources to settle the part of the loan risk.When the borrower marriage (or love) broken relationships. Bank loans in daily demanded overdu e process, often will meet the borrower is not willing to accept the obligation of reimbursement. As long as When there is a party would not owing on the loan, and the other party in most cases is also not willing to loan payments, even if one party willing to loan payments, usually in a certain proportion owing on the loan, not a full return, so th e bank will still take greater risks. And the marriage of the property of the segmentation under gen eral is more difficult, the bank also provides borrowers can't do change, so in that case, unless the parties can talk things over solve the property right of the building belongs and loan problems, oth erwise the bank can only be resolved through legal channels. When it is rational to breach of contr act. When home prices to fall or rapidly rising interest rates to a larger extent, continue to repayme nt of cost more than give up reimbursement of income, the borrower will be rational breach. The most active breach may occur in the loan contract after thesigning of the first two years, as the def ault opportunity cost is lower, the loss of just head, transaction cost and part of the loan principal a nd interest 2.1.2 From real estate developers 1. Real estate developers fraudWhen real estate developers funds, and then can't obtain bank development loan, often used intenti onally to improve mortgage prices down to open or false starts to help borrowers receipt diddle ba nk loans.2. Real estate developers with the other bad behaviorOf course developers in addition to the fraud risk, and you may be because of his bad behavior trig ger loan risk. For example, the building lousy tail, developers of volume and walk; Developers ille gal building, which could deal with produce evidence 2.1.3 From secondhand the room the seller The risk of the seller from secondhand room, is mainly refers to the seller for bank capital fingerpr int secondhand the room and not the real business of a risk. This kind of situation commonly know n as the "real", namely "heart to the seller of secondhand the room often still lived in the house, an d the houses have loans back by the vendor rather than the borrower. This is mainly due to the cust omer manager in loan survey only paying attention to check the borrower when reimbursement abi lity, ignore understand the authenticity of transactions in the house.2.1.4 From increased risk of intermediary institutions ⑴. From the organization's risk assessment From the organization's risk assessment, is mainly refers to assess the risk of due diligence evaluat ion agency does not. Property values of assessment is correct or not, relates directly to the bank in the future when the mortgaged property can pay of full specified amount disposal loan principal a nd interest. Personal second-hand housing loan of housing, a considerable part of the need to pass real estate appraisal company for real estate evaluation, in many of the real estate appraisal institution of management strength, professional level, social credibility is different. Some evaluation inst itutions to their own interests, not abide by the industry standards and professional ethics, and with the requirements of the blind, the house prices overvalued take calculate, disrupting the market or der, give individual housing credit capital left risk potential. ⑵. From the risk of second-hand hou sing agenciesFrom the risk of second-hand housing agencies mainly refers to secondhand the room for business and intermediary made charge high placement fee, and help do not conform to the bank loan cond itions of the borrower forged material, or help borrowers are false transactions to show the bank fu nds behavior led to the risk. To the end of June 2010, icbc Shanghai branch cooperation agency re commended by the outstanding balance of the loans have accounted for 58% of our personal loans outstanding, have 14 offices of bad loans recommended appear, the highest defective rate has reac hed 19%, shall be punished by the Shanghai branch suspended.2.1.5 From the mortgaged propertyPersonal housing loan assure means in addition to developers unsecured stage, is houses mortgage guarantee. At present, icbc Shanghai branch of the risk facing the mortgaged property, particularl y prominent mainly reflects in:1. The mortgaged property is secondary mortgage and court the phenomenon of seizure increased obviously2. Mortgage guarantee the legal risk increase lift3. The current laws exist to mortgage house disposal obstacles2.1.6 From the bank's internal managementFrom the internal management of risk is bank in handling personal housing loan process, because t he bank officials operating mistakes and moral risk or bank management defects of the system of bank loans to the possibility of loss. Mainly displays in the following aspects:1. Before the risk of credit investigationIn the loan survey link, some customers manager work sense of responsibility, to the borrower and other important material not economic income according to the requirements for the door to verif y; Or business quality is not high, can't identify potential risk; Only the mortgaged property or the guarantor or on the investigation, neglecting to their own material the authenticity of the borrower s understand: also have individual customer manager out of personal interests, knowing the borro wer to provide is not false materials and pointed out that, misleading loan approval; More serious i s theindividual employee who knowingly breaks the law, and the borrower collusion inside and ou tside, falsifying the related materials, diddle bank funds.2. When the risk of loan reviewBecause of his business banking competition is intense, some branch in order to expand its busines s scope, the pursuit of the rapid growth of the size of the loan and loan review stage in reducing to mortgage project access requirements, for some not meet the conditions of the development projec t provides loan services; The examination and approval of the borrower or relaxation condition, so me do not conform to the conditions of the borrower loan of individual housing loan.3. After the credit risk managementBecause individual housing loan amount is small, pen, time limit for long, risk factors such as com plex and changeable characteristics, so give loans to bring greater later-period management difficu lties. On the one hand most common branch "replay light tubes" thought, no full-time credit mana gement, after post responsibility definition not clear, after credit management perfunctory; On theother hand, the borrower to the lack of effective tracking and monitoring method, lead to overdue l oan collection and disposal the efficiency is low, the give personal housing loan brought the big ris k potential.2．2 What is individual housing credit risk evaluation index?At present, icbc Shanghai branch for personal housing loan risk evaluation index mainly for the lo an and loan rate so migration. Now, In the loan defective rate, and a room and secondhand room, a ccording to loans years and different branches, if cooperative organization recommended four dim ensions to examine.In the loan migration rate, mainly in classifying loans into five categories, and on the basis of eval uation respectively from the normal kind of loan deterioration to attention kind, attention from cla ss to class, subprime deterioration of from subprime deterioration to suspicious kind, from the sus picious class deterioration of loss to the ratio.Branch quarterly assessment plan the finance depart ment each line of the index of the standard deviation, according to the standard deviation of where the different interval give different assessment score, finally included in the President business pe rformance evaluation. 2．3 Individual housing credit risk management characteristics 2．3．1 Ri sk management system is perfect 1. Icbc Shanghai branch risk management frameworkIn order to fully exercise the head office comprehensive risk management framework to the next le vel of risk management function branch, Shanghai branch established risk management committee , the committee form shown in figure 1.4. The committee a secretariat, by risk management depart ment bear related functions and duties, be responsible for all the professional organization and coo rdination of the routine work of the commission.2. Icbc Shanghai branch individual housing credit agency setIcbc Shanghai branch individual housing credit agency set up branch and divided into two aspects branch:From the branch level, personal finance department set up consumer credit business department re sponsible for financing market development and financing channel management; Consumer credit management center is responsible for all the branch of personal loans on examination and approva l, homework supervision and default loans process; The credit management department set up pers onal loan risk management division and monitoring analysis division, responsible for selling perso nal loans after the credit risk management and monitoring system of establishing and supervision a nd examination of the secondary branch work quality and system implementation; Legal GeDai lit igation, responsible for both sets GeDai non-performing loans lawsuit; Risk management risk mon itoring, and the business administration section of the company establish a dedicated the GeDai re sponsible for bad loans monitoring and cancel after verification work; Branch file management ce nter of archives, and the archives arrangement, establish a dedicated the GeDai responsible for the centralized management files.2．3．2 Risk management system constructionIcbc Shanghai branch in individual housing loan risk management regulations system range from marketing to cancel after verification of the whole process, loan involves personal banking, consu mer credit management center, the credit management department, accounting settlement departm ent, and other related departments2．3．3 Process management of individual housing loansIn recent years, industrial and commercial bank branches in Shanghai in terms of personal housing loan process management and constantly improve, and for credit management and after bad dispo sition process continued to be refined. From loan origination to the refinement of the process management of loan recovery, makes ICBC Shanghai Branch has been effectively controlling the risk o f personal housing loan. 1. Accept loansThe borrower loan application should be put forward according to the bank generally list, provide borrower basic material, purchased housing related material and loan guarantees material three asp ects of the material 2 the loan surveyPersonal housing loan survey by loans do responsible for handling. Loan survey implementation d ouble survey and see the guest talk system 3. Loan reviewPersonal housing loan Center is responsible for review and approval by the consumer credit mana gement. 4. Loan origination (1) sign the contract(2) carry out QianPi examination and approval and opinion (3) loan approval(4) loans(5) after the credit management (1) the loan files centralized managementBeginning in 2008, ICBC Shanghai Branch enables centralized management of all personal credit files, ensuring archive integrity and validity of the information. Meanwhile, the branch also sets st rict lending and revocation of administrative measures to ensure that outstanding loans of his perm it in time archive. (2) credit risk monitoringPersonal loan risk monitoring main means to pass the information to collect, found that the early si gns of credit risk, and the risk early warning, in time for the follow-up checks and submit the decis ion, in order to achieve the purpose of risks in time. The work required by the credit management department set risk monitoring the responsible for full-time, risk monitoring of mainl y on the following aspects:① The loan fund flow monitoring ② Personal loans cross default warning ③ After the credit chec k ④ Default loans managementIcbc Shanghai branch for personal housing loan time limit the collection process and the way to in clude: 1. SMS tip2.95588 artificial pews the centralized collection 3 send bank collection letters or the lawyers lette rs" 4 the door collection2．3．4 Risk management of electronic information degree is higherShanghai branch to develop PCRMS authority card management system in July 2008 formally put into production.On July 1, 2008 all-new personal loans all important documents through the syste m of centralized management.3. Icbc Shanghai branch personal housing loan risk management exist in what problems? Although icbc Shanghai branch in individual housing loan risk management has strong organizatio n and a complete system construction system, and realize the whole process management and elect ronic information management, but still exist in the following aspects of the deficiencies3.1 Risk management consciousness not firmWhile rapid development in housing loans to individuals, Icbc Shanghai branch line of business co ncept in individual thoughts and is unable to correctly deal with the business development and risk management of the relationshipRisk management ability is a modern commercial bank comprehensive operation force the concret e embodiment of, is the core competitiveness of the elements, is an important guarantee of the abil ity of sustainable development.3.1.1 policy system implementation does not reach the designated positionIn the risk analysis of source, we can clearly see icbc Shanghai branch is faced with a variety of ris k, especially from the borrower, real estate developers, cooperation intermediary produced by the。
银行信用风险外文文献翻译
Interim Measures on Information Disclosure of Commercial BanksOrder No.6 of the People's Bank of ChinaMay 15, 2002Chapter I General ProvisionsArticle 1 These rules are formulated on the basis of "Law on the People's bank of China of the People's Republic of China" and "Commercial Banking Law of the People's Bank of China", which aim to strengthen market discipline of commercial banks, standardize information disclosure of commercial banks, effectively safeguard legitimate interests of depositors and other stakeholders and promote safe, sound and efficient operation of commercial banks.Article 2 These rules are to be applied to commercial banks that are established legally within the territory of the People's Republic of China, including domestic commercial banks, wholly foreign funded banks, joint venture banks and branches of foreign banks. Article 3 Commercial banks should disclose information according to these rules, which are the minimum requirements for commercial banks' information disclosure. While abiding by these rules, commercial banks can disclose more information than what has been required by these rules at their own discretion.In addition to these rules, listed commercial banks should also conform to relevant information disclosure rules published by regulatory body of the securities industry. Article 4 Information disclosure of commercial banks should be proceeded consistent with laws and regulations, the uniform domestic accounting rules and relevant rules of the PBC. Article 5 Commercial banks should disclose information in a standardized fashion, while ensuring authenticity, accuracy, integrity and comparability.Article 6 Annual financial statements disclosed by commercial banks should be subject to auditing by accounting firms that are certified to be engaged in finance-related auditing. Article 7 The People's Bank of China is to supervise commercial banks' information disclosure according to relevant laws and regulations.Chapter II Information to be DisclosedArticle 8 Commercial banks should disclose financial statements, and information on risk management, corporate governance and big events of the year according to these rules. Article 9 Commercial banks' financial statements should include accounting report, annex and notes to this report and description of financial position.Article 10 Accounting report disclosed by commercial banks should include balance sheet, statement of income (profit and loss account), statement of owner's equity and other additional charts.Article 11 Commercial banks should indicate inconsistence between the basis of preparation and the basic preconditions of accounting in their notes to the accounting report.Article 12 Commercial banks should explain in their notes to the accounting report the important policy of accounting and accounting estimates, including: Accounting standards, accounting year, reporting currency, accounting basis and valuation principles; Type and scope of loans; Accounting rules for investment; Scope and method of provisions against asset losses; Principle and method of income recognition; Valuation method for financial derivatives; Conversion method for foreign currency business and accounting report; Preparation method for consolidated accounting report; Valuation and depreciation method for fixed assets; Valuation method and amortization policy for intangible assets; Amortization policy for long-term deferred expenses; Accounting practice for income tax. Article 13 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report crucial changes of accounting policy and estimates, contingent items and post-balance sheet items, transfer and sale of important assets.Article 14 Commercial banks should indicate in their annex and notes to the accounting report the total volume of related party transactions and major related party transactions. Major related party transactions refer to those with trading volume exceeding 30 million yuan or 1% of total net assets of the commercial bank.Article 15 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report detailed breakdown of key categories in the accounting report, including:(1) Due from banks by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.(2) Interbank lending by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.(3) Outstanding balance of loans at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by the breakdown of credibility loans, committed loans, collateralized loans and pledged loans.(4) Non-performing loans at the beginning and end of the accounting year resulted from the risk-based loan classification.(5) Provisions for loan losses at the beginning and the end of the accounting year, new provisions, returned provisions and write-offs in the accounting year. General provisions, specific provisions and special provisions should be disclosed separately.(6) Outstanding balance and changes of interest receivables.(7) Investment at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by instruments.(8) Interbank borrowing in domestic and overseas markets.(9) Calculation, outstanding balance and changes of interest payables.(10) Year-end outstanding balance and other details of off-balance sheet categories, including bank acceptance bills, external guarantees, letters of guarantee for financing purposes, letters of guarantee for non-financing purposes, loan commitments, letters ofcredit (spot), letters of credit (forward), financial futures, financial options, etc.(11) Other key categories.Article 16 Commercial banks should disclose in their notes to the accounting report status of capital adequacy, including total value of risk assets, amount and structure of net capital, core capital adequacy ratio and capital adequacy ratio.Article 17 Commercial banks should disclose auditing report provided by the appointed accounting firms.Article 18 Description of financial position should cover the general performance of the bank, generation and distribution of profit and other events that have substantial impact on financial position and performance of the bank.Article 19 Commercial banks should disclose following risks and risk management details: (1) Credit risk. Commercial banks should disclose status of credit risk management, credit exposure, credit quality and earnings, including business operations that generate credit risks, policy of credit risk management and control, organizational structure and division of labor in credit risk management, procedure and methods of classification of asset risks, distribution and concentration of credit risks, maturity analysis of over-due loans, restructuring of loans and return of assets.(2) Liquidity risk. Commercial banks should disclose relevant parameters that can represent their status of liquidity, analyze factors affecting liquidity and indicate their strategy of liquidity management.(3) Market risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by changes of interest rates and exchange rate on the market, analyzing impacts of such changes on profitability and financial positions of the bank and indicating their strategy of market risk management.(4) Operation risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by flaws and mistakes of internal procedures, staff and system or by external shocks and indicate the integrity, rationality and effectiveness of their internal control mechanism.(5) Other risks. Other risks that may bring severe negative impact to the bank.Article 20 Commercial banks should disclose following information on corporate governance:(1) Shareholders' meeting during the year.(2) Members of the board of directors and its work performance.(3) Members of the board of supervisors and its work performance.(4) Members of the senior management and their profiles.(5) Layout of branches and function departments.Article 21 Chronicle of events disclosed by commercial banks in the year should at least include the following contents:(1) Names of the ten biggest shareholders and changes during the year.(2) Increase or decrease of registered capital, splitting up and merger.(3) Other important information that is necessary for the general public to know.Article 22 Information of foreign bank branches is to be collected and disclosed by the primary reporting branch.Foreign bank branches don't need to disclose information that is only mandated and required for disclosure by institutions with legal person status.Foreign bank branches should translate into Chinese and disclose the summary of information disclosed by their head offices.Article 23 Commercial banks need not disclose information of unimportant categories. However, if the omission or misreporting of certain categories or information may chan ge or affect the assessment or judge of the information users, commercial banks should regarded the categories as key information categories and disclose them.Chapter III Management of Information DisclosureArticle 24 Commercial banks should prepare in Chinese their annual reports with all the information to be disclosed and publish them within 4 month after the end of each accounting year. If they are not able to disclose such information on time due to special factors, they should apply to the People's Bank of China for delay of disclosure at least 15 days in advance.Article 25 Commercial banks should submit their annual reports to the People's Bank of China prior to disclosure.Article 26 Commercial banks should make sure that their shareholders and stakeholders could obtain the annual reports on a timely basis.Commercial banks should put their annual reports in their major operation venue, so as to ensure such reports are readily available for the general public to read and check. The PBC encourage commercial banks to disclose main contents of their annual reports to the public through media.Article 27 Boards of directors in commercial banks are responsible for the information disclosure. If there is no board of directors in the bank, the president (head) of the bank should assume such a responsibility.Boards of directors and presidents (heads) of commercial banks should ensure the authenticity, accuracy and integrity of the disclosed information and take legal responsibility for their commitments.Article 28 Commercial banks and their involved staff that provide financial statements with false information or concealing important facts should be punished according to the " Rules on Punishment of Financial Irregularities".Accounting firms and involved staff that provide false auditing report should be punished according to the "Interim Measures on Finance-related Auditing Business by AccountingFirms".Chapter IV Supplementary ProvisionsArticle 29 Commercial banks with total assets below RMB 1 billion or with total deposits below RMB 500 million are exempted from the compulsory information disclosure. However, the People's Bank of China encourages such commercial banks to disclose information according to these rules.Article 30 The People's Bank of China is responsible for the interpretation of these rules. Article 31 These rules shall enter into force as of the date of promulgation and are to be applied to all commercial banks except city commercial banks.City commercial banks should adopt these rules gradually from January 1, 2003 to January 1, 2006.中国人民银行令[2002]第6号2002年5月15日第一章总则第一条为加强商业银行的市场约束，规范商业银行的信息披露行为，有效维护存款人和相关利益人的合法权益，促进商业银行安全、稳健、高效运行，依据《中华人民共和国中国人民银行法》、《中华人民共和国商业银行法》等法律法规，制定本办法。
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
文献出处：Ayeni R K, Oke M O. The commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Australian journal of business and management research, 2015, 12(2): 31-38.原文The commercial bank credit risk managementAyeni R K, Oke M OAbstractCommercial Banks is an important part of the financial sector, deposit and loan business, not only bear the financing function, and the burden of the payment and settlement and so on many functions. In commercial Banks and credit losses from is influenced by many factors existing in life risk or uncertainty, this is commercial bank's risk.According to the reasons of the risk analysis, it is generally believed risk of commercial bank credit risk, interest rate risk, exchange rate risk, liquidity risk, operational risk or operational risk, legal risk, country risk, etc. Among them, the credit risk is the main risk faced by commercial Banks. General credit risk refers to the risk for each customer default triggered; Narrow sense of credit risk is to point to a bank can not recover the loan principal and interest on schedule uncertainty, namely, Banks in the credit expected return can't realize the possibility of life. American commercial Banks due to historical reasons and institutional reasons, non-performing loan ratio is generally on the high side, asset quality problem is very serious, therefore, the credit risk is Vietnam the biggest risk facing the commercial Banks.Key words: Commercial Banks; Credit risk; Risk management1 Literature reviewCommercial bank risk management experiences from the head of the traditional analysis, financial ratio analysis, statistical method is applied to the model of quantitative risk management now has gone through a long history of more than 300 years, the credit risk management, risk identification and analysis, resist the strategy of the risk, risk monitoring and early warning method has formed the one whole set to complete. Now more science, system, perfecting the credit risk of awakes risk rating system is concentrated in the western developed countries, in the bank's riskmanagement practices in these countries on the basis of summarizing and refining of the new Basel capital accord has become a national bank regulatory reference standards.Developed in the 1950 s the modern financial theory is the theoretical basis of commercial bank credit risk management. Mainly includes: notes, black and Schultz’s portfolio management theory of option pricing theory, Steger Ritz information asymmetry theory proposed by and comply with the birth and development of financial derivatives in the 1970 s and put forward the theory of Vary (value at risk), etc.Until the 1970 s, the measurement of credit risk relies mainly on the various financial statements provide the static data and macroeconomic indicators on the credit of the wind relative competent or qualitative analysis. As it is the cult of the "5 c".Since the 1980 s, because of the impact of the global debt crisis, the international banking is begun to pay attention to the prevention and management of credit risk. The Basel accords in 1988, and put forward the credit risk of the ownership management way, on this basis, the banking industry to form the traditional quantitative analysis of credit risk management method. Mainly includes: credit scoring method and neural network analysis method.Since the 1990 s, due to declining profits and off-balance-sheet business commercial bank loans risk increasing, prompting Banks to adopt a more economic method to measure and control the credit risk, and the development of modern financial theory of credit tool innovation, to carry out the new credit risk measurement model. Compared with the traditional credit risk management methods, the modern credit risk quantitative model based on modern finance theory on the basis of the analysis of the risk and pricing, the introduction of mathematical statistics, system Ding Cheng, even science research methods, such as physics, the bank faces a variety of risk identification, measurement, method of adjusting and monitoring of a series of procedures. These models and methods has become the current banking institutions in risk and miscellaneous, competitive on the market for survival and development of theimportant means to protect.At present, the world's most popular four kinds of modern Credit Risk measurement model is respectively. Morgan bank development based on the borrowing enterprise registration transfer Credit Metrics model, developed by Moody’s KMV model based on borrowing enterprise equity changes, Credit Suisse fop in actuarial science principle of the development of Credit Risk model, and McKinsey & company development based on macroeconomic variables affect corporate default probability of Credit Portfolio View model.2 Customers of commercial bank credit policy choice in the United StatesChoice of credit customers is a very rigorous process. American commercial Banks attaches great importance to industry analysis, one is to set up the independent team research industry and industry, they can track comprehensive industry fundamentals, according to the overall economic development trend and the main enterprise in the industry's performance judgment, to decide to enter or exit, and continuous tracking study; The second is in the process of research work in the business management for institutional arrangements. The commercial Banks in the process of asset management has three levels, namely investment policy committee, the research team and a portfolio manager. Asset management department study the researchers responsible for recommendation has investment value of listed companies of 77 companies, after consultation with traders submit a special committee to choose around 50 kinds of stocks to buy and sell. This arrangement is also suitable for loan management. Banks have a batch of CFA, engaged in the industry market analysis, industry analysis and capital to help raise the level of scientific decision and risk prevention. Investment banking industry research team and credit business industry research team are independent of each other, independent judgment; three is detailed research field and research content. Commercial Banks sort of clients by industry in the United States, each type of customer segmentation again for key customers and developing customers and keep customers. FANNIE MAE is equipped with a special housing price research department, responsible for different zip code area real estate price trend in the future. Banks in general has also established industry, industry andcustomer information system, make sure there are accurate, reliable and continuous research information; Four is a set of mature methods. American commercial Banks asset management division formed in more than 200 years of investment philosophy emphasizes the following aspects: panoramic investment, emphasis on the investment value of the impact of economic, social and political environment widely evaluated, thematic analysis judgment, carefully assess the specific industry, department of industry and the affected factors and possible results, to choose investment industries and enterprises. The thorough study on the proposed investment company, predict stock price change trend; Strict process, evaluate the intrinsic value of the target price to buy and sell products. American commercial Banks by risk management team is responsible for assessing risk and growth industry. In terms of risk analysis, must be from a global perspective analysis of various factors affecting industrial risk: industry maturity, cycle, profitability, industry impact dependency, substitute products and regulatory environment. By refining industry door the risk analysis and evaluation of the industry, different risk weighting of each industry is equal to the Banks in the industry department internal exposure to various fields, and using the weighted average method to calculate the industry department's risk rating, and 30 sectors according to the risk rank.In trade credit policy, the commercial bank system was studied for the big industry. Science and technology industry, the real estate industry, metals and mining, the media industry, industrial, health care, government and agency services, logging and packaging industry, automotive and transportation industry, the financial services industry, energy industry, electronic industry, national defense and aerospace, banking, consumer and retail industry, building materials, chemical industry, capital and other 18 industries in residential construction. American commercial Banks to industry has formed a characteristic service, special commitment, management and service advantage to accumulate. At the same time, in order to develop small and medium-sized enterprise market, the industry segment also carried on the thorough research, identified the credit policy of the industry, including waste disposal, home care, life help equipment, hotels, motels, building contractors, convenience stores, gasstations, government suppliers, hospitals, real estate investors, professional real estate developers, housing developers, lay pavilion, food sales, bar dry cleaners, auto repair tools, used car dealers, car dealers, entertainment, sports venues, amusement park, bowling alley, cinema), etc.American commercial Banks also stipulates the lending industry is prohibited.3 American commercial Banks credit risk management measuresAmerican legal principle limit creditors by controlling the enterprise to realize its own interests, creditors can only be acquired according to various enterprises credit loan decision-making, management and financial information beforehand and monitoring, and after the event when an enterprise is difficult to timely payments to resort to legal solution. Therefore, the fact relations more based on short-term trading. Because it could not according to the relationship with the enterprise long-term for more information, Banks have more power through the analysis of the borrowing enterprise deals of default information (with all the Banks' trading), the condition of market value data and financial risk. By means of perfect social credit system and the developed capital market, the commercial Banks can use more accurate and timely customer credit information and market data for risk analysis, so as to avoid the traditional rely on qualitative analysis methods of risk analysis. Large American commercial Banks usually establish the credit risk management system, and use modern risk measurement method to calculate the degree of risk. On the basis of calculating various kinds of risk assets, the United States commercial Banks emphasize on portfolio risk assessment and measurement. Credit risk measurement of single focus is to ensure that each loan risk can be effectively controlled, and the focus of the portfolio risk management is to ensure that the portfolio risk and return matches the optimal scheme. Loan portfolio management is the core of through quota management, avoid loan risk concentration, efforts in the region, products, industry, industry and individual credit scale to achieve diversification, prevent excessive inputs of a field. Not only that, the commercial bank assets in recent years also reflects the diversity of obvious characteristics, credit bank credit assets proportion to drop, rising proportion of money market and capital market other products.Market-based assets also increased the market risk of commercial Banks with the increase of the exposure, the analysis of the market risk also need more use econometric analysis method. American commercial Banks by including external data sources such as Reuters system real-time information gain market price fluctuations, measuring the degree of market risk in a timely manner. So the slow-release method is valued asset portfolio.4 U.S. commercial bank credit risk management performance evaluationModern risk management emphasis according to the bank's overall portfolio risk to bear ability to determine risk, within the scope of the risk control in the established on the basis of the pursuit of profit maximization.Therefore, commercial bank risk management gradually regarded as a kind of new strategic business management means, and on this basis to link business strategy and business risk.American commercial Banks emphasize the risk adjusted return on capital (RAROC) comprehensive evaluation of bank profitability and risk management capabilities, rather than absolute level of the earnings as the foundation, to guide the bank risk in bow to find an appropriate balance between benefits, on the premise of prudent business to expand, increasing the benefit.Banks use RAROC measure whether the portfolio risks and benefits of the match, in a timely manner to the RAROC indicators have adverse trends to adjust the asset portfolio, make room for other more ideal business. In a single business level, RAROC is the basis of business decisions, which can be used to measure the risk of a business matching bow income by, determined to do and do not do this business, and business pricing. Using RAROC, therefore, can restrain Banks tend to be more risky trading, also different for different business units of risk to catch for a male a platform for the comparison, on how to use the capital sent a clear signal.译文美国商业银行信贷风险管理Ayeni R K, Oke M O摘要商业银行是金融部门的重要组成部分，不仅经营存贷款业务，承担着融资功能，而且负担着支付清算等多项功能。
电子银行风险管理互联网金融外文文献翻译2013年3000多字
电子银行风险管理互联网金融外文文献翻译2013年3000多字E-banking has brought about a new set of risks for financial XXX risks include fraud。
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管理银行风险英语作文
Banking is a complex industry that is fraught with various types of risks,which can have significant impacts on the stability of the financial system and the economy at large. Effective risk management is therefore crucial for banks to ensure their longterm viability and to protect the interests of their stakeholders.Here are some key aspects of managing bank risks in English:1.Understanding the Types of Risks:Banks face several types of risks including credit risk,market risk,operational risk,liquidity risk,and reputational risk.Understanding these risks is the first step in managing them effectively.2.Establishing a Risk Management Framework:Banks should have a comprehensive risk management framework that outlines the roles and responsibilities of various departments, the processes for identifying,assessing,monitoring,and controlling risks,and the mechanisms for reporting riskrelated information.3.Credit Risk Management:This involves assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers and setting appropriate lending policies.Banks use credit scoring models and credit ratings to evaluate the likelihood of default.4.Market Risk Management:Market risk arises from fluctuations in market prices,such as interest rates,equity prices,and foreign exchange rates.Banks use tools like ValueatRisk VaR models to quantify market risk and implement hedging strategies to mitigate it.5.Operational Risk Management:Operational risk includes risks arising from internal processes,people,systems,or external events.Banks need to have robust internal controls,IT systems,and disaster recovery plans to manage operational risks.6.Liquidity Risk Management:Banks must ensure they have sufficient liquid assets to meet shortterm obligations without affecting their longterm solvency.They manage liquidity risk through cash flow forecasting,maintaining a diversified funding base,and setting aside contingency funds.7.Reputational Risk Management:Banks must be proactive in managing their public image and trustworthiness.This includes transparent communication,ethical business practices,and swift response to crises.8.Regulatory Compliance:Banks must adhere to regulatory requirements set by financial pliance helps in avoiding legal penalties and maintaining the banks reputation.9.Risk Appetite and Capital Adequacy:Banks should define their risk appetite and ensure that they have adequate capital to absorb potential losses.Capital adequacy ratios, such as the Basel III frameworks capital requirements,are crucial for this purpose.10.Stress Testing and Scenario Analysis:Banks conduct stress tests to evaluate how they would perform under adverse economic conditions.Scenario analysis helps in understanding the impact of different economic events on the banks financial health.11.Risk Reporting and Communication:Regular risk reporting to the board of directors, senior management,and other stakeholders is essential for transparency and accountability.12.Continuous Monitoring and Improvement:Risk management is not a onetime process but requires continuous monitoring and improvement.Banks should regularly review and update their risk management strategies to adapt to changing market conditions and regulatory environments.13.Training and Awareness:Employees play a critical role in risk management.Banks should invest in training programs to increase awareness about risk management practices and to ensure that staff understand their roles in managing risks.14.Technology and Data Analytics:Leveraging technology and data analytics can enhance risk management by providing realtime insights,automating risk assessments, and improving decisionmaking processes.15.Cultural Aspects:Fostering a riskaware culture within the bank is essential.This involves encouraging a mindset where risk management is seen as an integral part of the banks operations rather than a separate function.In conclusion,managing bank risks is a multifaceted task that requires a combination of strategic planning,technological tools,regulatory compliance,and a strong risk management culture.By effectively managing risks,banks can safeguard their financial stability and contribute positively to the overall health of the economy.。
外文翻译--银行业务的核心在风险管理_规范内部控制
外文翻译--银行业务的核心在风险管理_规范内部控制原文：Managing Core Risks In Banking: Internal Comtrol&Compliance Internal Control Policy1.1 OverviewBanking has a diversified and complex financial activity which is no longer limited within the geographic boundary of a country. Since its activity involves high risk, the issue of effective internal control system, corporate governance, transparency, accountability has become significant issues to ensure smooth performance of the banking industry throughout the world. In many banks internal control is identified with internal audit; the scope of internal control is not limited to audit work. It is an integral part of the daily activity of a bank, which on its own merit identifies the risks associated with the process and adopts a measure to mitigate the same.Internal Audit on the other hand is a part of Internal Control system which reinforces the control system through regular review.According to an IMF publication Internal Control refers to the mechanism in place on a permanent basis to control the activities in an organization, both at a central and at a departmental/divisional level. A key component of effective internal control is the operation of a solid accounting and information system.In Bangladesh analysis on the performances of the banks has pointed out that an effective internal control system could have contributed significantly in improving the performance of the commercial banks if the control culture is brought in through policy guidelines and structural changes at these banks.1.2 DefinitionInternal control is the process, effected by a company's board of directors, management and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the effectiveness and efficiency of operations, the reliability of financial reporting and compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and internal policies.Internal controls are the policies and procedures established and implementedalone, or in concert with other policies or procedures, to manage and control a particular risk or business activity, or combination of risks or business activities, to which the company is exposed or in which it is engaged.1.3 Internal Control EnvironmentThe internal control environment is the framework under which internal controls are developed, implemented and monitored. It consists of the mechanisms and arrangements that ensure internal and external risks to which the company is exposed are identified; appropriate and effective internal controls are developed and implemented to soundly and prudently manage these risks; reliable and comprehensive systems are to be put in place to appropriately monitor the effectiveness of these controls.Each company needs to have in place an appropriate and effective internal control environment to ensure that the company is managed and controlled in a sound and prudent manner. The factors which together comprise the control environment are:*a board of directors that is actively concerned with sound corporate governance and that understands and diligentlydischarges its responsibilities by ensuring that the company is appropriately and effectively managed and controlled;*a management that actively manages and operates the company in a sound and prudent manner;*organizational and procedural controls supported by an effective management information system to soundly and prudently manage the company's exposure to risk; and *an independent audit mechanism to monitor the effectiveness of the organizational and procedural controls.1.4 Objective of Internal ControlThe primary objective of internal control system in a bank is to help the bank perform better through the use of its resources. Through internal control system bank identifies its weaknesses and takes appropriate measures to overcome the same. The main objectives of internal control are as follows:*Efficiency and effectiveness of activities (performance objectives).*Reliability, completeness and timelines of financial and management information (information objectives)* Compliance with applicable laws and regulations (compliance objectives)1.5 Policy Guidelines For Internal Control1.5.1 Responsibility of the Board of Directors*The overall responsibility of establishing broad business strategy,significant policies and understanding significant risks of the bank rests with the Board of Directors.*Through the establishment of ‘Audit Committee’ the Board of Directors can monitor the effectiveness of internal control system. Bangladesh Bank has already instructed the banks to establish Audit Committee (Appendix 5.4).*The internal as well as external audit reports will be sent to the board without any intervention of the bank management and ensure that the management takes timely and necessary actions as per the recommendations.*Have periodic review meetings with the senior management to discuss the effectiveness of the internal control system of the bank and ensure that the management has taken appropriate actions as per the recommendations of the auditors and internal control.1.5.2 Responsibility of the Senior Management*In setting out a strong internal control framework within the organization the role of Managing Director is very important. He/she will establish a ’Management Committee’ (MANCOM), which will be responsible for the overall management of the Bank.*With governance & guidance from the Board of Directors the MANCOM will put in place policies and procedures to identify, measure, monitor and control these risks.*The MANCOM will put in place an internal control structure in the banking organization, which will assign clear responsibility, authority and reporting relationship.*The MANCOM will monitor the adequacy and effectiveness of th e internal control system based on the bank’s established policy & procedure.*The MANCOM will review on a yearly basis the overall effectiveness of the control system of the organization and provide a certification on a yearly basis to the Board of Directors on the effectiveness of Internal Control policy, practice and procedure.1.5.3 Risk Recognition and Assessment*An effective internal control system continually recognizesand assesses all of the material risks that could adversely affect the achieveme nt of the bank’s goals.*Effective risk assessment must identify and consider both internal and external factors. Internal factors include complexity of the organization structure, the nature of the Bank’s activities, the quality of personnel, organization changes and also employee turnover. External factors include fluctuating economic conditions, changes in the industry, socio-political realities and technological advances.*Risk assessment by Internal Control System differs from the business risk management process which typically focuses more on the review of business strategies developed to maximize the risk/reward trade-off within the different areas of the bank. The risk assessment by Internal Control focuses more on compliance with regulatory requirements, social, ethical and environmental risks those affect the banking industry.1.5.4 Control Activities and Segregation of Duties:*Effective internal control system requires that an appropriate control structure is set up with control activities defined at every business level, i.e. top level review; appropriate activity controls for different departments or divisions; physical controls; checks for compliance with exposure limits and follow-up on non-compliance; a system for approvals and authorizations and system pf verification and reconciliation.*Control activities involve two steps: (1) the establishment of control policies and procedures and (2) verification that the control policies and procedures are being complied with.*Senior management should ensure that adequate control activities are anintegral part of the daily functions of all relevant personnel;this enables quick response to changing conditions and avoids unnecessary costs. Control activities are most effective when they are viewed by management and all other personnel as an integral part of daily activities rather than an addition to it.*One of the most important aspects of internal control system requires that there is appropriate segregation of duties and personnel are not assigned conflicting responsibilities.*Furthermore the employees must also be provided with necessary authority which will enforce segregations of duties.*For employees to carry out their responsibilities properly each employee should have appropriate job description.*Areas of potential conflicts of interest should be identified, minimized and subject to careful independent monitoring.1.5.5 Management Reporting System:*Effective internal control system requires that there is an effective reporting system of information that is relevant to decision making. The information should be reliable, timely accessible and provided in a consistent format.*Information would have to include external market information about events and conditions that are relevant to decision making. Internal information include financial, operational and compliance data.*There should be appropriate committees within the organization which would evaluate data received through various information systems. This will ensure supply of correct and accurate information to the management.*Internal information must cover all significant activities of the bank. These systems including those that hold and use data in electronic form must be secure, monitored independently and supported by contingency arrangements.*Most importantly the channels of communication must ensure that all staff fully understand and adhere to policies and procedures effecting their duties and responsibilities and that other relevant information is reaching the appropriate personnel.1.5.6 Monitoring Activities & Correcting Deficiencies:*Effectiveness of the Bank’s int ernal controls should be monitored on an ongoing basis. Key/high risk items should be identified and monitored as part of daily activities. In addition there should be periodic evaluation by the business lines and internal audit team.*There should be an effective and comprehensive internal audit of the internal control system carried out by operationally independent, appropriately trained and competent staff specially designated by the management. The significant deficiencies identified by the audit team should be reported to the board on a periodic basis. The Audit Committee of the board should be the cell to whom such report should be forwarded for review.*Preferably the internal control team should be reporting to the board of directors or its audit committee. If practical considerations do not permit internal control team to directly report to the board of directors then it can report directly to the MD.*Internal control deficiencies, whether identified by business lines, internal audit or other control personnel should be reported in a timely and prompt manner to the appropriate management level and addressed immediately.*Material internal control deficiencies should be reported to senior management and board of directors with recommendations where necessary. Each bank should set out its own guideline regarding what should be considered as majorbranches. However, it should be noted that consideration should be given to major financial exposure or loss, significant process lapses, serious employee misconduct etc.1.5.7 Role of External Auditors in Evaluating Internal Control System:*External Auditors by dint of their independence from the management of the bank can provide unbiased recommendation on the strength and weakness of the internal control system of the bank.*They can examine the records, transactions of the bank and evaluate its accounting policy, disclosure policy and methods of financial estimation made by the Bank; this will allow the board and the management to have an independent overview o n the overall control system of the bank.1.5.8 Regulatory Compliance:* For the banks Central Bank is the primary regulator, who governs the activities of banks. In addition Tax Authority, Registrar of Joint Stock Company, Finance Ministry etc. are different types of regulatory bodies whose directives have significant impact of bank’s business.*The internal control system should always take into account the bank’s internal processes to meet the regulatory requirement before conducting any operation.*The internal control system of the bank must be designed in a manner that the compliance with regulatory requirements is recognized in each activity of the bank. The bank must obtain regular information on regulatory changes and distribute among the concerned department, so that they can take necessary action to adapt to such changes.*The bank must develop an effective communication processwhich will allow smooth distribution of relevant regulations among different departments and personnel.1.5.9 Establishment of a Compliance Culture:*A bank is said to have strong compliance culture when throughout the organization employees are encouraged to comply with policies, procedures and regulation. Even an individual at the lowest echelon should be empowered to speak up without the fear of reprisal if she/he identifies something non-compliant.*The board of directors and the senior management must establish a compliance culture within the banking organization that emphasizes and demonstrates to all levels of personnel the importance of internal control.*In order to establish a compliance culture the board of directors and senior management must promote a high ethical and integrity standard.*In reinforcing ethical values the banking organization should avoid policies and practices that provide inadvertent incentive for inappropriate activities. Examples of such policies and practices include undue emphasis on performance targets or operational results, particularly short term ones that ignore long term risks and compensation schemes that overly depend on short term performance.*The board of directors and the senior management may establish a ‘Code of Ethics’ t hat all levels of personnel must sign and adhere to.Source: Mr. Jahangir Alam, Mr. Jalal Ahmed, Mr. R. Q. M. Forkan,Mr. Moinul Islam,Mr. Rais Uddin Ahmad,Mr. Siddiqur Rahman,2007.“managing core risks in banking:internal control&compliance” . Journal of Ac counting and Economics.pp.166–192.译文：银行业务的核心在风险管理：规范内部控制内部控制政策1.1概述银行拥有多元化和复杂的金融活动，不再是一国范围内的地理边界所限制。
商业银行信用卡风险管理外文文献翻译最新译文
文献出处：Nicely E. The research of commercial bank credit risk management [J]. Research in International Business and Finance, 2015, 8(2): 17-26.原文The research of commercial bank credit risk managementNicely EAbstractCommercial bank credit card business risk management broad sense refers to the commercial bank credit card business, because of various unfavorable factors caused by the issuers, cardholders, specially engaged the possibility of loss. Credit risk refers to the pure credit for credit CARDS are unsecured loans, and credit is not high, the customer more than individual, as well as small amount of single feature, lead to the possibility of loss of card issuers. Through to the commercial Banks to do a good job of credit card risk management put forward the Suggestions and comments, and pay attention to the risks of commercial Banks to establish perfect management system, system, business process research, and put forward the commercial Banks in establishing a system of credit card business management structure, regulations, at the same time, want to notice to each kind of risk identification, measurement, assessment and do a good job in risk loss provisions in personnel management, should pay attention to establish risk rewards and punishment mechanism, pay attention to the positive incentives to the employees.Keywords: Credit CARDS; Risk management; Incentive mechanism1 IntroductionCredit card refers to the bank issued to individuals and units, with the function such as shopping, consumption and access cash bank card. Its striking feature is that the Banks granted to customer a certain line of credit, customers can enjoy the privilege of the reimbursement after be being card first, its form is a positive with the issuing bank name, the period of validity, card number, card, the cardholder's name, article with a magnetic stripe, signature on the back of the information such as bank CARDS. We now call the credit card, generally refers to borrow write down card. Credit risk refers to the bank credit card holders for various reasons failed to fullyrepay bank debt and cause the possibility of default, defaults, bank will because the cardholder does not thereby causing loss to the bank funds paid promptly. Credit card main risk including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, accredit card risk management refers to in the process of credit card business, the possible including fraud risk, credit risk, operational risk, etc, all kinds of risk management and control is to reduce the possibility of loss The loss rate of operation and management activities.2 Literature reviewThe concept of risk management since the 30 s of 20th century, after nearly 40 years of development to form a system, gradually by people began to attach importance to and cognition, form a new management discipline. The concept of risk mainly comes from the insurance industry, insurance for risk defined as the uncertainty of loss. In 1964, the United States of the risk management and insurance, it has made the definition: risk book points out that through the risk identification, assessment, and control to achieve with minimum cost to make a management method of minimizing the risk loss. In 1976, eight Gerry, in his book, the risk management of international enterprise, points out that protection of enterprise's financial stability, reduce the loss caused by risk events is the main goal of the enterprise risk management. In 1975, risk management and insurance management society, scholars from all over the world including general principles, risk management was determined by the talk of risk identification and measurement, risk control and other criteria. The establishment of these guidelines, marks all over the world, risk management theory with the preliminary development, management framework has been set up. Also marks the risk management has entered a new stage. In July 2004, Basel 2 rules on commercial Banks, puts forward a new risk management requirements, he fully considered for the bank including market risk, liquidity risk, credit risk and operational risk, a variety of provide for risk identification, risk measurement standard, make risk management work more accurate quantitative measurement. In 2004, the COSO committee issued "enterprise risk management integrated framework", put forward by the enterprise internal control into risk control as the main direction of management thinking. Puts forward the concept of comprehensive risk management,including internal environment, goal setting, time identification, risk evaluation, risk countermeasure, control activities, information and communication and so on eight aspects. American engineer bill fair and Earl joint research and development of the FICO credit score model, since the most card issuers have also been used this model. This model gives the credit scoring system out of a possible 900 points, according to the situation of the borrower's credit history and compare the data with other borrowers, given the borrower credit situation trend in the future.3 Credit card risk3.1 Credit card cash outCredit card cash out to merchants with the bad cardholders or other third party in collusion, or merchants themselves by credit card as the carrier, through the fictitious transactions, asking price, cash return, show the credit card credit behavior, including but not limited to: merchants and cardholders conspired to use point-of-sale terminals (POS), with fictitious transactions, falsely making out the price, cash returns to the behavior of the cardholders to pay cash directly; Or merchants to help paid the cardholder account overdraft, after using the POS machine will advances in fictitious trading way back to their accounts, and collect fees to the cardholder a card such as behavior; Or online merchants cardholders conspired to fictional price, false transactions, such as buying from selling the way, show the credit card for trafficking in fraudulent credit card Internet consumption credit, etc.3.2 False card stolen brushFalse card stolen brush refers to criminals use false card on the POS terminal for credit card transactions to steal bank funds, belong to the important type of fraud. Criminals often by merchants, independent bank terminals, as well as a variety of convenient payment terminal channels, using dedicated track record the equipment needed for the bank card information side track information through various channels, such as the Internet or buy others have steal bank card track information, password access usually by peeping in the cardholder spending places the cardholder password or independent in ATM equipment installed video cameras record customer password, even through ATM keyboard paste, such as false record customer password keyboard,or using client code, easy to guess the cardholder password and other means to obtain the cardholder password.3.3 Online payment fraudOnline payment fraud refers to the fraud part swindled through Internet channels and the cardholder's bank. On-line payment fraud mainly by non-financial institutions or commercial Banks provide online payment channel for fraud. Current fraud activists by phishing site, bank card fraud or Trojan virus, characterized by use of phishing site or Trojan virus to steal the cardholder's bank card number, password and verification code information, phishing cardholders to online trading, to defraud money. Or commercial bank online banking channel for bank card fraud, fraud part using bank online banking vulnerabilities, and the weak link in the online banking fraud.3.4 Operating riskPrevention and control of credit card operation risk, first, to find a good risk points, find out in the hairpin and post-loan risk prone link in the entire process, find out the risk points, and then control the risk. Credit card's life cycle is divided into application stage, audit stage, hairpin used to send phase, activation and post-loan management, such as card renewal phase. First by the applicant voluntarily to the commercial bank to apply for or commercial bank marketing personnel to promote credit card products to the applicant, the applicant according to the guidance of sales people to fill out credit card application form after the above requirements to fill out information, to submit proof of identity is required by the application, work proves that the domicile certificate materials, such as bank marketing personnel will be the applicant's application form submitted to the bank's examination and approval department, by a bank according to the customer qualification examination and approval department for credit card mail after examination and approval to the customer. Customers call the bank customer service special line opened activate the card, the card can normal use, generally the validity of the credit card for 3 ~ 5 years according to the process of the life cycle of credit card sorting operation risk points exist in the whole cycle.4 Conclusions and recommendationsFalse card stolen brush loss brings to the commercial Banks, cardholders Carrie's money is missing, tend to give the feeling of cardholders' money in the bank is not safe, affect the reputation of the bank, bring bank reputation risk. In the process of pursuing for unauthorized, if not solve in time, often commercial Banks must bear a lot of damage. Due to false card stolen brush is not tight to bank losses, and seriously affected the reputation of the bank. So focus on guard against the risk of false card stolen brush is the key of the bank fraud risk control. Commercial bank credit card business is strengthening risk prevention. To do the following: to strengthen the education of the cardholder and prevent unauthorized knowledge propaganda, tip card holders do not use the card to the others, pay attention to protect the password in the daily charge without being stolen. Strengthen the bank back transaction monitoring, summarizes the characteristics of the pseudo card stolen brush, such as the combination of false card stolen brush is easy to occur before time, business category, unauthorized ongoing balance inquiry, around zero, fraud part of bank daily trading limit restrictions for unauthorized transaction monitoring rules set by the characteristics. When the transaction behavior, identity card and cardholders are found not to conform or high transaction should contact the cardholder to confirm authenticity, to confirm that the cardholder to authorize the transaction after I deal correct. Effectively raise Banks to prevent false card stolen brush ability of risk prevention and control. Magnetic stripe card renewal work done as soon as possible because the bank magnetic stripe card refers to magnetic materials for storage medium, such as bank account information recorded in the magnetic stripe CARDS, magnetic stripe card is easy to be copied to the bank money loss, therefore at present a lot of Banks have begun to bank card renewal work, with good safety performance of financial IC card instead of bank magnetic stripe card. In addition, improve the incentive mechanism construction of risk management, on the basis of regular and irregular in the risk assessment results, good for the risk assessment results, comprehensive risk management framework construction perfect mechanism, through the authorization for adjustment, performance ratings, priority support to start newbusiness delegation, adjustment factors of business innovation, management, can be appropriately in the human resources and cost allocation give policy tilt, can give points in performance appraisal review. For risk management body have made outstanding contributions or reduce loss of major risk events offer certain material and spiritual reward employees, and on the personal career advancement channels give sufficient consideration; For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration. For all kinds of risk management talents, external training, qualification certification, access to exchange offer certain aspects such as policy tilt, and on the personal career advancement channels will be given full consideration.译文商业银行信用卡风险管理研究Nicely E摘要商业银行信用卡业务风险管理广义上讲是指在商业银行信用卡业务经营中，因各种不利因素而导致的发卡机构、持卡人、特约商户等损失的可能性。
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字
商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中文3000多字This article discusses the importance of credit risk management for commercial banks。
It highlights the us methods used by banks to manage credit risk。
including credit scoring。
credit limits。
loan loss ns。
and collateral requirements。
The article also examines the impact of regulatory requirements on credit risk management practices and the role of corporate governance in ensuring effective risk management。
Overall。
the article emphasizes the need for banks to adopt a comprehensive and proactive approach to credit risk management in order to maintain financial stability and avoid costly losses.In today's increasingly complex financial environment。
effective credit risk management is essential for the long-term success of commercial banks。
Banks face numerous challenges in managing credit risk。
商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
商业银行风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)“RISK MANAGEMENT IN COMMERCIAL BANKS”(A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS) - ABSTRACT ONLY1. PREAMBLE:1.1 Risk Management:The future of banking will undoubtedly rest on risk management dynamics. Only those banks that have efficient risk management system will survive in the market in the long run. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of comprehensive risk management essential for long-term success of a banking institution. Credit risk is the oldest and biggest risk that bank, by virtue of its very nature of business, inherits. This has however, acquired a greater significance in the recent past for various reasons. Foremost among them is the wind of economic liberalization that is blowing across the globe. India is no exception to this swing towards market driven economy. Competition from within and outside the country has intensified. This has resulted in multiplicity of risks both in number and volume resulting in volatile markets. A precursor to successful management of credit risk is a clear understanding about risks involved in lending, quantifications of risks within each item of the portfolio and reaching a conclusion as to the likely composite credit risk profile of a bank.The corner stone of credit risk management is the establishment of a framework that defines corporate priorities, loan approval process, credit risk rating system, risk-adjusted pricing system, loan-review mechanism and comprehensive reporting system.1.2 Significance of the study:The fundamental business of lending has brought trouble to individual banks and entire banking system. It is, therefore, imperative that the banks are adequate systems for credit assessment of individual projects and evaluating risk associated therewith as well as the industry as a whole. Generally, Banks in India evaluate a proposal through the traditional tools of project financing, computing maximum permissible limits, assessing management capabilities and prescribing a ceiling for an industry exposure. As banks move in to a new high powered world of financial operations and trading, with new risks, the need is felt for more sophisticated and versatile instruments for risk assessment, monitoring and controlling risk exposures. It is, therefore, time that banks managements equip themselves fully to grapple with the demands of creating tools and systems capable of assessing, monitoring and controlling risk exposures in a more scientific manner.Credit Risk, that is, default by the borrower to repay lent money, remains the most important risk to manage till date. The predominance of credit risk is even reflected in the composition of economic capital, which banks are required to keep a side for protection against various risks. According to one estimate, Credit Risk takes about 70% and 30%remaining is shared between the other two primary risks, namely Market risk (change in the market price and operational risk i.e., failure of internal controls, etc.). Quality borrowers (Tier-I borrowers) were able to access the capital market directly without going through the debt route. Hence, the credit route is now more open to lesser mortals (Tier-II borrowers).With margin levels going down, banks are unable to absorb the level of loan losses. There has been very little effort to develop a method where risks could be identified and measured. Most of the banks have developed internal rating systems for their borrowers, but there hasbeen very little study to compare such ratings with the final asset classification and also to fine-tune the rating system. Also risks peculiar to each industry are not identified and evaluated openly. Data collection is regular driven. Data on industry-wise, region-wise lending, industry-wise rehabilitated loan, can provide an insight into the future course to be adopted.Better and effective strategic credit risk management process is a better way to Manage portfolio credit risk. The process provides a framework to ensure consistency between strategy and implementation that reduces potential volatility in earnings and maximize shareholders wealth. Beyond and over riding the specifics of risk modeling issues, the challenge is moving towards improved credit risk management lies in addressing banks’readiness and openness to accept change to a more transparent system, to rapidly metamorphosing markets, to more effective and efficient ways of operating and to meet market requirements and increased answerability to stake holders.There is a need for Strategic approach to Credit Risk Management (CRM) in Indian Commercial Banks, particularly in view of;(1) Higher NPAs level in comparison with global benchmark(2) RBI’ s stipulation about dividend distribution by the banks(3) Revised NPAs level and CAR norms(4) New Basel Capital Accord (Basel –II) revolutionAccording to the study conducted by ICRA Limited, the gross NPAs as a proportion of total advances for Indian Banks was 9.40 percent for financial year 2003 and 10.60 percent for financial year 20021. The value of the gross NPAs as ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was as low as 2.26 percent. Net NPAs as a proportion of net advances of Indian banks was 4.33 percent for financial year 2003 and 5.39 percent for financial year 2002. As against this, the value of net NPAs ratio for financial year 2003 for the global benchmark banks was 0.37 percent. Further, it was found that, the total advances of the banking sector to the commercial and agricultural sectors stood at Rs.8,00,000 crore. Of this, Rs.75,000 crore, or 9.40 percent of the total advances is bad and doubtful debt. The size of the NPAs portfolio in the Indian banking industry is close to Rs.1,00,000 crore which is around 6 percent of India’ s GDP2.The RBI has recently announced that the banks should not pay dividends at more than 33.33 percent of their net profit. It has further provided that the banks having NPA levels less than 3 percent and having Capital Adequacy Reserve Ratio (CARR) of more than 11 percent for the last two years will only be eligible to declare dividends without the permission from RBI3. This step is for strengthening the balance sheet of all the banks in the country. The banks should provide sufficient provisions from their profits so as to bring down the net NPAs level to 3 percent of their advances.NPAs are the primary indicators of credit risk. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) is another measure of credit risk. CAR is supposed to act as a buffer against credit loss, which isset at 9 percent under the RBI stipulation4. With a view to moving towards International best practices and to ensure greater transparency, it has been decided to adopt the ’ 90 days’ ‘ over due’ norm for identification of NPAs from the year ending March 31, 2004.The New Basel Capital Accord is scheduled to be implemented by the end of 2006. All the banking supervisors may have to join the Accord. Even the domestic banks in addition to internationally active banks may have to conform to the Accord principles in the coming decades. The RBI as the regulator of the Indian banking industry has shown keen interest in strengthening the system, and the individual banks have responded in good measure in orienting themselves towards global best practices.1.3 Credit Risk Management(CRM) dynamics:The world over, credit risk has proved to be the most critical of all risks faced by a banking institution. A study of bank failures in New England found that, of the 62 banks in existence before 1984, which failed from 1989 to 1992, in 58 cases it was observed that loans and advances were not being repaid in time 5 . This signifies the role of credit risk management and therefore it forms the basis of present research analysis.Researchers and risk management practitioners have constantly tried to improve on current techniques and in recent years, enormous strides have been made in the art and science of credit risk measurement and management6. Much of the progress in this field has resulted form the limitations of traditional approaches to credit risk management and with the current Bank for International Settlement’ (BIS) regulatory model. Even in banks which regularly fine-tune credit policies and streamline credit processes, it is a real challenge for credit risk managers to correctly identify pockets of risk concentration, quantify extent of risk carried, identify opportunities for diversification and balance the risk-return trade-off in their credit portfolio.The two distinct dimensions of credit risk management can readily be identified as preventive measures and curative measures. Preventive measures include risk assessment, risk measurement and risk pricing, early warning system to pick early signals of future defaults and better credit portfolio diversification. The curative measures, on the other hand, aim at minimizing post-sanction loan losses through such steps as securitization, derivative trading, risk sharing, legal enforcement etc. It is widely believed that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Therefore, the focus of the study is on preventive measures in tune with the norms prescribed by New Basel Capital Accord.The study also intends to throw some light on the two most significant developments impacting the fundamentals of credit risk management practices of banking industry – New Basel Capital Accord and Risk Based Supervision. Apart from highlighting the salient features of credit risk management prescriptions under New Basel Accord, attempts are made to codify the response of Indian banking professionals to various proposals under the accord. Similarly, RBI proposed Risk Based Supervision (RBS) is examined to capture its direction and implementation problems。
商业银行操作风险控制的研究外文文献翻译2014年译文3000多字
文献出处：Said R M, The Study of Commercial Banks Operating Risk Control [J]. International Review of Business Research Papers, 2014, 7(2): 157-169.（声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。
）原文The Study of Commercial Banks Operating Risk ControlAbstractThe production of commercial bank operation risk of bank management can influence the efficiency and profitability, under the impetus of the Basel ii, Banks are looking for a way to control the operation risk. This paper briefly introduces the will maintain a high level of efficiency in the field of production process control method, six sigma, applied to the commercial Banks operational risk control, and this paper expounds the method of use and the use of this method was discussed.Key words: commercial Banks; Operation risk; The six sigma;1 the introductionOperation risk is due to the imperfect internal procedures, staff's mistake, system failure or was caused by external events, it widely exists in every field of bank operation and management, is the foundation of bank business management to face one of the risk. It is a result of the failure of internal control mechanism and the failure of corporate governance mechanism. This situation is not in time to correct will make Banks suffer, produce low efficiency. In June 1999, the Basel committee issued the "new Basel capital accord", first proposed the operating risk should be covered within the regulatory capital, has been clear about the capital requirements for operational risk, the bank of strength are encouraged to create a suitable for their own operational risk measurement. The country's banking industry to operate risk management has become increasingly attention. But in Basel, description of operation risk control and measure is not very desirable, does not provide a sensitive tool foroperational risk identification and risk management.Some literature has indicated from the Angle of process operation risk problem, for example, Leippold et al. (2003) application of risk management of the value chain concept model of operational risk, the value chain is essentially a workflow;Again, for example, Ebn not ther, et al. Think of operation risk management platform "subtle" is based on a well defined process.This paper argues that based on the operational risk management of the process, not only simple and intuitive, the maneuverability is strong.Is the key point to solve the problem, find a suitable way, if you want to organize a large number of personnel that Banks research and development, in time and cost on the cost is quite large, so consider, can borrow a method in the field of production, make appropriate changes for the operation of the commercial bank risk control in public.Because production itself is also a kind of process, will be a kind of increase production profit ability, strict application of statistical tools to solve problem using the method of commercial bank operation risk control is feasible.2 Six sigma related informationThe six sigma MOTOROLA first appeared in the 1980 s. In 1983, the product reliability test engineer Bill Suith, product testing and testing cannot detect all the defects, the production process of the failure rate is much higher than the final product testing report, the best way to solve the defects is to improve the production process, from the source to reduce or eliminate the possibility of defects .So he made six sigma standards: 99.9997% of the nearly perfect, life of the "six sigma" many international well-known enterprise applying six sigma to its production process, and achieved fruitful results, such as: MOTOROLA was the CEO of the cause and influence on the bank's survival and development. Starting from the staff, for them, which factors are key factors affecting the work of defects; Measure key indicators, the indicators must be consistent with the overall strategy of the bank, and the control results correlation is high. Measurement is to determine the purpose of the defect, improve operational risk control work needed.3 use sigma measure of control of the actual operation process and standard processUsing six sigma, looking for is a control process, the process of input variables all fall within the limits prescribed, even if in the process of the control index of average deviation, slightly less than 6 sigma, as long as the control result will not change. That is to say, when operating the specific business of commercial Banks, not the whole process does not allow staff error, and there is no blemish, as long as a side effect of the result of the Banks want to eventually in the range of acceptable, can say its in a more accurate control process.4 accurate measurement, planning control projectIn the process of the business operations of commercial Banks, there are a large number of indicators can be measure of operational risk, some indexes of indirect or direct influence on the other. Standards of measurement repeatability and reproducibility studies is under different conditions, repeated measurement to control whether the system of operational risk is accuracy, repeatability, the same staff working many times for the same or different staff working for the same) and reproducibility (or other staff to do the job the same workers for other job), stability (the above three characteristics will change over time).5 control operation risk, focus on resultsA framework is as follows: control process will do a lot of preparation work results into practice at the same time, one thing is crucial: participation and communication. Advocate using six sigma management of operational risk in commercial bank senior manager, not only should act as the leader and the role of advisor, but also for the specific work of the project team to provide support, allocation of resources, to remove obstacles of implementing six sigma. At the same time to cultivate a black belt in director in charge of training operation risk control team of staff, with six sigma method combined review, case study, using the strategy, to instill the idea of six sigma, in need of providing guidance; Black belt head with the support of the whole team members, go all out to control project of improvement.Flexibility, select the appropriate managing partner or a bank can help to achieve business results of experts, using his expertise and experience as much as possible. And at the outset defines what each person are the role of, let staff in the specific work clear know their responsibilities and how to coordinate the efforts of all people, to work in an orderly way.6 the future research directionClearly in the Basel ii requirements: Banks should develop operational risk management framework. This requirement has inspired academia and practice circle research and development the enthusiasm of the operational risk management framework. Operation risk of the basic definitions show that operational risk is the main carrier of business process, and produce on the production line of six sigma management mode and operation risk control method of similarity is very high, although there are still some problems need to be solved, but has certain effectiveness and operability. Commercial Banks according to their own characteristics, the use of six sigma to improve at the same time, make it more suitable for itself characteristic, become by the characteristics of the bank operation risk control methods, and to control the spread of the concept in the scope of the staff, to form part of the culture of Banks and control the incidence of operation risk and damage, improve the level of sales and service of bank management, bring profits and achieve their goals.译文商业银行操作风险控制的研究摘要商业银行操作风险的产生对银行经营效率和盈利水平都会产生影响, 在新巴塞尔协议的推动下, 各大银行都在寻找控制操作风险的方法。
商业银行的风险管理分析外文文献翻译
商业银行的风险管理分析外文文献翻译外文文献：Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the ProcessAbstractThroughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered anumber of North American super-regionals and quasi ±money-center institutions as well as severalfirms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice offinancial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state ofrisk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates howand why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered whereappropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address,shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing inthe current procedures of risk management.1.IntroductionThe past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announcedlarge losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interestrate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedgebalance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon anupgrading of their risk management and control systems.Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of the industry'svulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of theSloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in thefinancial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review andevaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In thebanking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America'ssuper-regionals and quasi ±money-center commercial banks, as well as a number of major investment banking firms. These results were then presented to a much wider array of banking firmsfor reaction and verification. The purpose of the present article is to outline the findings of thisinvestigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry—questions asked, questions answered, and questions left unaddressed by respondents. This report can not recite alitany of the approaches used within the industry, nor can it offer an evaluation of each and everyapproach. Rather, it reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted inthe particular way chosen. But, even the best practice employed within the industry is not goodenough in some areas. Accordingly, critiques also will be offered where appropriate. The articleconcludes with a list of questions that are currently unanswered, or answered imprecisely in thecurrent practice employed by this group of relatively sophisticated banks. Here, we discuss theproblems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the currentmethodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures ofrisk management and risk control.2.What type of risk is being considered?Commercial banks are in the risk business. In the process of providing financial services, theyassume various kinds of financial risks. Over the last decade our understanding of the place ofcommercial banks within the financial sector has improved substantially. Over this time, much hasbeen written on the role of commercial banks in the financial sector, both in the academic literatureand in the financial press. These arguments will be neither reviewed nor enumerated here. Suffice itto say that market participants seek the services of these financial institutions because of theirability to provide market knowledge, transaction efficiency and funding capability. In performingthese roles, they generally act as a principal in the transaction. As such, they use their own balancesheet to facilitate the transaction and to absorb the risks associated with it.To be sure, there are activities performed by banking firms which do not have direct balance sheet implications. These services include agency and advisoryactivities such as(1)trust and investment management;(2)private and public placeme nts through ''bestefforts'' or facilitati ng con tracts;(3)standard underwriting through Section 20 Subsidiaries of the holding company;(4)the packaging, securitizing, distributing, and servicing of loans in the areas of consumer and real estate debt primarily.These items are absent from the traditional financial statement because the latter rely on generally accepted accounting procedures rather than a true economic balance sheet. Nonetheless,the overwhelming majority of the risks facing the banking firm are on-balance-sheet businesses. It is in this area that the discussion of risk management and of the necessary procedures for risk management and control has centered. Accordingly, it is here that our review of risk management procedures will concentrate.3.What kinds of risks are being absorbed?The risks contained in the bank's principal activities, i.e., those involving its own balance sheet and its basic business of lending and borrowing, are not all borne by the bank itself. In many instances the institution will eliminate or mitigate the financial risk associated with a transaction by proper business practices; in others, it will shift the risk to other parties through a combination of pricing and product design.The banking industry recognizes that an institution need not engage in business in amanner that unnecessarily imposes risk upon it; nor should it absorb risk that can be efficiently transferred to other participants. Rather, it should only manage risks at the firm level that are more efficiently managed there than by the market itself or by their owners in their own portfolios. In short, it should accept only those risks that are uniquely a part of the bank's array of services. Elsewhere (Oldfield and Santomero, 1997) it has been argued that risks facing all financial institutions can be segmented into three separable types, from a management perspective. These are:1.risks that can be eliminated or avoided by simple business practices;2.risks that can be transferred to other participants;3.risks that must be actively managed at the firm level.In the first of these cases, the practice of risk avoidance involves actions to reduce the chancesof idiosyncratic losses from standard banking activity by elim in at ing risks that are super - uoUs the in stituti on's bus in ess purpose. Common risk-avoidance practices here include at least threetypes of actions. The standardization of process, contracts, and procedures to prevent inefficient or incorrect financial decisions is the first of these. The construction of portfolios that benefit from diversification across borrowers and that reduce the effects of any one loss experience is another. The implementation of incentivecompatible contracts with the institution's management to require that employees be held accountable is the third. In each case, the goal is to rid the firm of risks that are not essential to the financial service provided, or to absorb only an optimal quantity of a particular kind of risk.There are also some risks that can be eliminated, or at least substantially reduced through the technique of risk transfer. Markets exist for many of the risks borne by the banking firm. Interest rate risk can be transferred by interest rate products such as swaps or other derivatives. Borrowing terms can be altered to effect a change in their duration.Finally, the bank can buy or sell financial claims to diversify or concentrate the risks that result from servicing its client base. To the extent that the financial risks of the assets created by the firm are understood by the market, these assets can be sold at their fair value. Unless the institution has a comparative advantage in managing the attendant risk and/or a desire for the embedded risk which they contain, there is no reason for the bank to absorb such risks, rather than transfer them.However, there are two classes of assets or activities where the risk inherent in the activity must and should be absorbed at the bank level. In these cases, good reasonsexist for using firm resourcesto manage bank level risk. The first of these includes financial assets or activities where the nature of the embedded risk may be complex and difficult to communicate to third parties. This is the case when the bank holds complex and proprietary assetsthat have thin, if not nonexistent, secondary markets. Communication in such cases may be more difficult or expensive than。
金融学专业商业银行信贷风险管理外文文献翻译中3000字
文献出处：Cornett M, Strahan P. The credit risk management of commercial banks [J]. Journal of Financial Economics, 2015, 101(2): 297-312.原文The credit risk management of commercial banksCornett M, Strahan PAbstractCredit risk is one of the most usual ones which any commercial banks may encounter during their operation. Credit risks of commercial banks not only cause losses which result in bankruptcy but also cause the most serious issues of financial and economic crisis of one nation. Referring to credit risk management of Vietnam commercial bank system，the capability of credit risks management of Vietnam commercial banks is still low; The rate of bad debt in the entire system is still much higher than international standards. Take this situation in consideration together with referring to a great number of documentations, I have studied credit risk managementof the three typical commercial bank in Vietnam and analyzed and evaluated the remaining issues in the process of credit risk control by these banks and offer some relevant solutions to the entire system of domestic banks. In credit risk management, I shall focus mainly on unscientific features in econometrics methods of credit risk management issued by commercial banks in Vietnam，which is inclusive of combination of unclear mathematic method and class analysis one to calculate credit risks. Due to the fact that credit risk management after disbursement by most of commercial banks is still weak, it is quite needed to study management after disbursement, particularize the method of identifying credit asset debt, build five-class classification, carry out actual management of credit asset and base on tendency of bad debt to offer solutions for every time period. In conclusion, what motioned herein comes from credit risk management in consideration of prevention, calculation, change and solution as well as risk management institutions.Key words: Risk, credit risk, commercial bank credit.1 Commercial bank credit risk management theoryAlthough Banks have a long history, but the theoretical analysis of credit risk is a relatively short history. By kea ton (Keeton, 1979), stag Ritz and Weiss (Mr. Weiss, 1981) development and formation of the "incomplete information credit rationing models on the market", it is pointed out that the credit market credit risk not only the two typical forms of...Adverse selection and moral hazard, and demonstrates the root of the credit risk, information asymmetry caused by the principal-agent relationship, lead to the emergence of credit rationing. Credit risk management refers to the commercial Banks through the scientific method of various subjective factors could lead to credit losses effectively forecast, analysis, prevention, control and processing. In order to reduce the credit risk, reduce the credit losses and improve the quality of credit, to enhance the capacity of the commercial bank risk control and loss compensation ability of a credit management activity. Depth understanding of credit risk management from the following four to grasp. One is the basis of credit risk management is according to the characteristics of credit requirements, not against the objective law of credit; The second is the credit risk management is scientific, modernization, standardization, quantitative and comprehensive; Three is the credit risk management method is mainly credit risk analysis, risk identification, risk measurement, risk control and risk management; Four is the credit risk management goal is to reduce risk, reduce loss, enhance the ability of commercial Banks operating risk.In order to guarantee bank loans will not be against its customers, to customers, companies, enterprises, such as different customer types before they are allowed to make loans to consider some problems. Also the question bank standard of 5 cabaña will select credit analysis of 5 c as a measure of the basic elements of corporate credit risk:1.1 QualityThe debtor to meet its debt obligations will, is the first indicator of evaluate the credit quality of the debtor. Regarding the quality of the wholesale banking, measure, or can be based on the reputation of the company management/owner eventually and company strategy.1.2 AbilityThe debtor's solvency, include the trend of the vision of the industry, the sustainable development of the company; the financial data mainly embodied in the current ratio and quick ratio. The stability of the corporate cash income directly determines its solvency and probability of default.1.3 CapitalRefers to the capital structure of the debtor or quotas, which indicates that the background of the customer may repay debt, such as debt ratio) or the net value of fixed assets and other financial indicators, etc.Shadow of the company's capital structure financing strategy: equity financing and debt financing.1.4 EnvironmentCompany locates the environment and the adaptability to the environment. Including solvent could affect the debtor's political, economic and market environment, such as the dong to rise and cancel the export tax rebate. As the "green credit, supported by more and more countries and companies, sustainable risk also be incorporated into the environmental risk considerations.1.5 MortgageRepayment of the debt of other potential resources and the resources provided by the additional security. Refuse or insolvent debtor can be used as mortgage/collateral assets, for no credit record (such as trading for the first time) or credit record disputed the debtor2 The commercial bank credit risk management processIn order to effective credit risk management, commercial Banks should grasp the basic application of credit risk management. In general, the credit risk management process can be divided into credit credit risk identification, risk estimate and credit risk handling three phases:2.1 Credit risk identificationCredit risk identification is before in all kinds of credit risk, the risk types and to determine the cause of occurrence of a risk, analysis, in order to achieve the credit risk measurement and processing. Credit risk identification is a qualitative analysis of the risk, is the first step of credit risk management, which is the basis for the rest of the credit risk management. Customer rating system and credit risk classification of the two dimensional rating system is constitute the important content of risk identification. This chapter will make detailed description of the two parts. Before the credit investigation is the commercial bank credit risk identification is the most basic steps, bank loans to the customer before must know the borrowing needs of the clients and purpose. Credit investigation before the concrete has the following contents: understand the purpose of credit, credit purpose including: type, in line with the needs of the business purpose and credit product mix and match the borrower repayment source of credit and credit term and effective mortgage guarantee/warranty or other intangible support.2.2 Credit risk estimateCredit risk estimation is the possibility of Banks in credit risk and the fact that the risk to evaluate the extent of the losses caused by measurement. Its basic requirements: it is estimated that some expected risk the possibility of credit; 2 it is to measure some credit risk fact may cause the loss of the scale. Objective that is both a difficult problem, but such as is not an appraisal, can't the quantitative corresponding countermeasures to prevent and eliminate. With the development of risk management techniques, in the financial markets open, Vietnam's financial regulators and commercial Banks also pay more and more attention to the risk of quantitative, in credit rating and have a certain progress in capital adequacy.Before Banks to make loans to customers, Banks must also understand the purpose of the customer, more understand the usage of loan customers, whether it is feasible, from now on, find a way to manage future loans to avoid the violation of the customer. As a result, Banks should use the loan examination and approval way to deal with.2.3 The processing of credit riskCredit risk after processing is that the Banks in the recognition and valuation risk, the effective measures taken by different for different size of loan risk take different processing method, make the credit risk is reduced to the lowest degree. Risk treatment methods mainly include: risk transfer refers to the bank assumes the credit risk on to others in some way. Transfer way, it is transferred to the customer, such as Banks to raise interest rates, require the borrower to provide mortgage, pledge or other additional conditions, etc.; 2 it is transferred to the insurance company, the bank will those particularly risky, once happened will loss serious loans directly to the insurance company insured, or by the customer to the insurance company insured to transfer risk;3 Commercial bank credit risk management regulation.In the risk management of commercial Banks to improve themselves at the same time, regulators and external credit rating agencies to the commercial bank credit risk management has a different regulation method.3.1 The China banking regulatory commission five classificationsThe CBRC requires commercial Banks asset quality for five categories, to reflect the face possible credit losses. System is classifying loans into five categories according to the inherent risk level could be divided into normal commercial loans, concern, loss of secondary, suspicious, five categories.The China banking regulatory commission five classifications has the advantage that the bank asset quality can be compared more easily, also can take credit quality ofthe whole global. Disadvantage is that some small and medium-sized Banks because of the lack of independent audit and internal audit, classification standard is difficult to unity, the China banking regulatory commission five classifications often find selective examination questions.3.2 Stress tests, a rating agencyRating agencies will be according to the information disclosure and audit results and adjusting the bank's credit rating. Stress test is a credit rating agency for checking the quality of commercial bank credit and common ways of anti-risk ability. Because of the influence of the stress tests, for what has happened, to predict the result may worsen the credit quality; Or for the possibility of events, predict the results of the impact of credit quality. Similar stress tests include, an industry is a strong shock cases the possibility of default, or large credit customer default could lead to credit quality decline.3.3 The new Basel capital accordNew Basel capital agreement hereinafter referred to as the new Basel agreement (hereinafter referred to as Basel II) in English, is by the bank for international settlements under the Basel committee on banking supervision (BCBS), and content for 1988 years the old Basel capital accord (Basel I) have had to make significant changes, in order to standardize the international risk management system, improve the international financial services of risk management ability.译文商业银行信贷风险管理作者：Cornett M, Strahan P摘要信贷风险是商业银行经营过程中所面临的最主要的风险之一。
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银行风险管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)关于巴塞尔II：新巴塞尔资本协议的影响摘要：国际监管机构在2003年完成新资本协议，银行决定在2006年底执行这个协议。
巴塞尔协议是对全球银行业改革的监管。
在本文中，我们回顾新巴塞尔资本协议内容以及一些我们所期望对欧洲银行业发生的重要影响。
正如在第一届巴塞尔协议修正案（Basel I）中，我们得出结论，新巴塞尔协议不仅对持有资本额的数量做了规定，还对银行业的战略格局进行展望。
关键词：银行，流动性，监管，风险管理新巴塞尔资本协议的新规则巴塞尔委员会虽然只是公布了三分之一，但这很可能是协商的最后新资本协议（Basel II）文件。
这项建议如获通过，将会深刻地改变银行的偿付能力的方式，监管机构监管银行风险管理实施过程和银行必须对市场参与者公布的风险信息量，经过讨论会，巴塞尔委员会预计将在2003年底发布的新资本协议的最后草案。
目前的巴塞尔资本协议（Basel I）对达到加强国际金融体系的稳定的既定目标已经有了显著成效，通过在不同国家持续应用本协议的同时，增加了资本水平，创造了一个更公平的竞争领域。
总的来说，目前的全球一级资本的平均水平从1993年的约6%升至8%，此外，巴塞尔资本协议已经应用于100多个国家，远远超过最初的预期。
尽管实现其最初目标的成效很明显，很显然，对于巴塞尔我有一些意想不到的不良后果，这是因为目前决定的最低资本要求方式相对粗略。
根据目前的做法，银行必须持有合格股东权益账面价值(一级和二级资本)的百分之八风险加权资产（RWAs）。
在识别了潜在的有限信贷风险之后，大部分资产被完全加权。
对公司债券发行人或者经济合作与发展组织的银行和政府发行的高风险贷款的完全风险加权资产或零风险加权的资产而言，目前的协议条款缺乏足够的风险灵活性，这也意味着许多银行已经偏离了具有吸引力的价格定位。
巴塞尔的另一个不良影响表现为监管机构在限制负债资产增长的同时，监管机构也在追逐更大的套利回报（例如，凭借364天的循环贷款和风险加权资产驱动的证券化计划）。
现行做法的再一个缺陷就是只考虑信贷风险和市场风险，却忽视操作风险。
这也意味着，如咨询服务，资产管理，保管及吸收存款等现行的业务路线逐渐被认为是“毫无风险的”。
图1已经简明扼要的总结了关于新巴塞尔协议设法解决与它前身相关问题的途径，如图1所示。
可以看出，新巴塞尔协议围绕三个涵盖最低资本充足率，监督审查和市场准则等核心问题。
核心1的规定是为了防范银行信贷风险在最低资本充足率（在巴塞尔协议的基础之上有了大幅度地修改和提高），市场风险（1997年巴塞尔修正案的基础，未作修改）和操作风险（新巴塞尔中的新增项目）上暴露的风险。
关于信贷风险，银行可以选择核心1中的三种途径作为参考：标准化的方法很大程度上依赖于外部评级和监管水平。
另一种方法是以内部评级（IRB）作为基础的的方法，其允许银行使用内部模型来计算资本充足率。
这两种方法在依赖于银行实际投资行为的程度上有着相对复杂的不同：简单的内部评级基本方法都众所周知，复杂的就是先进的内部评级方法，因此，不同于巴塞尔协议的做法，个别银行采取不同的最低资本充足率取决于其内部信贷风险管理能力的复杂性和各自借贷要求的风险特征，如图2中描述。
1.设定最低可接受的资本水平2.强化信用风险评定-公共评级-内部评级-减缓3.明确的操作风险应对措施4.市场风险结构,资本定义/比例保持不变1.银行必须评估应对风险偿付能力2.监督审查银行核算和资本策略3.严格控制最低资本水平超额限度4.监管机构的早期干预能够阻止资本水平的恶化1.改善上市公司资本结构的披露2.改善风险尺度及管理措施的披露3.改善风险轮廓的披露4.改善资本充足率的披露核心1最低资本充足率核心2资本充足率的监督审查核心3市场准则新巴塞尔协议条款图1 新巴塞尔资本协议的框架图2 核心1中信贷风险的三种途径以上是三种识别操作风险的可行途径。
两个常用的包括基本的和标准的方法，针对操作风险要求列举总收入(或者，特殊情况下的资产)的百分比。
也是最复杂的、最先进的衡量方法(AMA)，它推动了操作风险量化的前沿，但其资本影响尚未确定。
新巴塞尔协议的核心2要求监管机构评估银行风险管理流程的合理性和维系较高偿付能力目标水平的资本地位。
新巴塞尔协议中明确指出：期望银行能够继续持有通过核心1下计算的超过最低水平资本的部分。
他的评价是要在对该机构进行彻底审查企业范围内的风险管理能力为基础，某种程度上，这种的内部风险测量工具已经被个别银行运用到日常业务中了。
如果风险或资本管理流程被认为不令人满意，监管机构必须介入进行干预。
最后，核心3是为了培育增强个别传统市场纪律和历史不透明的银行风险和资本管理。
通过要求加强披露的深度和广度，将首次从根本上打破银行财务报告，敏感风险参数和银行风险承担强制报告的形式。
巴塞尔委员会也与国际会计标准(IAS)组织一道参与，以确保报告要求的一致性。
因此，我们希望这些新的要求，将为未来全球金融服务机构的报告设定标准。
赢家和输家建立更加灵活性的风险框架意味着资本充足率将改变贯穿业务，银行和地区等限制。
反过来，这意味着巴塞尔II资本要求的条款下将有赢家和输家。
为了确定赢家和输家，我们分析了新巴塞尔协议对组成信贷和操作风险的最低资本充足率各种因素的影响。
我们的分析完善了由巴塞尔委员会公布了2003年5月最终定量影响研究(QIS3) 的结果。
我们的分析结果和QIS3的区别关键在于，我们的目标是, 评估新巴塞尔协议的最终影响。
而QIS3反映了目前的现状，举例来说，只有相对成熟的银行有能力使用内部评级方法来评估信贷资本充足率。
我们的估计表明，在内部评级方法的基础之上，银行业总体的最低资本充足率作为一个整体将大概不会变化。
随标准化方法增加和随内部评级方法减少，符合新巴塞尔协议(和QIS3)提出维持现有总体资产水平的目标，并全面激励改进风险管理。
如图3所示，在欧洲，有效风险加权资产量随着产品类型的不同而不断变化(包含信贷和操作风险) 。
法人风险加权资产的变化严重依赖评级。
毕竟尺度是公司违约风险(PD)的一个主导因素，非零售企业的风险加权资产增长的，反之，大型企业的持有总额将削减。
最大的削减就是抵押贷款。
正常情况下，其他零售产品也是“大赢家”，尽管这其中包括使资本充足率下的个人贷款和内部评级中所需的逐渐增加的信用卡，但这两者之间存在潜在的重大差异。
目前大部分零加权的主权国家很大可能相应最大程度地增加最低所需资本。
同样的，西欧国家有效风险加权资产的不同主要基于他们在总体投资组合的分散性和风险参数方面的差异。
在风险相对较低和银行零售贷款业务高度集中的北欧地区，内部评级中的风险加权资产可能会遭受的大幅的下降。
假设对比意大利和德国目前的趋势，德国会出现更大的增幅。
图3 欧洲不同产品的风险加权资产期望值总之，资本充足率的调整作为目前业务组合的功能。
风险管理的形势和复杂性，以及内部评级中大部分银行的监管资本可能出现缩减，有些银行的这些资本则会增加。
随之而来的事实就是当银行偏向内部评级时，更大比例的银行投资组合将被限定，有可能进一步推动了信用风险转换工具的使用，如信用衍生工具、资产证券化和二级债务资本市场的交易。
采用新巴塞尔协议对改善经营业绩有着显著的影响发展至今的银行业整体实现进化只有逐渐以节约为主的股东价值管理为导向。
由于其广泛的影响，新巴塞尔协议这种应加快这一趋势。
较之于渐渐推广的“最佳做法”，巴塞尔的要求将影响欧洲所有的银行(包括占相当比例的北美银行资产)，促使“落后者”加快了速度。
另外，资本手段促进经济资本的实施和规避风险后的回报率的关键障碍往往就是缺乏一个可靠的定量的内部评级体系。
遵循新的内部评级方法，并在信贷业务的精细水平上兑现这些措施，它将提供所需的大部分参数。
此外，对操作风险而言，新资本协议为其提供了归属于非信用经济资本或市场风险的密集行为的基础（虽然目前并不完善），如资产管理、处理和资产证券化。
随着新巴塞尔协议的指标在其业务体系尚未整合风险调整措施的银行中的实施，那些已经作出这种转变，并走在队伍前列的银行的经验将是一面镜子，可以预期的重要战略措施包括：风险定价总所周知，对信贷市场而言，风险定价是无效。
虽然这部分是由于银行使用信用卡出售非信贷业务的首要损失，这也反映了许多银行无法准确地量化使其维持在足够精细的水平的信用风险。
内部评级标准评价工具将为量化风险提供一个坚实的基础，并通过渗入更有效的风险定价机制，使之走的更远。
重新制定对企业和中小企业的投资组合的信用审核内部评级标准的评价工具，也可以作为一种调整工具，在信贷审批过程中为限额设定，贷款服务和监测进程等风险资源提供最佳指南。
通过利用新评价工具的信息内容，银行可以重新设计信贷成本流程，使他们达到“更快，更好，更省”的效果。
改进操作风险巴塞尔协议提出的资本支出必将引导改进操作风险绩效，即使只存在着微妙的联系，重点在于操作风险识别、风险损失报告、风险监控和风险控制。
积极的投资组合管理实施更好的风险和收益的措施将促进积极的投资组合管理，即投资组合经理需寻求优化的贷款，以确定资产负债表中风险收益组合的配置，哪些该保值，哪些该被抛售到二级市场。
顾客价值管理和关系经理绩效使用内部评级标准的风险测量工具宜允许银行对个别客户和客户关系经理的经济附加价值进行评估，为优化客户分类和奖励客户关系经理创造价值的能力提供更好的机会。
新巴塞尔协议标准工具的潜在杠杆作用足以弥补大多数企业的平均合理花费。
最佳实务风险和资本管理是关键新巴塞尔协议代表了风险和资本管理的新纪元，并在银行战略定位中发挥着日益核心的功能，因此，这是风险和资产负债管理中的一种进步，它的潜在成功也给后巴塞尔世界释放了明确的信号。
实现最佳实务方法包括:⏹遵循新巴塞尔协议，信贷风险将维持在接近于内部评级的先进水平，否则它毫不具有重要战略意义。
⏹加快建立信贷投资组合模型和（正在进行的）经济效率的风险转移措施的论证，并已被证实。
⏹实现趋向一体化的资本管理跨越：➢优化资本总额和一级/ 二级资本市场的结合，包括监管机构、评级机构、债权人及股东关注的资本和资本成本。
➢对内部资本资源进行有效的经济配置。
➢加强风险评估和资本经营之间的组织联系。
➢建立为以价值导向的业务规划提供支持的资本预测。
⏹增加风险和资产负债结构的披露方面的透明度，同时积极主动地加强主要风险、资本指标和外部客户战略方面的沟通。
随着市场调整适应新的披露机制和监管机构发挥的日益强大的作用，金融服务的竞争环境将会相应的转移，除了对银行内部的风险和资本管理水平有明显提升作用之外，还需对银行的业务模式进行重新评估，并且需要更清楚地对股东价值的交割目标进行沟通。
现在是不得不作出战略和战术决定的时候了，以应对新巴塞尔世界的到来。