A Paradox in the Theory of Democracy 民主理论中的一个矛盾
关于战争批判性思维的英语作文
关于战争批判性思维的英语作文War, a concept that has haunted humanity since the dawn of civilization, is a complex tapestry of power struggles, ideological conflicts, and territorial disputes. It is a subject that demands critical thinking, as it is not merely a clash of arms but a profound test of morality, strategy, and the very essence of human nature. The critique of war is not just an academic exercise but a necessary dialogue to foster peace and prevent the recurrence of history's most devastating events.The first line of critique against war is its cost in human lives. The toll of war is not only measured in the dead but also in the wounded, both physically and psychologically. The scars of war run deep, affecting not just the soldiers but also the innocent civilians who are all too often caught in the crossfire. This human cost is incalculable and serves as a stark reminder of the urgency to seek peaceful resolutions to conflicts.Economically, war is a drain on resources that could be better spent on education, healthcare, and infrastructure. The diversion of funds to military endeavors often leads to the neglect of social services and the exacerbation of inequality. Moreover, the long-term economic impact of war includes rebuilding costs, reparations, and the lingering effects of a destabilized economy.Moral and ethical considerations are also central to the critique of war. The principles of just war theory, which include the concepts of just cause, right intention, and proportionality, provide a framework for evaluating the morality of war. However, the application of these principles is often fraught with controversy, as the realities of warfare can lead to civilian casualties, collateral damage, and the violation of human rights.Furthermore, the psychological impact of war cannot be understated. It breeds fear, hatred, and a cycle of vengeance that is difficult to break. The mental health of societies is severely affected, leading to intergenerational trauma and a pervasive sense of insecurity.The critique of war also extends to its role in the propagation of ideologies that may not withstand the scrutiny of critical analysis. Wars are often fought in the name of freedom or democracy, yet the methods employed can be in direct opposition to these values. The paradox of using violence to establish peace is a contradiction that requires careful examination.In conclusion, the critical thinking approach to war involves a multifaceted analysis that considers the human, economic, moral, and psychological dimensions. It is through this lens that we can better understand the true costs of war and work towards a world where the resolution of conflicts is achieved through diplomacy and dialogue rather than through the destructive path of warfare.。
【最新精选】试析美国种族歧视的历史根源
试析美国种族歧视的历史根源摘要: 美国是一个自我标榜的民主和自由的国家, 但是这种民主和自由是充满了悖论的。
美国一直存在着种族歧视现象。
美国的白人观、黑奴制、黑人意识等三个因素互相影响, 使美国的种族矛盾丛生。
作者简介: 张晓云(1978- ) , 女, 安徽淮北人, 硕士研究生, 研究方向: 美国史。
长期以来, 美国一直标榜自己是最民主、最自由、最理想的社会, 殊不知其本身也是社会问题丛生。
种族歧视便是其根深蒂固的社会痼疾之一。
2000年9 月21 日美国国务院发表的报告承认, 尽管消除种族歧视的法律已经颁布了几十年, 但是种族歧视依然困扰着美国社会。
报告声称:“虽然大多数白人不认为今天的美国有太多的种族歧视问题, 但大多数少数民族在现实生活中的感觉却正好相反。
”[1 ]90年代美国依然出现了一系列的种族歧视的事件, 诸如1991 年洛杉矶警察殴打黑人罗尼·金, 1999 年黑人移民迪亚洛在纽约被4 名白人警察连击几十枪而当场毙命, 得克萨斯州一位名叫詹姆斯·伯德的黑人被绑在汽车上活活拖死, 以及许多犹太人、穆斯林和黑人宗教场所被烧毁等, 充分显示了这一问题的严重性。
报告还注意到, 在美国被关押在监狱里的黑人和被判死刑的黑人比例明显高于白人。
在各州的监狱中, 大约47% 的囚犯为黑人, 16% 的囚犯为拉美裔美国人。
在1977 年至1998 年期间, 黑人仅占美国全国人口的10% 至12% , 但在5709 名被判死刑的人当中, 有41% 是黑人。
为什么种族歧视在美国依然存在。
本文试图做简单的分析。
1美国的白人观美国的白人意识由来已久, 它并不是在接触黑人后才产生的, 而是英国文化中早已沉淀下来的自我认同心理。
对于伊丽莎白时代的英格兰人来说, 白色具有一种特殊的文化上的含义, 它成为人们特别是女性美丽的代表物。
有诗这样赞美女王:“她的脸颊, 她的下颚, 她的勃颈, 她的鼻子, 这就是百合, 这就是玫瑰; 她的双手之白, 洁如鲸骨, 她的指尖, 闪烁着淡紫; 她的胸脯, 光滑如巴黎凝脂, 托起两峰雪花石膏。
写矛盾的英语作文
写矛盾的英语作文Progress is often heralded as the pinnacle of human achievement. It signifies development, improvement, and the relentless pursuit of betterment. However, the very conceptof progress is riddled with contradictions and paradoxes that challenge our understanding of what it truly means to advance. This essay explores the multifaceted nature of progress, dissecting its inherent contradictions and evaluating its implications on society.One of the most glaring paradoxes of progress is thenotion that technological advancement, while designed to make life easier, often complicates it. The advent of the smartphone is a prime example. Originally intended to enhance communication and productivity, smartphones have become a source of constant distraction and anxiety. People are perpetually connected, which blurs the line between work andpersonal life, leading to burnout and decreased overall well-being. This phenomenon is emblematic of a broader trend where tools designed to liberate us often end up enslaving us in new ways.Similarly, the rise of social media platforms, which promised to bring people closer together, has, in many cases, driven them apart. The curated nature of online personas fosters unrealistic expectations and feelings of inadequacy among users. Instead of fostering genuine connections, social media often encourages superficial interactions and amplifies feelings of loneliness and depression. This contradiction highlights the complexity of progress in the realm of human relationships.Economic progress presents another set of contradictions. The Industrial Revolution, for instance, brought about unprecedented economic growth and improved standards ofliving for many. However, it also resulted in significantsocial upheaval, environmental degradation, and a stark division between the rich and the poor. Today, the rapid pace of technological innovation continues to create economic disparities. While some reap enormous benefits from advancements in fields like artificial intelligence and biotechnology, others are left behind, struggling to adapt to the changing job market. This growing inequality underscores the double-edged nature of economic progress.Environmental progress is fraught with paradoxes as well. Efforts to develop sustainable technologies, such as electric cars and renewable energy sources, are crucial in combating climate change. Yet, the production and disposal of these technologies often involve environmentally harmful practices. For example, the mining of lithium for electric car batteries can lead to significant ecological damage. This contradiction reveals the complexity of achieving true sustainability in a world dependent on industrial and technological solutions.The paradox of progress is also evident in the realm of healthcare. Medical advancements have undoubtedly extendedlife expectancy and improved the quality of life for many. However, these advancements have also led to new ethical dilemmas and unintended consequences. The development of antibiotics, for instance, has saved countless lives but has also contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Moreover, while modern medicine can prolong life,it often does so at the expense of quality of life, raising difficult questions about the balance between longevity and well-being.Cultural progress, too, is not immune to paradoxes. The push for globalization has led to a more interconnected world, fostering cross-cultural exchange and understanding. However, this same process has also resulted in the erosion of local cultures and traditions. The homogenization of global culture can lead to the loss of unique cultural identities and practices, which are essential components of human diversity.This tension between global integration and cultural preservation is yet another example of the complex nature of progress.Educational progress reveals further contradictions. While access to education has increased globally, leading to greater literacy rates and opportunities for many, the pressure to excel academically has also intensified. This has resulted in a culture of competition and stress among students, sometimes to the detriment of their mental health. Additionally, the focus on standardized testing and measurable outcomes can stifle creativity and critical thinking, which are essential for true intellectual growth. This paradox highlights the challenge of fostering meaningful education in a performance-driven society.Political progress is equally complex. The spread of democratic ideals and institutions has been a hallmark of modern progress. However, the implementation of democracy isoften fraught with challenges. Democracies can be prone to inefficiency, corruption, and populism, which can undermine their effectiveness and legitimacy. Moreover, the imposition of democratic systems in regions with different cultural and historical contexts can lead to instability and conflict. This paradox illustrates the difficulties in achieving and maintaining political progress.Scientific progress, while expanding our understanding of the universe, also raises profound ethical questions. Breakthroughs in genetics, for example, hold the potential to eradicate diseases and improve human capabilities. However, they also pose significant ethical dilemmas regarding genetic modification and the potential for eugenics. The dual-use nature of many scientific discoveries, which can be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes, exemplifies the ethical paradoxes inherent in scientific progress.The paradoxes of progress extend to the personal realm as well. The pursuit of self-improvement and personal growth is a fundamental aspect of the human experience. However, this pursuit can sometimes lead to a perpetual sense of inadequacy and dissatisfaction. The pressure to constantly better oneself can overshadow the appreciation of one's current state and achievements, leading to a paradox where the quest for personal progress undermines personal happiness.In conclusion, the concept of progress is inherently paradoxical. While it drives development and innovation, it also introduces new challenges and complexities. Technological advancements can complicate lives, economic growth can exacerbate inequalities, and environmental solutions can have unintended ecological impacts. Medical breakthroughs pose ethical dilemmas, cultural integration threatens diversity, and educational improvements can create pressure and stifle creativity. Political systems face implementation challenges, scientific discoveries raiseethical questions, and the pursuit of personal growth can lead to dissatisfaction. Understanding these paradoxes is crucial in navigating the path of progress, ensuring that we strive for advancements that genuinely enhance human well-being without overlooking their potential downsides.。
《理性选民的迷思》(The%20Myth%20of%20the%20Rational%20Voter)
In theory, democracy is a bulwark againstsocially harmful policies. In practice, however,democracies frequently adopt and maintain poli-cies that are damaging. How can this paradox beexplained?The influence of special interests and voterignorance are two leading explanations. I offeran alternative story of how and why democracyfails. The central idea is that voters are worsethan ignorant; they are, in a word, irrational —andthey vote accordingly. Despite their lack ofknowledge, voters are not humble agnostics;instead, they confidently embrace a long list ofmisconceptions.Economic policy is the primary activity of themodern state. And if there is one thing that thepublic deeply misunderstands, it is economics.People do not grasp the “invisible hand” of themarket, with its ability to harmonize private greed and the public interest. I call this anti-mar-ket bias. They underestimate the benefits of interaction with foreigners. I call this anti-foreign bias. They equate prosperity not with produc-tion, but with employment. I call this make-work bias. Finally, they are overly prone to think that economic conditions are bad and getting worse.I call this pessimistic bias. In the minds of many, Winston Churchill’s famous aphorism cuts the conversation short:“Democracy is the worst form of government,except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.” But this saying overlooks the fact that governments vary in scope as well as form. In democracies the main alternative to majority rule is not dictatorship, but markets. A better understanding of voter irrationality advis-es us to rely less on democracy and more on the market.The Myth of the Rational VoterWhy Democracies Choose Bad Policies by Bryan Caplan_____________________________________________________________________________________________________Bryan Caplan is an associate professor of economics at George Mason University and an adjunct scholar at the Cato Institute. This study is an excerpt from Caplan’s book, The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies (Princeton University Press, 2007).Executive Summary No. 594May 29, 2007Introduction: The Paradoxof DemocracyIn a dictatorship, government policy is often appalling but rarely baffling. The building of the Berlin Wall sparked worldwide outcry, but few wondered, “what are the leaders of East Germany thinking?” That was obvious: they wanted to continue ruling over their subjects, who were inconsiderately fleeing en masse.No wonder democracy is such a popular political panacea. The history of dictator-ships creates a strong impression that bad policies exist because the interests of rulers and ruled diverge. A simple solution is make the rulers and the ruled identical by giving “power to the people.” If the people decide to delegate decisions to full-time politicians, so what? Those who pay the piper—or vote to pay the piper—call the tune.This optimistic story is, however, often at odds with the facts. Democracies frequently adopt and maintain policies harmful for most people.1Protectionism is a classic example. Economists across the political spectrum have pointed out its folly for centuries, but almost every democracy restricts imports. Admittedly, this is less appalling than the Berlin Wall, yet it is more baffling. In theory, democracy is a bul-wark against socially harmful policies, but in practice it gives them a safe harbor.H ow can this paradox be explained? One answer is that the people’s “representatives”have turned the tables on them.2Elections might be a weaker deterrent to misconduct than they seem on the surface, making it more important to please special interests than the general public. A second answer, which com-plements the first, is that voters are deeply ignorant about politics.3They do not know who their representatives are, much less what they do. This tempts politicians to pursue per-sonal agendas and sell themselves to donors.I offer an alternative story of how democ-racy fails. The central idea is that voters are worse than ignorant; they are, in a word, irra-tional—and vote accordingly. Despite their lack of knowledge, voters are not humbleagnostics; instead, they confidently embrace a long list of misconceptions.When cataloging the failures of democra-cy, one must keep things in perspective. The shortcomings of democracy pale in compari-son with those of totalitarian regimes. Democracies do not murder millions of their own citizens. Fair enough, but such compar-isons set the bar too low. Now that democra-cy is the most common form of government, there is little reason to dwell on the truism that it is “better than communism.” It is now more worthwhile to figure out how and why democracy falls short.In the minds of many, one of Winston Churchill’s most famous aphorisms cuts the conversation short: “Democracy is the worst form of government, except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time.”4But this saying overlooks the fact that governments vary in scope as well as form. In democracies the main alternative to majority rule is not dictatorship, but markets.Economists have an undeserved reputa-tion for “religious faith” in markets. No one has done more than economists to dissect the innumerable ways that markets can fail. After all their investigations, though, econo-mists typically conclude that the man in the street—and the intellectual without econom-ic training—underestimates how well mar-kets work. I maintain that something quite different holds for democracy: it is widely over rated not only by the public but by most economists, too. Thus, while the general pub-lic underestimates how well markets work, even economists underestimate markets’virtues relative to the democratic alternative.Is the “Miracle of Aggregation” Just WishfulThinking?What voters don’t know would fill a uni-versity library. In the last few decades, econo-mists who study politics have thrown fuel on the fire by pointing out that—selfishly speak-ing—voters are not making a mistake. One2Voters are worse than ignorant; theyare, in a word,irrational—and vote accordingly.vote has so small a probability of affecting electoral outcomes that a realistic egoist pays no attention to politics; he chooses to be, in economic jargon, rationally ignorant.The vast empirical literature on voter knowledge bears this out.5Almost all econo-mists and political scientists now accept that the average citizen’s level of political knowl-edge is extraordinarily low. At the same time, however, scholars have also largely come to believe that this doesn’t really matter,because democracy can function well under almost any magnitude of voter ignorance.6How is this possible? Assume that voters do not make systematic errors. Though they err constantly, their errors are random.7If voters face a blind choice between X and Y, knowing nothing about them, they are equal-ly likely to choose either.With 100 percent voter ignorance, matters are predictably grim. One candidate could be the Unabomber, plotting to shut down civiliza-tion. If voters choose randomly, the Unabomber wins half the time. True, the assumption of zero voter knowledge is overly pessimistic; informed voters are rare, but they do exist. But this seems a small consolation. One hundred percent igno-rance leads to disaster. Can 99 percent ignorance be significantly better?Yes. Democracy with 99 percent ignorance looks a lot more like democracy with full information than democracy with total igno-rance. Why? First, imagine an electorate where 100 percent of all voters are well-informed. Who wins the election? Trivially, whoever has the support of a majority of the well-informed. Next, switch to the case where only 1 percent of voters are well-informed. The other 99 percent are so thick that they vote at random. Quiz a person waiting to vote, and you are almost sure to conclude, with alarm, that he has no idea what he is doing. Nevertheless, it is basic statistics that—in a large electorate—each candidate gets about half of the random votes. Both candidates can bank on roughly a 49.5 percent share. Yet that is not enough to win. For that, they must focus all their energies on the one well-informed person in a hundred. Who takesthe prize? Whoever has the support of a majority ofthe well-informed.This result has been aptly named the “mira-cle of aggregation.”8It reads like an alchemist’srecipe: mix 99 parts folly with 1 part wisdom toget a compound as good as unadulterated wis-dom. An almost completely ignorant electoratemakes the same decision as a fully informedelectorate—lead into gold, indeed!It is tempting to call this “voodoo poli-tics,” or quip, as H. L. Mencken did, that“democracy is a pathetic belief in the collec-tive wisdom of individual ignorance.” Butthere is nothing magical or pathetic about it.James Surowiecki documents many instanceswhere the miracle of aggregation—or some-thing akin to it—works as advertised.9In acontest to guess the weight of an ox, the averageof 787 guesses was off by a single pound. OnWho Wants to Be a Millionaire,the answer mostpopular with studio audiences was correct 91percent of the time. Financial markets—which aggregate the guesses of large num-bers of people—often predict events betterthan leading experts. Betting odds are excel-lent predictors of the outcomes of everythingfrom sporting events to elections. In eachcase, the logic enunciated by political scien-tists Benjamin Page and Robert Shapiroapplies:This is just an example of the law oflarge numbers. Under the right condi-tions, individual measurement errorswill be independently random and willtend to cancel each other out. Errors inone direction will tend to offset errorsin the opposite direction.10Judging from research in recent decades,most economists find this logic compelling.Almost all “respectable” modern economictheories of politics begin by assuming thatthe typical citizen understands economicsand votes accordingly—at least on average.11Nor is this view limited to apologists for thestatus quo. Some of the sternest critics ofgovernment regulation nevertheless scoff atthe assumption of systematic voter bias.3Almost all“respectable”modern economictheories of politicsbegin by assumingthat the typicalcitizenunderstandseconomics andvotes accordingly.Legendary Chicago economist George Stigler is a case in point:The assumption that public policy hasoften been inefficient because it wasbased on mistaken views has little tocommend it. To believe, year after year,decade after decade, that the protectivetariffs or usury laws to be found inmost lands are due to confusion ratherthan purposeful action is singularlyobfuscatory.12The bottom line is that if the miracle of aggre-gation is true, then democracy can work, even with a morbidly ignorant electorate. Demo-cracy gives equal say to the wise and the not-so-wise, but the wise determine policy. Belaboring the electorate’s lack of knowledge with study after study is beside the point.But there is another kind of empirical evi-dence that can discredit the miracle of aggre-gation. The “miracle” only works if voters do not make systematic errors. This suggests that instead of rehashing the whole topic of voter error, we concentrate our fire on the critical and relatively unexplored question: Are voter errors systematic?13There are good reasons to suspect so. Our average guess about the weight of oxen is dead on. But cognitive psychology catalogs a long list of other questions where our average guess is systematically mistaken.14That body of research ought to open our minds to the possibility of systematic voter error.By itself, though, the psychological litera-ture does not get us very far. The link between general cognition and particular political decisions is too loose. Voters might be bad statisticians but perceptive judges of wise policy. Thus, we should refine our ques-tion: Are voter errors systematic on questions of direct political relevance?My answer is an emphatic yes. Economic policy is the primary activity of the modern state, making voter beliefs about economics among the most—if not the most—politically relevant beliefs. And if there is one thing that the public deeply misunderstands, it is eco-nomics.15People do not grasp the “invisible hand” of the market and its ability to harmo-nize private greed and the public interest. I call this anti-market bias. They underestimate the benefits of interaction with foreigners. I call this anti-foreign bias. They equate prosperity not with production, but with employment. I call this make-work bias. Lastly, they are overly prone to think that economic conditions are bad and getting worse. I call this pessimistic bias.If voters base their policy preferences on deeply mistaken models of the economy, gov-ernment is likely to perform its bread and but-ter function poorly. To see this, suppose that two candidates compete by taking positions on the degree of protectionism they favor. Random voter errors about the effect of protec-tion cause some voters who prefer the effect of free trade to vote for protection. But it is equal-ly common for voters who prefer the effect of protection to vote for free trade (see Figure 1).16Then the miracle of aggregation holds: in spite of voter ignorance, the winning platform is socially optimal.For anyone who has taught international economics, though, this conclusion is under-whelming. It takes hours of patient instruc-tion to show students the light of compara-tive advantage. After the final exam, there is a distressing rate of recidivism. Suppose we adopt the more realistic assumption that vot-ers systematically overestimate the benefits of protection. What happens? Lots of people vote for protection who prefer the effect of free trade, but only a few vote for free trade who prefer the effect of protection (see Figure 2). The political scales tilt out of bal-ance; the winning platform is too protection-ist. The median voter would be better off if he received less protection than he asked for. But com-petition impels politicians to heed what vot-ers ask for, not what is best for them.Comparable biases plausibly underlie policy after policy. For example, the law of supply and demand says that above-market prices create unsaleable surpluses, but that has not stopped most of Europe from regulating labor markets into decades of depression-level unemploy-ment.17The most credible explanation is that 4Are voter errors systematic onquestions of direct politicalrelevance?the average voter sees no link between artificial-ly high wages and unemployment. Before I studied economics, I failed to see it myself.Systematically Biased Beliefs about EconomicsEconomists have been complaining about anti-market, anti-foreign, make-work, and pessimistic biases for centuries. But what exactly have economists been criticizing? Where does the public go wrong? How preva-lent are these biases? And if experts and thepublic deeply disagree, what reason is thereto side with the experts, anyway? Perhaps it isthe experts who are biased.I draw on several different bodies of evidenceto answer those questions. To pin down whateconomists have been criticizing, I providesome historic examples. To explain where thepublic goes wrong, I summarize the main argu-ments that economists have made in the pastand that textbooks still make today. To esti-mate the prevalence of these biases, I rely on alarge body of surveys from recent decades.But what about the hardest objection ofall? Isn’t it possible that the bias lies in the5Economists havebeen complainingabout anti-market,anti-foreign,make-work, andpessimistic biasesfor centuries.Figure 1The Median Voter Model: Random Error Figure 2The Median Voter Model: Systematic Errorexperts, rather than the public? If one finds the economists of the past and the textbooks of the present convincing, this question becomes less interesting. But the critics of the economics profession do make some disturb-ing accusations about the field’s objectivity.The most common doubt about econo-mists stems from their apparent inability to agree, bestcaptured by George Bernard Shaw’s line that “if all economists were laid end to end, they would not reach a conclu-sion.”18But economists’ hard-core detractors recognize the superficiality of this complaint. They know that economists regularly see eye-to-eye with one another. A quip from Steven Kelman directly contradicts Shaw:The near-unanimity of the answerseconomists give to public policy ques-tions, highly controversial among therun of intelligent observers, but whichshare the characteristic of being able tobe analyzed in terms of microeconomictheory, reminds one of the unanimitycharacterizing bodies such as the polit-buro of the Soviet Communist Party.19It is not lack of consensus that incenses knowledgeable critics, but the way econo-mists unite behind unpalatable conclusions, such as doubts about the benefits of regula-tion. Kelman bemoans the fact that even economists in the Carter administration were economists first and liberals second: At the government agency where I haveworked and where agency lawyers andagency microeconomists interact witheach other . . . the lawyers are oftenexasperated, not only by the frequencywith which agency economists attacktheir proposals but also by the una-nimity among the agency economistsin their opposition. The lawyers tendto (incorrectly) attribute this opposi-tion to failure to hire “a broad enoughspectrum” of economists, and to begthe economists, if they can’t supportthe lawyers’ proposals, at least to givethem “the best economic arguments”in favor of them. . . . The economists’answer is typically something like,“There are no good economic argu-ments for your proposal.”20Unsurprisingly, critics rarely change their minds once they notice how regularly econo-mists agree. Instead, they typically shift to the argument that the experts are biased. Biased how? There are two prominent stories. The first is that economists suffer from “self-serv-ing bias.” Economists are unusually affluent, tenured, white, and male, and supposedly confuse what is good for them with what is good for the country. The second is that economists suffer from right-wing “ideologi-cal bias.” They use economics to give scientif-ic respectability to their political prejudices.Fortunately, there is one excellent data set that allows us to bring these accusations to trial: the Survey of Americans and Economists on the Economy (henceforth SAEE).21This unique study, conducted by the Washington Post,Kaiser Family Foundation, and H arvard University Survey Project, asked 1,510 members of the general public and 250 PhD economists the same diverse set of questions about how the economy works. The SAEE strongly supports the view that economists and the public sharply disagree in predictable ways. More importantly, though, the survey also collected detailed infor-mation about the respondents: income, job security, race, gender, party identification, ideol-ogy, and much more.The upshot is that we can statistically test whether the vast belief differences between econ-omists and the public are just a byproduct of economists’ privileged circumstances, a right-wing orientation, or both. In other words, we can use the data to run a thought experiment: What would a person with average income, aver-age job security, average party identification, average ideology, average everything,think if he had a PhD in economics? I call such a person a member of the “enlightened public”—someone who combines the circumstances of the layman with the knowledge of the expert.22If the critics of the economics profession 6It is not lack of consensus that incenses knowledgeablecritics, butthe way economists unite behindunpalatable conclusions.were completely right—if the sole reasons for economists’ unusual views were self-serving and/or ideological bias—then the enlightened public and the actual public would see eye-to-eye. If the critics of the economics profession were completely wrong—if self-serving and ideological bias had nothing to do with econ-omists’ unusual views—then the enlightened public and economists would see eye-to-eye.The world turns out to be much closer to the second extreme than the first. Self-serv-ing bias accounts for less than 20 percent of the belief gap between economists and lay-men. Controlling for ideological bias actual-ly seems to slightly increase the size of the belief gap. How is this possible? Because con-trary to popular belief, economists tend to be moderate Democrats, not conservative Repub-licans. Economists are unusually favorable toward markets not because of their extreme right-wing perspective, but despite their mildly left-wing perspective.23Shooting down the leading opponents of the “economists right, public wrong” posi-tion does not prove that it is true. But it sig-nificantly increases the probability. Think of it this way: common sense advises us to trust the experts. Critics challenge the experts’objectivity, and their complaints turn out to be in error. The sensible response is to reaf-firm the common sense position. Indeed, after the strongest challengers fail, we should become more confident that economists are right and the public is wrong.There is no reason, then, to deny econo-mists a normal level of deference in their field of expertise. But the profession also deserves an affirmative defense. Frankly, the strongest reason to accept its reliability is to flip through a basic economics text, then read the SAEE questions for yourself. You may not be fully convinced of economists’ wisdom. I, too, doubt it on occasion. But it is hard to avert your gaze from the public’s folly. Time and again, it gravitates toward answers that are positively silly.If that is too subjective for you, an impres-sive empirical regularity points in the same direction: education makes people think like econo-mists.Out of the SAEE’s 37 questions, there are19 where economic training and educationmove together and only two where they moveapart. It is not merely members of one inbreddiscipline who diverge from mainstream opin-ion. So do educated Americans in general,with the degree of divergence rising with thelevel of education. And the magnitude is sub-stantial. Moving from the bottom of the edu-cational ladder to the top has more than halfof the (enormous) effect of an econ PhD.24This pattern is all the more compellingbecause it has parallels in other fields. Takepolitical knowledge. Education substantiallyimproves performance on objective tests aboutgovernment structure, leaders, and currentevents.25Kraus, Malmfors, and Slovic similarlyfind that education makes members of the gen-eral public “think more like toxicologists.”26Perhaps education just increases exposure tobrainwashing. But it is more likely that educat-ed people think more clearly and know more.With the most fundamental doubts aboutthe economics profession out of the way, weare now ready to proceed. Economists havebeen complaining about laymen’s economicmisconceptions for centuries. What seems tobe the problem?Anti-Market BiasI first learned about farm price supportsin the produce section of the grocery store. Iwas in kindergarten. My mother explainedthat price supports seemed to make fruits andvegetables more expensive, but assured methat this conclusion was simplistic. If thesupports went away, so many farms would goout of business that prices would soon behigher than ever. If I had been more preco-cious, I would have asked a few questions.Were there price support programs for theother groceries? Why not? As it happened,though, I accepted what she told me, and felta lingering sense that price competition isbad for buyer and seller alike.This was one of my first memorableencounters with anti-market bias,a tendencyto underestimate the economic benefits of the marketmechanism.27The public has severe doubts7Economists areunusuallyfavorable towardmarkets despitetheir mildlyleft-wingperspective.about how much it can count on profit-seek-ing business to produce socially beneficial out-comes. It focuses on the motives of business, and neglects the discipline imposed by com-petition. While economists admit that profit-maximization plus market imperfections can yield bad results, non-economists tend to view successful greed as socially harmful per se.Near the end of his life, Joseph Schumpeter eloquently captured the essence of anti-mar-ket bias:Capitalism stands its trial beforejudges who have the sentence of deathin their pockets. They are going to passit, whatever the defense they may hear;the only success victorious defense canpossibly produce is a change in theindictment.28Arguably the greatest historian of eco-nomic thought, Schumpeter elsewhere mat-ter-of-factly speaks of “the ineradicable preju-dice that every action intended to serve the profit interest must be anti-social by this fact alone.”29Considering his encyclopedic knowledge, this remark speaks volumes. Anti-market bias is not a temporary, cultural-ly specific aberration. It is a deeply rooted pattern of human thinking which has frus-trated economists for generations.Liberal Democratic economists echo and amplify Schumpeter’s theme. Charles Schultze, head of President Carter’s Council of Economic Advisers, proclaims that “har-nessing the ‘base’ motive of material self-inter-est to promote the common good is perhaps the most important social invention mankind has yet achieved.”30But politicians and voters fail to appreciate this invention. “The virtually universal characteristic of [environmental] policy . . . is to start from the conclusion that regulation is the obvious answer; the pricing alternative is never considered.”31There are too many variations on anti-mar-ket bias to list them all. Probably the most common is to equate market payments with trans-fers,ignoring their incentive properties. (A “transfer,” in economic jargon, is a no-strings-attached movement of wealth from one per-son to another). All that matters, then, is how much you empathize with the transfer’s recip-ient compared to the transfer’s provider. To take the classic case: People tend to see profits as a gift to rich. So unless you perversely pity the rich more than the poor, limiting profits seems like common sense.Economists across the ideological spec-trum find it hard to respond to this outlook with anything but derision. Profits are not a handout, but a quid pro quo: “If you want to get rich, then you have to do something peo-ple will pay for.” Profits give incentives to reduce production costs, move resources from less-valued to more-valued industries, and dream up new products. This is the cen-tral lesson of The Wealth of Nations: the “invisi-ble hand” quietly persuades selfish business-men to serve the public good:Every individual is continually exertinghimself to find out the most advanta-geous employment for whatever capi-tal he can command. It is his ownadvantage, indeed, and not that of thesociety, which he has in view. But thestudy of his own advantage naturally,or rather necessarily leads him to pre-fer that employment which is mostadvantageous to the society.32For modern economists, these are tru-isms, but they usually miss the deeper lesson. If Adam Smith’s observations are only tru-isms, why did he bother to write them? Why do teachers of economics keep quoting and re-quoting this passage? Because Smith’s thesis was counterintuitive to his contemporaries, and remains counterintuitive today. A truism for the few is heresy for the many. Smith, being well aware of this fact, tried to shock readers out of their dogmatic slumber: “By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affect-ed to trade for the publick good.”33Business profit appears to be a transfer but benefits 8Anti-market bias has frustrated economists forgenerations.。
初三英语政治词汇练习题20题
初三英语政治词汇练习题20题1<背景文章>Democracy is a concept that has been widely discussed and practiced around the world. Democracy means that the power of a country belongs to the people. In a democratic country, people have the right to participate in political decision-making, express their opinions and choose their leaders.The importance of democracy cannot be overstated. Democracy ensures that the voices of all citizens are heard and that decisions are made in the interests of the majority. It promotes equality, freedom and justice. Different countries have different democratic practices. For example, in some countries, people vote directly for their leaders, while in others, they elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.Democracy also encourages public participation and debate. It allows people to express different views and work together to find solutions to problems. In a democratic society, people have the right to freedom of speech, assembly and association.However, democracy is not without challenges. It requires an informed and active citizenry, as well as a commitment to the principles of democracy. There are also issues such as political polarization and theinfluence of money in politics that can undermine democracy.Despite these challenges, democracy remains an important goal for many countries. It is a system that values the rights and dignity of every individual and provides a framework for peaceful coexistence and progress.1. What does democracy mean?A. The power of a country belongs to the leaders.B. The power of a country belongs to the military.C. The power of a country belongs to the people.D. The power of a country belongs to the rich.答案：C。
现代社会的挑战英语作文
现代社会的挑战英语作文Challenges of Modern SocietyIn the contemporary world, society faces numerous challenges that require immediate attention and effective solutions. These challenges have a profound impact on the quality of life and the very fabric of our communities. This essay aims to explore some of the significant challenges faced by modern society.1. Environmental Degradation:One of the most pressing challenges of modern society is environmental degradation. The excessive consumption of natural resources, pollution, and climate change have led to the destruction of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, and extreme weather events. It is crucial for individuals, communities, and governments to adopt sustainable practices and promote renewable energy sources to mitigate these issues.2. Economic Inequality:Economic inequality has reached unprecedented levels, creating a divide between the rich and the poor. This disparity not only affects individuals' access to basic necessities but also hampers social cohesion and economic growth. Addressing income inequality through progressive taxation, social welfare programs, and equal opportunities for education and employment is essential for a fair and just society.3. Technological Advancements and Job Displacement:The rapid pace of technological advancements has revolutionized various industries, leading to increased efficiency and productivity. However, this progress has also resulted in job displacement and a skills gap. Automation and artificial intelligence threaten to replace numerous jobs, making it crucial for society to adapt through reskilling and upskilling programs, as well as fostering an environment that encourages innovation and entrepreneurship.4. Mental Health Epidemic:Modern society's fast-paced and high-stress environment has contributed to a mental health epidemic. Issues such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse have become increasingly prevalent, affecting individuals of all ages and backgrounds. Prioritizing mental health awareness, providing accessible mental healthcare services, and fostering a supportive and compassionate society are vital to address this growing challenge.5. Social Isolation and Disconnection:The digital age has brought about a paradox of connectivity and isolation. While technology allows us to connect with people globally, it has also led to a decline in face-to-face interactions and a sense of community. Social isolation can lead to detrimental effects on mental and physical health, making it essential to cultivate meaningful relationships and promote social cohesion within communities.6. Political Polarization:Political polarization has divided societies, hindering constructive dialogue and compromising democratic processes. The spread of misinformation, echo chambers, and the rise of populist movements have exacerbated this issue. Encouraging critical thinking, media literacy, and fostering environments that promote respectful dialogue and diversity of opinion are crucial for a healthy and functioning democracy.In conclusion, modern society faces a myriad of challenges that require collective efforts to address. By tackling environmental degradation, economic inequality, technological advancements, mental health issues, social isolation, and political polarization, we can work towards building a more sustainable, equitable, and inclusive future for all.。
2023年考研英语一真题及答案详细解析
2023年考研英语一真题及答案详细解析2023年全国硕士硕士入学统一考试英语（一）试题及答案详细解析Section I Use of English :Directions: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B,C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points)Though not biologically related, friends are as “related” as fourth cousins, sharing about 1% of genes. That is _(1)_a study, published from the University of California and Yale University in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, has__(2)_.The study is a genome-wide analysis conducted _(3)__1,932 unique subjects which __(4)__pairs of unrelated friends and unrelated strangers. The same people were used in both_(5)_.While 1% may seem_(6)_,it is not so to a geneticist. As James Fowler, professor of medical genetics at UC San Diego, says, “Most people do not even _(7)_their fourth cousins but somehow manage to select as friends the people who_(8)_our kin.”The study_(9)_found that the genes for smell were something shared in friends but not genes for immunity .Why this similarity exists in smell genes is difficult to explain, for now,_(10)_,as the team suggests, it draws us to similar environments but there is more_(11)_it. There could be many mechanisms working together that _(12)_us in choosing genetically similar frien ds_(13)_”functional Kinship” of being friends with_(14)_!One of the remarkable findings of the study was the similar genes seem to beevolution_(15)_than other genes Studying this could help_(16)_why human evolution picked pace in the last 30,000 years, with social environment being a major_(17)_factor.The findings do not simply explain people’s_(18)_to befriend those of similar_(19)_backgrounds, say the researchers. Though all the subjects were drawn from a population of European extraction, care was taken to_(20)_that all subjects, friends and strangers, were taken from the same population.1. [A] when [B] why [C] how [D] what2. [A] defended [B] concluded [C] withdrawn [D] advised3. [A] for [B] with [C] on [D] by4. [A] compared [B] sought [C] separated [D] connected5. [A] tests [B] objects [C]samples [D] examples6. [A] insignificant [B] unexpected [C]unbelievable [D] incredible7. [A] visit [B] miss [C] seek [D] know8. [A] resemble [B] influence [C] favor [D] surpass9. [A] again [B] also [C] instead [D] thus10. [A] Meanwhile [B] Furthermore [C] Likewise [D] Perhaps11. [A] about [B] to [C]from [D]like12. [A] drive [B] observe [C] confuse [D]limit13. [A] according to [B] rather than [C] regardless of [D] along with14. [A] chances [B]responses [C]missions [D]benefits15. [A] later [B]slower [C] faster [D] earlier16. [A]forecast [B]remember [C]understand [D]express17. [A] unpredictable [B]contributory [C] controllable [D] disruptive18. [A] endeavor [B]decision [C]arrangement [D] tendency19. [A] political [B] religious [C] ethnic [D] economic20. [A] see [B] show [C] prove [D] tellSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET. (40 points)Text 1King Juan Carlos of Spain once insisted “kings don’t abdicate, they dare in their sleep.” But embarrassing scandals and the popularity of the republican left in the recent Euro-elections have forced him to eat his words and stand down. So, does the Spanish crisis suggest that monarchy is seeing its last days? Does that mean the writing is on the wall for all European royals, with their magnificent uniforms and majestic lifestyle?The Spanish case provides arguments both for and against monarchy. When public opinion is particularly polarised, as it was following the end of the Franco regime, monarchs canrise above “mere” politics and “embody” a spirit of national unity.It is this apparent transcendence of politics that explains monarchs’ continuing popularity polarized. And also, the Middle East excepted, Europe is the most monarch-infested region in the world, with 10 kingdoms (not counting Vatican City and Andorra). But unlike their absolutist counterparts in the Gulf and Asia, most royal families have survived because they allow voters to avoid the difficult search for a non-controversial but respected public figure.Even so, kings and queens undoubtedly have a downside. Symbolic of national unity as they claim to be, their very history—and sometimes the way they behave today –embodies outdated and indefensible privileges and inequalities. At a time when Thomas Piketty and other economists are warning of rising inequality and the increasing power of inherited wealth, it is bizarre that wealthy aristocratic families should still be the symbolic heart of modern democratic states.The most successful monarchies strive to abandon or hide their old aristocratic ways. Princes and princesses have day-jobs and ride bicycles, not horses (or helicopters). Even so, these are wealthy families who party with the international 1%, and media intrusiveness makes it increasingly difficult to maintain the right image.While Euro pe’s monarchies will no doubt be smart enough to survive for some time to come, it is the British royals who have most to fear from the Spanish example.It is only the Queen who has preserved the monarchy’s reputation with her rather ordinary (if well-heeled) granny style. The danger will come with Charles, who has both anexpensive taste of lifestyle and a pretty hierarchical view of the world. He has failed to understand that monarchies have largely survived because they provide a service – as non-controversial and non-political heads of state. Charles ought to know that as English history shows, it is kings, not republicans, who are the monarchy’s worst enemies.21. According to the first two Paragraphs, King Juan Carlos of Spain[A] used turn enjoy high public support[B] was unpopular among European royals[C] cased his relationship with his rivals[D]ended his reign in embarrassment22. Monarchs are kept as heads of state in Europe mostly[A] owing to their undoubted and respectable status[B] to achieve a balance between tradition and reality[C] to give voter more public figures to look up to[D]due to their everlasting political embodiment23. Which of the following is shown to be odd, according to Paragraph 4?[A] Ari stocrats’ excessive reliance on inherited wealth[B] The role of the nobility in modern democracies[C] The simple lifestyle of the aristocratic families[D]The nobility’s adherence to their privileges24. The British royals “have most to fear” because Charles[A] takes a rough line on political issues[B] fails to change his lifestyle as advised[C] takes republicans as his potential allies[D] fails to adapt himself to his future role25. Which of the following is the best title of the text?[A] Carlos, Glory and Disgrace Combined[B] Charles, Anxious to Succeed to the Throne[C] Carlos, a Lesson for All European Monarchs[D]Charles, Slow to React to the Coming ThreatsText 2Just how much does the Constitution protect your digital data? The Supreme Court will now consider whether police can search the contents of a mobile phone without a warrant if the phone is on or around a person during an arrest.California has asked the justices to refrain from a sweeping ruling particularly one that upsets the old assumption that authorities may search through the possessions of suspects at the time of their arrest. It is hard, the state argues, for judges to assess the implications of new and rapidly changing technologies.The court would be recklessly modest if it followed California’s advice. Enough of the implications are discernable, even obvious, so that the justices can and should provide updated guidelines to police, lawyers and defendants.They should start by discard ing California’s lame argument that exploring the contents of a smart phone — a vast storehouse of digital information — is similar to, say, rifling through a suspect’s purse. The court has ruled that police don’t violate the Fourth Amendment when they sif t through the wallet or pocketbook of an arrestee without a warrant. But exploring one’s smart phone is more like entering his or her home. A smart phone may contain an arrestee’s reading history, financial history, medical history and comprehensive records of recent correspondence. The development of “cloud computing,” meanwhile, has made that exploration so much the easier.Americans should take steps to protect their digital privacy. But keeping sensitive information on these devices is increasingly a requirement of normal life. Citizens still have a right to expect private documents to remain private and protected by the Constitution’s prohibition on unreasonable searches.As so often is the case, stating that principle doesn’t ease the challenge of line-drawing. In many cases, it would not be overly onerous for authorities to obtain a warrant to search through phone contents. They could still invalidate Fourth Amendment protections when facing severe, urgent circumstances, and they could take reasonable measures to ensure that phone data are not erased or altered while a warrant is pending. The court, though, may want to allow room for police to cite situations where they are entitled to more freedom.But the justices should not swallow California’s argument whole. New, disruptive technology sometimes demands novel applications of the Constitution’s protections. Orin Kerr, a law professor, compares the explosion and accessibility of digital information in the 21st centurywith the establishment of automobile use as a virtual necessity of life in the 20th: The justices had to specify novel rules for the new personal domain of the passenger car then; they must sort out how the Fourth Amendment applies to digital information now.26. The Supreme Court will work out whether, during an arrest, it is legitimate to[A] prevent suspects from deleting their phone contents.[B] search for suspects’ mobile phones without a warrant.[C] check suspects’ phone contents without being authorized.[D]prohibit suspects from using their mobile phones.27. The author’s attitude toward California’s argument is one of[A] disapproval.[B] indifference.[C] tolerance.[D]cautiousness.28. The author believes that exploring one’s phone contents is comparable to[A] getting into one’s residence.[B] handling one’s historical records.[C] scanning one’s correspondences.[D] going through one’s wallet.29. In Paragraph 5 and 6, the author shows his concern that[A] principles are hard to be clearly expressed.[B] the court is giving police less room for action.[C] citizens’ privacy is not effectively protected.[D] phones are used to store sensitive information.30. Orin Kerr’s comparison is quoted to indicate that[A] the Constitution should be implemented flexibly.[B] new technology requires reinterpretation of the Constitution.[C]California’s argument violates principles of the Constitution.[D]principles of the Constitution should never be alteredText 3The journal Science is adding an extra round of statistical checks to its peer-review process, editor-in-chief Marcia McNutt announced today. The policy follows similar efforts from other journals, after widespread concern that basic mistakes in data analysis are contributing to the irreproducibility of many published research findings.“Readers must have confidence in the conclusions published in our journal,” writes McNutt in an editorial. Working with the American Statistical Association, the journal has appointed seven experts to a statistics board of reviewing editors(SBoRE). Manuscript will be flagged up for additional scrutiny by the journal’s internal editors, or by its existing Board of Reviewing Editors or by outside peer reviewers. The SBoRE panel will then find external statisticians to review these manuscripts.Asked whether any particular papers had impelled the change, McNutt said: “Thecreation of the ‘statistics board’ was motivated by concerns broadly with the application of statistics and data ana lysis in scientific research and is part of Science’s overall drive to increase reproducibility in the research we publish.”Giovanni Parmigiani, a biostatistician at the Harvard School of Public Health, a member of the SBoRE group. He says he expects th e board to “play primarily an advisory role.” He agreed to join because he “found the foresight behind the establishment of the SBoRE to be novel, unique and likely to have a lasting impact. This impact will not only be through the publications in Science itself, but hopefully through a larger group of publishing places that may want to model their approach after Science.”John Ioannidis, a physician who studies research methodology, says that the policy is “a most welcome step forward” and “long overdue.” “Most journals are weak in statistical review, and this damages the quality of what they publish. I think that, for the majority of scientific papers nowadays, statistical review is more essential than expert review,” he says. But he noted that biomedical journals such as Annals of Internal Medicine, the Journal of the American Medical Association and The Lancet pay strong attention to statistical review.Professional scientists are expected to know how to analyze data, but statistical errors are alarmingly common in published research, according to David Vaux, a cell biologist. Researchers should improve their standards, he wrote in 2023, but journals should also take a tougher line, “engaging reviewers who are statistically literate and editors who can verify the process”. Vaux says that Science’s idea to pass some papers to statisticians “has some merit, but aweakness is that it relies on the board of reviewing editors to identify ‘the papers that need scrutiny’ in the first place”.31. It can be learned from Paragraph 1 that[A] Science intends to simplify their peer-review process.[B] journals are strengthening their statistical checks.[C] few journals are blamed for mistakes in data analysis.[D] lack of data analysis is common in research projects.32. The phrase “flagged up” (Para. 2) is the closest in meaning to[A] found.[B] marked.[C] revised.[D] stored.33. Giovanni Parmigiani believes that the establishment of the SBoRE may[A] pose a threat to all its peers.[B] meet with strong opposition.[C] increase Science’s circulation.[D]set an example for other journals.34. David Vaux holds that what Science is doing now[A] adds to researchers’ workload.[B] diminishes the role of reviewers.[C] has room for further improvement.[D]is to fail in the foreseeable future35. Which of the following is the best title of the text?[A] Science Joins Push to Screen Statistics in Papers.[B] Professional Statisticians Deserve More Respect[C] Data Analysis Finds Its Way onto Editors’ Desks[D] Statisticians Are Coming Back with ScienceText 4Two years ago, Rupert Murdoch’s daughter ,Elisabeth ,spoke of the “unsettling dearth of integrity across so many of our institutions” Integrity had collapsed, she argued, because of a collective acceptance that the only “sorting mechanism ”in society should be profit and the market .But “it’s us ,human beings ,we the people who create the society we want ,not profit ”.Driving her point home, she continued: “It’s increasingly apparent that the absence of purpose, of a moral language within government, media or business could become one of the most dangerous foals for capitalism and freedom.” This same absence of moral purpose was wounding companies such as News International ,shield thought ,making it more likely that it would lose its way as it had with widespread illegal telephone hacking .As the hacking trial concludes –finding guilty ones-editor of the News of the World, Andy Coulson, for conspiring to hack phones ,and finding his predecessor, Rebekah Brooks, innocent of the same charge –the winder issue of dearth of integrity still standstill, Journalists areknown to have hacked the phones of up to 5,500 people .This is hacking on an industrial scale ,as was acknowledged by Glenn Mulcaire, the man hired by the News of the World in 2023 to be the point person for phone hacking. Others await trial. This long story still unfolds.In many respects, the dearth of moral purpose frames not only the fact of such widespread phone hacking but the terms on which the trial took place .One of the astonishing revelations was how little Rebekah Brooks knew of what went on in her newsroom, wow little she thought to ask and the fact that she never inquired wow the stories arrived. The core of her successful defence was that she knew nothing.In today’s world, title has become normal that well—paid executives should not be accountable for what happens in the organizations that they run perhaps we should not be so surprised. For a generation, the collective doctrine has been that the sorting mechanism of society should be profit. The words that have mattered are efficiency, flexibility, shareholder value, business–friendly, wealth generation, sales, impact and, in newspapers, circulation. Words degraded to the margin have been justice fairness, tolerance, proportionality and accountability.The purpose of editing the News of the World was not to promote reader understanding to be fair in what was written or to betray any common humanity. It was to ruin lives in the quest for circulation and impact. Ms Brooks may or may not have had suspicions about how her journalists got their stories, but she asked no questions, gave no instructions—nor received traceable, recorded answers.36. According to the first two paragraphs, Elisabeth was upset by[A] the consequences of the current sorting mechanism[B] companies’ financial loss due to immoral practices.[C] governmental ineffectiveness on moral issues.[D]the wide misuse of integrity among institutions.37. It can be inferred from Paragraph 3 that[A] Glem Mulcaire may deny phone hacking as a crime[B] more journalists may be found guilty of phone hacking.[C] Andy Coulson should be held innocent of the charge.[D] phone hacking will be accepted on certain occasions.38. The author believes the Rebekah Books’s deference[A] revealed a cunning personality[B] centered on trivial issues[C] was hardly convincing[D] was part of a conspiracy39. The author holds that the current collective doctrine shows[A] generally distorted values[B] unfair wealth distribution[C] a marginalized lifestyle[D] a rigid moral cote40. Which of the following is suggested in the last paragraph?[A] The quality of writing is of primary importance.[B] Common humanity is central news reporting.[C] Moral awareness matters in exciting a newspaper.[D] Journalists need stricter industrial regulations.Part BDirections:In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the fist A-G to fit into each of the numbered blanks. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET. (10 points)How does your reading proceed? Clearly you try to comprehend, in the sense of identifying meanings for individual words and working out relationships between them, drawing on your explicit knowledge of English grammar (41) ______you begin to infer a context for the text, for instance, by making decisions about what kind of speech event is involved: who is making the utterance, to whom, when and where.The ways of reading indicated here are without doubt kinds of of comprehension. But they show comprehension to consist not just passive assimilation but of active engagement inference and problem-solving. You infer information you feel the writer has invited you to grasp by presenting you with specific evidence and cues (42) _______Conceived in this way, comprehension will not follow exactly the same track for each reader. What is in question is not the retrieval of an absolute, fixed or “true” meaning that can beread off and clocked for accuracy, or some timeless relation of the text to the world. (43) _______ Such background material inevitably reflects who we are, (44) _______This doesn’t, however, make interpretation merely relative or even pointless. Precisely because readers from different historical periods, places and social experiences produce different but overlapping readings of the same words on the page-including for texts that engage with fundamental human concerns-debates about texts can play an important role in social discussion of beliefs and values.How we read a given text also depends to some extent on our particular interest in reading it. (45)_______such dimensions of read suggest-as others introduced later in the book will also do-that we bring an implicit (often unacknowledged) agenda to any act of reading. It doesn’t then necessarily follow that one kind of reading is fuller, more advanced or more worthwhile than another. Ideally, different kinds of reading inform each other, and act as useful reference points for and counterbalances to one another. Together, they make up the reading component of your overall literacy or relationship to your surrounding textual environment.[A] Are we studying that text and trying to respond in a way that fulfils the requirement of a given course? Reading it simply for pleasure? Skimming it for information? Ways of reading on a train or in bed are likely to differ considerably from reading in a seminar room.[B] Factors such as the place and period in which we are reading, our gender ethnicity, age and social class will encourage us towards certain interpretation but at the same time obscure or even close off others.[C] If you are unfamiliar with words or idioms, you guess at their meaning, using cluespresented in the contest. On the assumption that they will become relevant later, you make a mental note of discourse entities as well as possible links between them.[D]In effect, you try to reconstruct the likely meanings or effects that any given sentence, image or reference might have had: These might be the ones the author intended.[E]You make further inferences, for instance, about how the test may be significant to you, or about its validity—inferences that form the basis of a personal response for which the author will inevitably be far less responsible.[F]In plays，novels and narrative poems, characters speak as constructs created by the author, no t necessarily as mouthpieces for the author’s own thoughts.[G]Rather, we ascribe meanings to test on the basis of interaction between what we might call textual and contextual material: between kinds of organization or patterning we perceive in a text’s formal structures (so especially its language structures) and various kinds of background, social knowledge, belief and attitude that we bring to the text.Section III TranslationDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET. (10 points) Within the span of a hundred years, in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, a tide of emigration—one of the great folk wanderings of history—swept from Europe to America.46) This movement, driven by powerful and diverse motivations, built a nation out of a wilderness and, by its nature, shaped the character and destiny of an uncharted continent.47) The United States is the product of two principal forces-the immigration of European peoples with their varied ideas, customs, and national characteristics and the impact of a new country which modified these traits. Of necessity, colonial America was a projection of Europe. Across the Atlantic came successive groups of Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Scots, Irishmen, Dutchmen, Swedes, and many others who attempted to transplant their habits and traditions to the new world.48) But, the force of geographic conditions peculiar to America, the interplay of the varied national groups upon one another, and the sheer difficulty of maintaining old-world ways in a raw, new continent caused significant changes. These changes were gradual and at first scarcely visible. But the result was a new social pattern which, although it resembled European society in many ways, had a character that was distinctly American.49) The first shiploads of immigrants bound for the territory which is now the United States crossed the Atlantic more than a hundred years after the 15th- and 16th-century explorations of North America. In the meantime, thriving Spanish colonies had been established in Mexico, the West Indies, and South America. These travelers to North America came in small, unmercifully overcrowded craft. During their six- to twelve-week voyage, they subsisted on barely enough food allotted to them. Many of the ship were lost in storms, many passengers died of disease, and infants rarely survived the journey. Sometimes storms blew the vessels far off their course, andoften calm brought unbearably long delay.“To the anxious travelers the sight of the American sh ore brought almost inexpressible relief.” said one recorder of events, “The air at twelve leagues’ distance smelt as sweet as a new-blown garden.” The colonists’ first glimpse of the new land was a sight of dense woods. 50) The virgin forest with its richness and variety of trees was a veritable real treasure-house which extended from Maine all the way down to Georgia. Here was abundant fuel and lumber. Here was the raw material of houses and furniture, ships and potash, dyes and naval stores.Section IV WritingPart A51. Directions:You are going to host a club reading session. Write an email of about 100 words recommending a book to the club members.You should state reasons for your recommendation.You should write neatly on the ANSWER SHEET.Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use Li Ming instead.Do not write the address. (10 points)Part B52. Directions:Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay you should1) describe the drawing briefly2) explain its intended meaning, and3) give your commentsYou should write neatly on ANSWER SHEET. (20 points)时代旳聚会参照答案及详细解析I cloze1. [A] when [B] why [C] how [D] what【答案】[D] what【解析】该题考察旳是语法知识。
The Paradox of Choice
The Paradox of ChoiceThe paradox of choice is a concept that has been widely discussed in the field of psychology and consumer behavior. It refers to the idea that having morechoices does not necessarily lead to greater happiness or satisfaction. In fact, too many choices can often lead to feelings of anxiety, stress, and dissatisfaction. This paradox has significant implications for individuals, businesses, and society as a whole. From a psychological perspective, the paradox of choice can be explained by the concept of decision fatigue. When faced with an overwhelming number of options, individuals may find it difficult to make a decision and may ultimately feel less satisfied with their choice. This can leadto a sense of regret and a constant questioning of whether the right decision was made. Additionally, the fear of making the wrong choice can lead to a state of paralysis, where individuals are unable to make any decision at all. This can have a negative impact on mental well-being and overall happiness. From a consumer behavior standpoint, the paradox of choice has important implications for businesses. While offering a wide range of options may seem beneficial, it can actually lead to decreased sales and customer satisfaction. Research has shownthat when presented with too many choices, consumers are more likely to experience decision fatigue and may ultimately walk away without making a purchase. This has led many businesses to rethink their approach to product offerings and to streamline their options in order to improve the overall customer experience. Ona societal level, the paradox of choice has implications for the way we approach decision-making and the way we structure our lives. In a world where we are constantly bombarded with options and opportunities, it can be easy to fall into the trap of constantly seeking the "best" choice. This can lead to a sense of FOMO, or fear of missing out, and can prevent individuals from fully committing to their decisions. This can have a ripple effect on relationships, careers, and overalllife satisfaction. One potential solution to the paradox of choice is the concept of minimalism. By intentionally limiting the number of choices we are exposed to, we can reduce decision fatigue and focus on what truly matters to us. This canlead to a greater sense of satisfaction and fulfillment with our decisions. Additionally, practicing mindfulness and being present in the moment can helpindividuals to appreciate the choices they have made and to let go of the constant need to seek out the "best" option. Overall, the paradox of choice is a complex and multifaceted concept that has significant implications for individuals, businesses, and society as a whole. By understanding the psychological and behavioral factors at play, we can work towards finding a balance between having enough choices to feel empowered, but not so many that it becomes overwhelming. This may require a shift in mindset and a reevaluation of our approach todecision-making, but ultimately, it can lead to greater happiness and satisfaction in our lives.。
50个英语高级表达及列举
50个英语高级表达及列举英语高级表达及其示例：1.In essence, ...示例：In essence, the book explores the complexities of human nature.2.It is noteworthy that ...示例：It is noteworthy that the study found a significant correlation between exercise and improved mental health.3.On a deeper level, ...示例：On a deeper level, the painting reflects the artist's struggle with identity and belonging.4.There is a prevailing belief that ...示例：There is a prevailing belief that technology will revolutionize the education sector.5.It goes without saying that ...示例：It goes without saying that a healthy diet is essential for maintaining good health.6.The notion that ... is increasingly being challenged.示例：The notion that traditional education is superior to online learning is increasingly being challenged by modern research.7.From a broader perspective, ...示例：From a broader perspective, climate change is a global issue that requires collective action.8.The complexities surrounding ... are vast and multifaceted.示例：The complexities surrounding the causes of poverty are vast and multifaceted, requiring a comprehensive approach.9.The fact remains that ...示例：The fact remains that despite advances in technology, many people still lack access to basic healthcare.10.It is incontrovertible that ...示例：It is incontrovertible that regular exercise benefits both physical and mental health.11.One cannot deny the significance of ...示例：One cannot deny the significance of diversity in promoting a vibrant and inclusive society.12.The underlying principles of ... are deeply rooted in ...示例：The underlying principles of democracy are deeply rooted in the respect for human rights and the rule of law.13.The intricate web of ... is often overlooked.示例：The intricate web of interdependencies between different ecosystems is often overlooked in environmental policymaking.14.It is imperative that we ...示例：It is imperative that we take immediate action to address the issue of climate change.15.The subtleties of ... are often misunderstood.示例：The subtleties of cultural differences are often misunderstood in international business transactions.16.The concept of ... has gained widespread acceptance.示例：The concept of sustainable development has gained widespread acceptance among governments and businesses.17.It is a paradox that ...示例：It is a paradox that despite the availability of technology, many people still prefer traditional methods of communication.18.The impact of ... on ... cannot be overstated.示例：The impact of social media on modern politics cannot be overstated, shaping public opinion and influencing policy decisions.19.The intricate balance between ... and ... is crucial.示例：The intricate balance between economic growth and environmental protection is crucial for sustainable development.20.It is an established fact that ...示例：It is an established fact that smoking increases the risk of developing lung cancer.。
管理组织英语专业词汇知识整合
管理学英语专业词汇Aaccess discrimination 进入歧视action research 动作研究adjourning 解散adhocracy 特别结构administrative principle 管理原则artifacts 人工环境artificial intelligence 人工智能工巧匠avoiding learning 规避性学习ambidextrous approach 双管齐下策略Bbalance sheet 资产负债表bcg matrix 波士顿咨询集团矩阵bona fide occupation qualificationѕ善意职业资格审查bounded rationality 有限理性bureaucracy 官僚机构benchmarking 标杆瞄准bounded rationality perspective 有限理性方法boundary-spanning roles 跨超边界作用Ccomputer-aided design and computer-automated manufacturing(cad/cam)计算机辅助设计与计算机自动生产confrontation 对话consortia 企业联合change agent 变革促进者chaos theory 混沌理论chariѕmatic leaders 魅力型领导者charity principle 博爱原则coercive power 强制权cohesiveness 凝聚力collaborative management 合作型管理comparable worth 可比较价值competitive benchmarking 竞争性基准confrontation meeting 碰头会constancy of purpose 永久性目标contingency approach 权变理论corporate social performance 公司社会表现corporate social responsibility公司社会责任corporate social responsiveness公司社会反应critical incident 关键事件current assets 流动资产current liabilities 流动负债culture strength 文化强度creative department 创造性部门craft technology 技艺性技术contextual dimension 关联性维度continuous process production 连续加工生产collectivity stage 集体化阶段clan control 小团体控制clan culture 小团体文化coalition 联合团体collaborative 协作网络centrality 集中性centraliazation 集权化chariѕmatic authority 竭尽忠诚的权力Ddecentralization 分权democracy management 民主管理departmentalization 部门化differential rate system 差别报酬系统dialectical inquiry methods 辩证探求法division of labor 劳动分工downward mobility 降职流动dynamic engagement 动态融合dynamic network 动态网络domain 领域direct interlock 直接交叉divisional form 事业部模式differentiation strategy 差别化战略decision premise 决策前提dual-core approach 二元核心模式Eelectronic data-processing(edp) 电子数据处理employee-oriented style 员工导向型风格empowerment 授权encoding 解码end-user computing 终端用户计算系统entrepreneurship 企业家精神equity 净资产equity theory 公平理论espoused value 信仰价值ethnocentric manager 种族主义的管理者expectancy theory 期望理论expense budget 支出预算expense center 费用中心external audit 外部审计external stakeholders 外部利益相关者extrinsic rewards 外部奖励ethic ombudsperson 伦理巡视官external adaption 外部适应性elaboration stage 精细阶段entrepreneurial stage 创业阶段escalating commitment 顽固认同Ffamily group 家庭集团financial statement 财务报表flat hierarchies 扁平型结构flexible budget 弹性预算force-field theory 场力理论formal authority 合法权力formal systematic appraisal 正式的系统评估franchise 特许经营权formalization stage 规范化阶段functional grouping 职能组合formal channel of communication 正式沟通渠道Ggame theory 博弈论general financial condition 一般财务状况geocentric manager 全球化管理者general manager 总经理globalization 全球化gossip chain 传言链grapevine 传言网global strategic partnership 全球战略伙伴关系general environment 一般环境generalist 全面战略geographic grouping 区域组合global company 全球公司global geographic structure 全球区域结构Hhawthorne effect 霍桑效应heuristic principles 启发性原理hierarchy 科层制度hiring specification 招聘细则horizontal linkage model 横向联系模型hybrid structure 混合结构high tech 高接触high-velocity environments 高倍速环境Iimpoverished management 放任式管理income statement 损益表information transformation 信息转换infrastructure 基础设施integrative process 整合过程intelligent enterprises 智力企业internal audit 内部审计internal stakeholder 内部相关者internship 实习intrapreneurship 内部企业家精神intrinsic reward 内在报酬inventory 库存, 存货internal integration 内部整合interorganization relationship 组织间的关系intergroup conflict 团体间冲突interlocking directorate 交叉董事会institutional perspective 机构的观点intuitive decision making 直觉决策idea champion 构思倡导者incremental change 渐进式变革informal organizational structure 非正式组织结构informal performance appraisal 非正式业绩评价Jjob description 职务描述job design 职务设计job enlargement 职务扩大化job enrichment 职务丰富化job rotation 职务轮换job specialization 职务专业化Kkey performance areas 关键业丨务区key result areas 关键绩效区Llabor productivity index 劳动生产力指数laissez management 自由化管理large batch production 大批量生产lateral communication 横向沟通leadership style 领导风格least preferred co-worker(lpc)最不喜欢的同事legitimate power 合法权力liability 负债liaison 联络者line authority 直线职权liquidity 流动性liaison role 联络员角色long-linked technology 纵向关联技术losses from conflict 冲突带来的损失low-cost leadership 低成本领先Mmanagement by objective 目标管理Managerial Grid 管理方格matrix bosseѕ矩阵主管management champion 管理倡导者materials-requirements planning(MRP) 物料需求计划Mslow,s hierarchy of needs 马斯洛需求层次论marketing argument 管理文化多元化营销观multiculturalism 文化多元主义multidivisional firm 多部门公司moral rules 道德准则management by walking around(MBWA) 走动式管理matrix structure 矩阵结构multinational enterprise(MNE) 跨国公司moral relativism 道德相对主义mechanistic system 机械式组织middle-of-the-road management 中庸式管理meso theory 常态理论multidomestic strategy 多国化战略mediating technology 调停技术Nnaïve relativism 朴素相对主义need-achievement 成就需要norming 规范化norms 规范nonprogrammed decisions 非程序化决策nonsubstitutability 非替代性nonroutine technology 非例行技术niche 领地Ooff-the-job training 脱产培训on-the-job training 在职培训operational budget 运营预算order backlog 订单储备organic system 有机系统organizational development(OD) 组织发展orientation 定位outcome interdependence 结果的相互依赖性outplacement services 外延服务organization ecosystem 组织生态系统Pparadox of authority 权威的矛盾paradox of creativity 创造力的矛盾paradox of disclosure 开放的矛盾paradox of identify 身份的矛盾paradox of individuality 个性的矛盾paradox of regression 回归的矛盾partial productivity 部分生产率participative management 参与式管理path-goal model 路径目标模型peer recruiter 同级招聘political action committees(PACs) 政治活动委员会polycentric manager 多中心管理者ortfolio framework 业丨务组合框架portfolio investment 资产组合投资positive reinforcement 正强化production flexibility 生产柔性profitability 收益率programmed decisions 程序化决策psychoanalytic view 精神分析法paradigm 范式personal ratios 人员比例pooled dependence 集合性依存professional bureaucracy 专业官僚机构problem identification 问题识别problemistic search 问题搜寻population ecology model 种群生态模型Qquality 质量quality circle 质量圈question mark 问题类市场quid pro quo 交换物Rrational model of decision making 理性决策模式realistic job preview(RJP) 实际工作预览reciprocal interdependence 相互依存性resource dependence 资源依赖理论routine technology 例行技术retention 保留rational approach 理性方法rational model 理性模型rational-legal authority 理性—合法权威Ssemivariable cost 准可变成本sense of potency 力量感sensitivity training 敏感性训练sexual harassment 性骚扰short-run capacity changes 短期生产能力变化single-strand chain 单向传言链situational approach 情境方法situational force 情境力量situational leadership theory 情境领导理论sliding-scale budget 移动规模预算small-batch production 小规模生产sociotechnical approaches 社会科技方法span of management 管理幅度staff authority 参谋职权standing plan 长设计划step budget 分步预算stewardship principle 管家原则stimulus 刺激storming 调整阶段strategic management 战略管理strategic partnering 战略伙伴关系strategy formulation 战略制定strategy implementation 战略实施strategic control 战略控制strategic contingencies 战略权变satisficing 满意度subsystems 子系统subunits 子单位synergy 协同system boundary 系统边界structure dimension 结构性维度sequential interdependence 序列性依存self-directed team 自我管理型团队specialist 专门战略strategy and structure changes 战略与结构变革symptoms of structural deficiency 结构无效的特征Ttall hierarchies 高长型科层结构task force or project team 任务小组或项目团队task independence 任务的内部依赖性task management 任务型管理task-oriented style 任务导向型管理风格total productivity 全部生产率Total Quality Management 全面质量管理training positions 挂职培训training program 培训程序transactional leaders 交易型领导transformational leaders 变革型领导treatment discrimination 歧视待遇two-factory theory 双因素理论two-boss employees 双重主管员工technical or product champion 技术或产品的倡导者Uunfreezing 解冻unit production 单位产品Vvariation 变种子variety 变量valence 效价variable costs 可变成本vertical communication 纵向沟通vertical integration 纵向一体化vestibule training 仿真培训volume flexibility 产量的可伸缩性vertical linkage 纵向连接venture team 风险团队value based leadership 基于价值的领导Wwin-lose situation 输赢情境win-win situation 双赢情境workforce literacy 员工的读写能力work in progress 在制品work flow redesign 工作流程再造成work flow automation 工作流程自动化whistle blowing 揭发Zzero-sum 零---和zone of indifference(area of acceptance) 无差异区域(可接受区域)目标mission/ objective内部环境internal environment外部环境external environment集体目标group objective计划planning组织organizing人事staffing领导leading控制controlling步骤process原理principle方法technique经理manager总经理general manager行政人员administrator主管人员supervisor企业enterprise商业business产业industry公司company效果effectiveness效率efficiency企业家entrepreneur权利power职权authority职责responsibility科学管理scientific management现代经营管理modern operational management 行为科学behavior science生产率productivity激励motivate动机motive法律law法规regulation经济体系economic system管理职能managerial function产品product服务service利润profit满意satisfaction归属affiliation尊敬esteem自我实现self-actualization人力投入human input盈余surplus收入income成本cost资本货物capital goodѕ机器machinery设备equipment建筑building存货inventory经验法the empirical approach人际行为法the interpersonal behavior approach 集体行为法the group behavior approach协作社会系统法the cooperative social systems approach 社会技术系统法the social-technical systems approach 决策理论法the decision theory approach数学法the mathematical approach系统法the systems approach随机制宜法the contingency approach管理任务法the managerial roles approach经营法the operational approach人际关系human relation心理学psychology态度attitude压力pressure冲突conflict招聘recruit鉴定appraisal选拔select培训train报酬compensation授权delegation of authority协调coordinate业绩performance考绩制度merit system表现behavior下级subordinate偏差deviation检验记录inspection record误工记录record of labor-hours lost 销售量sales volume产品质量quality of products先进技术advanced technology顾客服务customer service策略strategy结构structure领先性primacy普遍性pervasiveness忧虑fear忿恨resentment士气morale解雇layoff批发wholesale零售retail程序procedure规则rule规划program预算budget共同作用synergy大型联合企业conglomerate资源resource购买acquisition增长目标growth goal专利产品proprietary product竞争对手rival晋升promotion管理决策managerial decision商业道德business ethics有竞争力的价格competitive price . 供货商supplier小贩vendor利益冲突conflict of interests派生政策derivative policy开支帐户expense account批准程序approval procedure病假sick leave休假vacation工时labor-hour机时machine-hour资本支出capital outlay现金流量cash flow工资率wage rate税收率tax rate股息dividend现金状况cash position资金短缺capital shortage总预算overall budget资产负债表balance sheet可行性feasibility投入原则the commitment principle 投资回报return on investment生产能力capacity to produce实际工作者practitioner最终结果end result业绩performance个人利益personal interest福利welfare市场占有率market share创新innovation生产率productivity利润率profitability社会责任public responsibility董事会board of director组织规模size of the organization组织文化organizational culture目标管理management by objectives 评价工具appraisal tool激励方法motivational techniques 控制手段control device个人价值personal worth优势strength弱点weakness机会opportunity威胁threat个人责任personal responsibility顾问counselor定量目标quantitative objective定性目标qualitative objective可考核目标verifiable objective优先priority工资表payroll策略strategy政策policy灵活性discretion多种经营diversification评估assesѕment一致性consistency应变策略consistency strategy公共关系public relation价值value抱负aspiration偏见prejudice审查review批准approval主要决定major decision分公司总经理division general manager 资产组合距阵portfolio matrix明星star 问号question mark现金牛cash cow赖狗dog采购procurement人口因素demographic factor地理因素geographic factor公司形象company image产品系列product line合资企业joint venture破产政策liquidation strategy 紧缩政策retrenchment strategy 战术tactics追随followership个性individuality性格personality安全safety自主权latitude .悲观的pessimistic静止的static乐观的optimistic动态的dynamic灵活的flexible抵制resistance敌对antagoniѕm折中eclectic激励motivation潜意识subconscious地位status情感affection欲望desire压力pressure满足satisfaction自我实现的需要needs for self-actualization 尊敬的需要esteem needs归属的需要affiliation needs安全的需要security needs生理的需要physiological needѕ维持maintenance保健hygiene激励因素motivator概率probability强化理论reinforcement theory反馈feedback奖金bonus股票期权stock option劳资纠纷labor dispute缺勤率absenteeiѕm人员流动turnover奖励reward特许经营franchise热诚zeal信心confidence鼓舞inspire要素ingredient忠诚loyalty奉献devotion作风style品质trait适应性adaptability进取性aggressiveness热情enthusiaѕm毅力persistence人际交往能力interpersonal skills 行政管理能力administrative ability 智力intelligence专制式领导autocratic leader民主式领导democratic leader自由放任式领导free-rein leader管理方格图the managerial grid工作效率work efficiency服从obedience领导行为leader behavior支持型领导supportive leadership 参与型领导participative leadership指导型领导instrumental leadership成就取向型领导achievement-oriented leadershipAutomated inspection 自动化检验automatic assembly system 自动化装配系统applied biomechanics 应用生物力学CAD/CAM 计算机辅助设计与制造computer integrated manufacturing system 计算机整合制造系统data structure 数据结构data base management system 数据库管理系统decision analysis 决策分析engineering economy 工程经济engineering statistics 工程统计facilities planning 设施规划factory diagnoisis and improvement method 工厂诊断与改善方法financial and cost analysis 财务与成本分析fuzzy theory and application 模糊理论与应用human-computer interaction (HCI)人因工程与计算机系统human factors engineering 人因工程human information processing 人类讯息处理human-machine system design 人机系统设计human resource management 人力资源管理human system diagnosis and improvement 人体系统诊断与改善industrial environment evaluation 工业环境评估industrial organizations and management 工业组织与管理industrial safety 工业安全information technology 信息技术intellectual property laws 智慧财产权法knowledge engineering 知识工程linear algebra 线性代数manufacturing automation 制造自动化manufacturing engineering 制造工程manufacturing management 制造管理manufacturing procesѕ制造程序manufacturing systems and management 制造系统与管理market and marketing 市场与行销material flows automation 物流自动化mathematical programming 数学规划multicriteria decision making 多目标规划multi-criteria decision methods 多准则决策分析network analysis 网络分析numerical analysis 数值分析organization and management 组织与管理product and technology development management 产品与技术开发管理production management 生产管理production planning and control 生产计划与管制quality control 质量管理quality engineering 品质工程quality management techniques and practice 品质管理queueing theory 等候线理论reliability engineering 可靠度工程research，development and innovation management 研究发展管理semiconductor production management 半导体生产管理sequencing and scheduling 排序与排程simulation 模拟分析statistical method 统计方法stochastic processes 随机系统strategic management of technology 技术策略system analysis and design in large scale 大型系统分析与设计system performance evaluation 系统绩效评估技术system quality assurance engineering 系统品质保证工程systems engineering 系统工程systems simulation 系统仿真vision and colors 视觉与色彩work physiology 工作生理学work study 工作研究Accounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员Accounting Manager 会计部经理Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管Administration Manager 行政经理Administration Staff 行政人员Administrative Assistant 行政助理Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员Application Engineer 应用工程师Assistant Manager 副经理Bond Analyst 证券分析员Bond Trader 证券交易员Business Controller 业丨务主任BusinesѕManager 业丨务经理Buyer 采购员Cashier 出纳员Chemical Engineer 化学工程师Civil Engineer 土木工程师Clerk/Receptionist 职员/接待员Clerk Typist & Secretary 文书打字兼秘书Computer Data Input Operator 计算机资料输入员Computer Engineer 计算机工程师Computer Processing Operator 计算机处理操作员Computer System Manager 计算机系统部经理Copywriter 广告文字撰稿人Deputy General Manager 副总经理Economic Research Assistant 经济研究助理Electrical Engineer 电气工程师Engineering Technician 工程技术员English Instructor/Teacher 英语教丨师Export SaleѕManager 外销部经理Export Sales Staff 外销部职员Financial Controller 财务主任Financial Reporter 财务报告人F.X. (Foreign Exchange)Clerk 外汇部职员F.X. Settlement Clerk 外汇部核算员Fund Manager 财务经理General Auditor 审计长General Manager/ President 总经理General Manager Assistant 总经理助理General Manager's Secretary 总经理秘书Hardware Engineer 计算机硬件工程师Import Liaison Staff 进口联络员Import Manager 进口部经理Insurance Actuary 保险公司理赔员International Sales Staff 国际销售员Interpreter 口语翻译Legal Adviser 法律顾问Line Supervisor 生产线主管Maintenance Engineer 维修工程师Management Consultant 管理顾问Manager 经理Manager for Public Relationѕ公关部经理Manufacturing Engineer 制造工程师Manufacturing Worker 生产员工Market Analyst 市场分析员Market Development Manager 市场开发部经理Marketing Manager 市场销售部经理Marketing Staff 市场销售员Marketing Assistant 销售助理Marketing Executive 销售主管Marketing Representative 销售代表Marketing Representative Manager 市场调研部经理Mechanical Engineer 机械工程师Mining Engineer 采矿工程师Music Teacher 音乐教丨师Naval Architect 造船工程师Office Assistant 办公室助理Office Clerk 职员Operational Manager 业丨务经理Package Designer 包装设计师Passenger Reservation Staff 乘客票位预订员Personnel Clerk 人事部职员Personnel Manager 人事部经理Plant/ Factory Manager 厂长Postal Clerk 邮政人员Private Secretary 私人秘书Product Manager 生产部经理Production Engineer 产品工程师Professional Staff 专业人员Programmer 电脑程序设计师Project Staff 项目策划人员Promotional Manager 推售部经理Proof-reader 校对员Purchasing Agent 采购进货员Quality Control Engineer 质量管理工程师Real Estate Staff 房地产职员Recruitment Co-ordinator 招聘协调人Regional Manger 地区经理Research＆.Development Engineer 研究开发工程师Restaurant Manager 饭店经理Sales and Planning Staff 销售计划员Sales Assistant 销售助理Sales Clerk 店员、售货员Sales Coordinator 销售协调人Sales Engineer 销售工程师Sales Executive 销售主管SaleѕManager 销售部经理Salesperson 销售员Seller Representative 销售代表Sales Supervisor 销售监管School Registrar 学校注册主任Secretarial Assistant 秘书助理Secretary 秘书Securities Custody Clerk 保安人员Security Officer 安全人员Senior Accountant 高级会计Senior Consultant/Adviser 高级顾问Senior Employee 高级雇员Senior Secretary 高级秘书Service Manager 服务部经理Simultaneous Interpreter 同声传译员Software Engineer 计算机软件工程师Supervisor 监管员Systems Adviser 系统顾问Systems Engineer 系统工程师Systems Operator 系统操作员Technical Editor 技术编辑Technical Translator 技术翻译Technical Worker 技术工人Telecommunication Executive电讯（电信）员Telephonist / Operator 电话接线员、话务员Tourist Guide 导游Trade Finance Executive 贸易财务主管Trainee Manager 培训部经理Translation Checker 翻译核对员Translator 翻译员Trust Banking Executive 银行高级职员Typist 打字员Wordprocessor Operator 文字处理操作员。
2024年高二英语哲学家名称单选题30题
2024年高二英语哲学家名称单选题30题1.Who is known for his theory of Forms?A.SocratesB.PlatoC.Aristotle答案：B。
柏拉图以理念论著称。
苏格拉底主要是通过对话引导人们思考。
亚里士多德强调对现实世界的观察和分析。
2.Which philosopher is famous for his method of dialectic?A.PlatoB.SocratesC.Aristotle答案：B。
苏格拉底以辩证法著名。
柏拉图主要是理念论。
亚里士多德强调对现实世界的观察和分析。
3.Who is considered the father of Western philosophy?A.SocratesB.PlatoC.Thales答案：A。
苏格拉底被认为是西方哲学之父。
柏拉图是苏格拉底的学生。
泰勒斯是古希腊早期哲学家，但不是西方哲学之父。
4.Which philosopher emphasized virtue as the key to a good life?A.SocratesB.PlatoC.Aristotle答案：A。
苏格拉底强调美德是美好生活的关键。
柏拉图主要是理念论。
亚里士多德强调对现实世界的观察和分析。
5.Who believed that the world is made up of four elements?A.PlatoB.AristotleC.Empe docles答案：C。
恩培多克勒认为世界由四种元素组成。
柏拉图主要是理念论。
亚里士多德强调对现实世界的观察和分析。
6.Which philosopher's ideas had a great influence on medieval philosophy?A.PlatoB.SocratesC.Aristotle答案：C。
亚里士多德的思想对中世纪哲学有很大影响。
What Is the Purpose of Education
What Is the Purpose of Education?Willona M. Sloan"What is the purpose of education? This question agitates scholars, teachers, statesmen, every group, in fact, of thoughtful men and women," Eleanor Roosevelt wrote in the 1930 article, "Good Citizenship: The Purpose of Education," in Pictorial Review.If you were to ask even a relatively small group of teachers, administrators, students, parents, community members, business leaders, and policymakers to address the question of purpose, how difficult do you think it would be to reach a consensus?You might have better luck asking, "What is the meaning of life?"In the United States, historically, the purpose of education has evolved according to the needs of society. Education's primary purpose has ranged from instructing youth in religious doctrine, to preparing them to live in a democracy, to assimilating immigrants into mainstream society, to preparing workers for the industrialized20th century workplace.And now, as educators prepare young people for their futures in a world that is rapidly changing, what is the goal? To create adults who can compete in a global economy? To create lifelong learners? To create emotionally healthy adults who can engage in meaningful relationships?Yes."There are many different points of view on this topic," says Jonathan Cohen, cofounder and president of the National School Climate Center. "I think that my view, and most people's view, is that the purpose of education is to support children in developing the skills, the knowledge, and the dispositions that will allow them to be responsible, contributing members of their community—their democratically-informed community. Meaning, to be a good friend, to be a good mate, to be able to work, and to contribute to the well-being of the community." Not only should children learn civic knowledge—how the electoral college works, the history of political parties, and so on—but they also need to master civic skills, which include respecting others, working collaboratively, acting in a way that is fair and just, and being an active participant in the life of the community, Cohen says.A Disjoint Between Ideals and ActionsAre we on track to fulfill this vision? "We are not on track," says Cohen, who believes that the No Child Left Behind Act's narrow focus neglects social and emotional learning, although they are interrelated with intellectual learning. Cohen's National School Climate Center is an organization that helps schools integrate crucial social and emotional learning with academic instruction.In his Harvard Educational Review article "Social, Emotional, Ethical, and Academic Education: Creating a Climate for Learning, Participation in Democracy, and Well-Being," Cohen looks at the disparity between where we are and where we say we want to go."There is a paradox in our preK–12 schools and within teacher education. Parents and teachers want schooling to support children's ability to become lifelong learners who are able to love, work, and act as responsible members of the community. Yet, we have not substantially integrated these values into our schools or into the training we give teachers," Cohen says.Cohen hopes to see greater support for state departments of education to establish school climate measurement systems. He says states and districts also need guidelines, tools, and resources that would help them engage educators, students, parents or guardians, and community members in creating safer, more supportive, engaging, and challenging schools.James Harvey, a senior fellow at the Center on Reinventing Public Education, holds a similar opinion about education's purpose. "K–12 education should prepare students for life—for college, for work, for living within a family and within a community, and for participating effectively in the democratic process," he says.Although future employment is probably necessary for most young people, K–12 education is more than just job training. "Schools have always been about developing students for life and work—and life is much more than earning a living; it is also living a life," Harvey says.To Each His Own DefinitionCohen and Harvey are but two voices in a much larger ongoing global debate.To engage the global community in a debate around the question, "What's the purpose of education?" Doug Belshaw and Andy Stewart founded Purpos/ed, a nonpartisan, location-independent organization. Launched in 2011, Purpos/ed fosters dialogue through activities such as the 500-word campaign, which encouraged people to take a stab at defining the purpose of education and then leading conversations on their own individual blogs. Earlier this year, Adam Burk facilitated a rousing discussion on (which is now closed to new comments) asking, "In your opinion, what should be the purpose of education?" When Burke closed the discussion, there were as many different opinions as there were respondents."There are 365 comments and 365 distinct articulations of what the purpose of education should be," Burk said. "The process to develop a consensus on this is beyond the scope and purpose of this conversation. However, I do hope that it is understood that this question and its answer are the shapers of education systems and, in turn, cultures."Despite any dilemma that varying opinions and perspectives pose, healthy debate tends to inspire innovative ideas. However, as we face the challenge of educating young people for life in the 21st century, we also know that some things will remain constant.Dr. Gene R. Carter, chief executive officer and director of ASCD, explains in the Good article "What's the Purpose of School in the 21st Century?" that good teaching never goes out of style."We know that there is one education reform movement that works, and unsurprisingly, it's the same formula that has worked since we had those old textbooks, chalkboards, and red apples in the classroom. Research, policy, practice, and common sense confirm that a whole child approach to education will develop and prepare students for the challenges and opportunities of today and tomorrow," Carter says.Harvey agrees that there's no need to scrap what has served us well in the past: "The most significant skill [young people] can develop in the 21st century is the same skill that served them well in prior centuries: a mind equipped to think, the most important work skill of them all."There still may be hope for our future.What Is the Purpose of Education?Willona M. Sloan"What is the purpose of education? This question agitates scholars, teachers, statesmen, every group, in fact, of thoughtful men and women," Eleanor Roosevelt wrote in the 1930 article, "Good Citizenship: The Purpose of Education," in Pictorial Review.If you were to ask even a relatively small group of teachers, administrators, students, parents, community members, business leaders, and policymakers to address the question of purpose, how difficult do you think it would be to reach a consensus?You might have better luck asking, "What is the meaning of life?"In the United States, historically, the purpose of education has evolved according to the needs of society. Education's primary purpose has ranged from instructing youth in religious doctrine, to preparing them to live in a democracy, to assimilating immigrants into mainstream society, to preparing workers for the industrialized20th century workplace.And now, as educators prepare young people for their futures in a world that is rapidly changing, what is the goal? To create adults who can compete in a global economy? To create lifelong learners? To create emotionally healthy adults who can engage in meaningful relationships?Yes."There are many different points of view on this topic," says Jonathan Cohen, cofounder and president of the National School Climate Center. "I think that my view, and most people's view, is that the purpose of education is to support children in developing the skills, the knowledge, and the dispositions that will allow them to be responsible, contributing members of their community—their democratically-informed community. Meaning, to be a good friend, to be a good mate, to be able to work, and to contribute to the well-being of the community." Not only should children learn civic knowledge—how the electoral college works, the history of political parties, and so on—but they also need to master civic skills, which include respecting others, working collaboratively, acting in a way that is fair and just, and being an active participant in the life of the community, Cohen says.A Disjoint Between Ideals and ActionsAre we on track to fulfill this vision? "We are not on track," says Cohen, who believes that the No Child Left Behind Act's narrow focus neglects social and emotional learning, although they are interrelated with intellectual learning. Cohen's National School Climate Center is an organization that helps schools integrate crucial social and emotional learning with academic instruction.In his Harvard Educational Review article "Social, Emotional, Ethical, and Academic Education: Creating a Climate for Learning, Participation in Democracy, and Well-Being," Cohen looks at the disparity between where we are and where we say we want to go."There is a paradox in our preK–12 schools and within teacher education. Parents and teachers want schooling to support children's ability to become lifelong learners who are able to love, work, and act as responsible members of the community. Yet, we have not substantially integrated these values into our schools or into the training we give teachers," Cohen says.Cohen hopes to see greater support for state departments of education to establish school climate measurement systems. He says states and districts also need guidelines, tools, and resources that would help them engage educators, students, parents or guardians, and community members in creating safer, more supportive, engaging, and challenging schools.James Harvey, a senior fellow at the Center on Reinventing Public Education, holds a similar opinion about education's purpose. "K–12 education should prepare students for life—for college, for work, for living within a family and within a community, and for participating effectively in the democratic process," he says.Although future employment is probably necessary for most young people, K–12 education is more than just job training. "Schools have always been about developing students for life and work—and life is much more than earning a living; it is also living a life," Harvey says.To Each His Own DefinitionCohen and Harvey are but two voices in a much larger ongoing global debate.To engage the global community in a debate around the question, "What's the purpose of education?" Doug Belshaw and Andy Stewart founded Purpos/ed, a nonpartisan, location-independent organization. Launched in2011, Purpos/ed fosters dialogue through activities such as the 500-word campaign, which encouraged people to take a stab at defining the purpose of education and then leading conversations on their own individual blogs. Earlier this year, Adam Burk facilitated a rousing discussion on (which is now closed to new comments) asking, "In your opinion, what should be the purpose of education?" When Burke closed the discussion, there were as many different opinions as there were respondents."There are 365 comments and 365 distinct articulations of what the purpose of education should be," Burk said. "The process to develop a consensus on this is beyond the scope and purpose of this conversation. However, I do hope that it is understood that this question and its answer are the shapers of education systems and, in turn, cultures."Despite any dilemma that varying opinions and perspectives pose, healthy debate tends to inspire innovative ideas. However, as we face the challenge of educating young people for life in the 21st century, we also know that some things will remain constant.Dr. Gene R. Carter, chief executive officer and director of ASCD, explains in the Good article "What's the Purpose of School in the 21st Century?" that good teaching never goes out of style."We know that there is one education reform movement that works, and unsurprisingly, it's the same formula that has worked since we had those old textbooks, chalkboards, and red apples in the classroom. Research, policy, practice, and common sense confirm that a whole child approach to education will develop and prepare students for the challenges and opportunities of today and tomorrow," Carter says.Harvey agrees that there's no need to scrap what has served us well in the past: "The most significant skill [young people] can develop in the 21st century is the same skill that served them well in prior centuries: a mind equipped to think, the most important work skill of them all."There still may be hope for our future.。
关于全球化的文献
关于全球化的文献以下是几篇关于全球化的经典文献：1. "The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century" by Thomas L. Friedman (2005)这本书通过详细描述全球化的历史和趋势，展示了全球化对经济、政治和社会的影响，并探讨了全球化带来的机遇和挑战。
2. "Globalization and Its Discontents" by Joseph E. Stiglitz (2002)斯蒂格利茨在这本书中批评了全球化的一些负面影响，包括不平等和社会不稳定，同时提出了一些可能的解决方案。
3. "The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy" by Dani Rodrik (2011)罗德里克在这本书中探讨了全球化、民主和国家主权之间的紧张关系，并提出了一种可能的平衡模式。
4. "Globalization: A Very Short Introduction" by Manfred B. Steger (2017)这本书提供了全球化的简明介绍，包括其历史、定义、影响和争议等方面。
5. "The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World" by Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller (2013)这本书研究了全球化背景下的国际人口流动现象，包括移民、难民和劳动力流动等方面。
6. "Globalization and Culture" by John Tomlinson (1999)汤姆林森在这本书中探讨了全球化对文化的影响，包括文化流通、文化多样性和文化冲突等方面。
管理英语专业词汇
精心整理管理学英语专业词汇Aaccessdiscrimination进入歧视actionresearch动作研究adjourning解散adhocracy特别结构administrativeprinciple管理原则artifacts人工环境artificialintelligenceavoidinglearning规避性学习ambidextrousapproachBbcgmatrixbonafideo ccupationqualificationѕ善意职业资格审查boundedrationality有限理性bureaucracy官僚机构benchmarking标杆瞄准boundedrationalityperspective有限理性方法boundary-spanningroles跨超边界作用Ccomputer-aideddesignandcomputer-automatedmanufacturing(cad/cam)计算机辅助设计与计算机自动生产confrontation对话consortia企业联合changeagent变革促进者chaostheory混沌理论chariѕmaticleaders魅力型领导者charityprinciple博爱原则coercivepower强制权cohesiveness凝聚力collaborativemanagement合作型管理comparableworth可比较价值competitivebenchmarking竞争性基准confrontationmeeting碰头会constancyofpurpose永久性目标contingencyapproach权变理论corporatesocialperformance corporatesocialresponsibility corporatesocialresponsivenesscrafttechnology技艺性技术contextualdimension关联性维度continuousprocessproduction连续加工生产collectivitystage集体化阶段clancontrol小团体控制clanculture小团体文化coalition联合团体collaborative协作网络centrality集中性centraliazation集权化chariѕmaticauthority竭尽忠诚的权力Ddecentralization分权democracymanagement民主管理departmentalization部门化differentialratesystem差别报酬系统dialecticalinquirymethods辩证探求法divisionoflabor劳动分工downwardmobility降职流动dynamicengagement动态融合dynamicnetwork动态网络domain领域directinterlock直接交叉divisionalform事业部模式differentiationstrategyEemployee-orientedstyle员工导向型风格empowerment授权encoding解码end-usercomputing终端用户计算系统entrepreneurship企业家精神equity净资产equitytheory公平理论espousedvalue信仰价值ethnocentricmanager种族主义的管理者expectancytheory期望理论expensebudget支出预算expensecenter费用中心externalaudit外部审计externalstakeholders外部利益相关者extrinsicrewards外部奖励ethicombudsperson伦理巡视官externaladaption外部适应性elaborationstage精细阶段entrepreneurialstage创业阶段escalatingcommitment顽固认同Ffamilygroup家庭集团financialstatement财务报表flathierarchies扁平型结构flexiblebudget弹性预算force-fieldtheory场力理论franchise formalchannelofcommunication正式沟通渠道Ggametheory博弈论generalfinancialcondition一般财务状况geocentricmanager全球化管理者generalmanager总经理globalization全球化gossipchain传言链grapevine传言网globalstrategicpartnership全球战略伙伴关系generalenvironment一般环境generalist全面战略geographicgrouping区域组合globalcompany全球公司globalgeographicstructure全球区域结构Hhawthorneeffect霍桑效应heuristicprinciples启发性原理hierarchy科层制度hiringspecification招聘细则horizontallinkagemodel横向联系模型hybridstructure混合结构hightech高接触high-velocityenvironmentsIinfrastructure基础设施integrativeprocess整合过程intelligententerprises智力企业internalaudit内部审计internalstakeholder内部相关者internship实习intrapreneurship内部企业家精神intrinsicreward内在报酬inventory库存,存货internalintegration内部整合interorganizationrelationship组织间的关系intergroupconflict团体间冲突interlockingdirectorate交叉董事会institutionalperspective机构的观点intuitivedecisionmaking直觉决策ideachampion构思倡导者incrementalchange渐进式变革informalorganizationalstructure非正式组织结构informalperformanceappraisal非正式业绩评价Jjobdescription职务描述jobdesign职务设计jobenlargement职务扩大化jobenrichment职务丰富化jobrotation职务轮换KLlaborproductivityindex劳动生产力指数laissezmanagement自由化管理largebatchproduction大批量生产lateralcommunication横向沟通leadershipstyle领导风格leastpreferredco-worker(lpc)最不喜欢的同事legitimatepower合法权力liability负债liaison联络者lineauthority直线职权liquidity流动性liaisonrole联络员角色long-linkedtechnology纵向关联技术lossesfromconflict冲突带来的损失low-costleadership低成本领先Mmanagementbyobjective目标管理ManagerialGrid管理方格matrixbosseѕ矩阵主管managementchampion管理倡导者materials-requirementsplanning(MRP)Mslow,shierarchyofneedsmarketingargumentmulticulturalism文化多元主义moralrules走动式管理moralrelativism道德相对主义mechanisticsystem机械式组织middle-of-the-roadmanagement中庸式管理mesotheory常态理论multidomesticstrategy多国化战略mediatingtechnology调停技术Nnaïverelativism朴素相对主义need-achievement成就需要norming规范化norms规范nonprogrammeddecisions非程序化决策nonsubstitutability非替代性nonroutinetechnology非例行技术niche领地Ooff-the-jobtraining脱产培训on-the-jobtraining在职培训operationalbudget运营预算orderbacklog订单储备organicsystem有机系统organizationaldevelopment(OD)组织发展orientation定位outcomeinterdependence outplacementservices外延服务Pparadoxofdisclosure开放的矛盾paradoxofidentify身份的矛盾paradoxofindividuality个性的矛盾paradoxofregression回归的矛盾partialproductivity部分生产率participativemanagement参与式管理path-goalmodel路径目标模型peerrecruiter同级招聘politicalactioncommittees(PACs)政治活动委员会polycentricmanager多中心管理者ortfolioframework业丨务组合框架portfolioinvestment资产组合投资positivereinforcement正强化productionflexibility生产柔性profitability收益率programmeddecisions程序化决策psychoanalyticview精神分析法paradigm范式personalratios人员比例pooleddependence集合性依存professionalbureaucracy专业官僚机构problemidentification问题识别problemisticsearch问题搜寻populationecologymodel种群生态模型Qquality质量quidproquoRrationalmodelofdecisionmaking理性决策模式realisticjobpreview(RJP)实际工作预览reciprocalinterdependence相互依存性resourcedependence资源依赖理论routinetechnology例行技术retention保留rationalapproach理性方法rationalmodel理性模型rational-legalauthority理性—合法权威Ssemivariablecost准可变成本senseofpotency力量感sensitivitytraining敏感性训练sexualharassment性骚扰short-runcapacitychanges短期生产能力变化single-strandchain单向传言链situationalapproach情境方法situationalforce情境力量situationalleadershiptheory情境领导理论sliding-scalebudget移动规模预算small-batchproduction小规模生产sociotechnicalapproaches社会科技方法spanofmanagement管理幅度staffauthority参谋职权standingplan长设计划stepbudget分步预算stimulusstormingstrategyformulation战略制定strategyimplementation战略实施strategiccontrol战略控制strategiccontingencies战略权变satisficing满意度subsystems子系统subunits子单位synergy协同systemboundary系统边界structuredimension结构性维度sequentialinterdependence序列性依存self-directedteam自我管理型团队specialist专门战略strategyandstructurechanges战略与结构变革symptomsofstructuraldeficiency结构无效的特征Ttallhierarchies高长型科层结构taskforceorprojectteam任务小组或项目团队taskindependence任务的内部依赖性taskmanagement任务型管理task-orientedstyle任务导向型管理风格totalproductivity全部生产率TotalQualityManagementtrainingpositions挂职培训two-bossemployees双重主管员工technicalorproductchampion技术或产品的倡导者Uunfreezing解冻unitproduction单位产品Vvariation变种子variety变量valence效价variablecosts可变成本verticalcommunication纵向沟通verticalintegration纵向一体化vestibuletraining仿真培训volumeflexibility产量的可伸缩性verticallinkage纵向连接ventureteam风险团队valuebasedleadership基于价值的领导Wwin-losesituation输赢情境win-winsituation双赢情境workforceliteracy员工的读写能力workinprogress在制品workflowredesignworkflowautomationZzero-sum无差异区域(可接受区域)目标mission/objective内部环境internalenvironment外部环境externalenvironment集体目标groupobjective计划planning组织organizing人事staffing领导leading控制controlling步骤process原理principle方法technique经理manager总经理generalmanager行政人员administrator主管人员supervisor企业enterprise商业business产业industry公司company效果effectiveness效率efficiency企业家entrepreneur权利power职权职责科学管理行为科学生产率productivity激励motivate动机motive法律law法规regulation经济体系economicsystem管理职能managerialfunction 产品product服务service利润profit满意satisfaction归属affiliation尊敬esteem自我实现self-actualization人力投入humaninput盈余surplus收入income成本cost资本货物capitalgoodѕ机器machinery设备equipment建筑building存货inventory经验法theempiricalapproach人际行为法集体行为法数学法系统法随机制宜法thecontingencyapproach管理任务法themanagerialrolesapproach 经营法theoperationalapproach人际关系humanrelation心理学psychology态度attitude压力pressure冲突conflict招聘recruit鉴定appraisal选拔select培训train报酬compensation授权delegationofauthority协调coordinate业绩performance考绩制度meritsystem表现behavior下级subordinate偏差deviation检验记录inspectionrecord误工记录recordoflabor-hourslost 销售量salesvolume产品质量qualityofproducts先进技术advancedtechnology顾客服务customerservice策略结构领先性普遍性忧虑fear忿恨resentment士气morale解雇layoff批发wholesale零售retail程序procedure规则rule规划program预算budget共同作用synergy大型联合企业conglomerate资源resource购买acquisition增长目标growthgoal专利产品proprietaryproduct竞争对手rival晋升promotion管理决策managerialdecision商业道德businessethics有竞争力的价格competitiveprice. 供货商supplier小贩vendor利益冲突conflictofinterests派生政策derivativepolicy开支帐户expenseaccount批准程序approvalprocedure病假休假工时机时资本支出现金流量cashflow工资率wagerate税收率taxrate股息dividend现金状况cashposition资金短缺capitalshortage总预算overallbudget资产负债表balancesheet可行性feasibility投入原则thecommitmentprinciple 投资回报returnoninvestment生产能力capacitytoproduce实际工作者practitioner最终结果endresult业绩performance个人利益personalinterest福利welfare市场占有率marketshare创新innovation生产率productivity利润率profitability社会责任publicresponsibility董事会boardofdirector组织规模sizeoftheorganization组织文化organizationalculture目标管理评价工具激励方法控制手段个人价值优势弱点weakness机会opportunity威胁threat个人责任personalresponsibility 顾问counselor定量目标quantitativeobjective定性目标qualitativeobjective可考核目标verifiableobjective优先priority工资表payroll策略strategy政策policy灵活性discretion多种经营diversification评估assesѕment一致性consistency应变策略consistencystrategy 公共关系publicrelation价值value抱负aspiration偏见prejudice审查review批准approval主要决定majordecision分公司总经理资产组合距阵portfoliomatrix 明星star现金牛赖狗dog采购人口因素地理因素geographicfactor公司形象companyimage产品系列productline合资企业jointventure破产政策liquidationstrategy 紧缩政策retrenchmentstrategy 战术tactics追随followership个性individuality性格personality安全safety自主权latitude.悲观的pessimistic静止的static乐观的optimistic动态的dynamic灵活的flexible抵制resistance敌对antagoniѕm折中eclectic激励motivation潜意识subconscious地位status情感affection欲望desire压力pressure满足生理的需要physiologicalneedѕ维持maintenance保健hygiene激励因素motivator概率probability强化理论reinforcementtheory 反馈feedback奖金bonus股票期权stockoption劳资纠纷labordispute缺勤率absenteeiѕm人员流动turnover奖励reward特许经营franchise热诚zeal信心confidence鼓舞inspire要素ingredient忠诚loyalty奉献devotion作风style品质trait适应性adaptability进取性aggressiveness热情enthusiaѕm毅力persistence智力自由放任式领导free-reinleader管理方格图themanagerialgrid工作效率workefficiency服从obedience领导行为leaderbehavior支持型领导supportiveleadership 参与型领导participativeleadership 指导型领导instrumentalleadership成就取向型领导achievement-orientedleadership Automatedinspection自动化检验automaticassemblysystem自动化装配系统appliedbiomechanics应用生物力学CAD/CAM计算机辅助设计与制造computerintegratedmanufacturingsystem计算机整合制造系统datastructure数据结构databasemanagementsystem数据库管理系统decisionanalysis决策分析engineeringeconomy工程经济engineeringstatistics工程统计facilitiesplanning设施规划factorydiagnoisisandimprovementmethod financialandcostanalysis财务与成本分析fuzzytheoryandapplication模糊理论与应用human-computerinteraction(HCI) humanfactorsengineeringhumaninformationprocessing人体系统诊断与改善工业组织与管理industrialsafety工业安全informationtechnology信息技术intellectualpropertylaws智慧财产权法knowledgeengineering知识工程linearalgebra线性代数manufacturingautomation制造自动化manufacturingengineering制造工程manufacturingmanagement制造管理manufacturingprocesѕ制造程序manufacturingsystemsandmanagement制造系统与管理marketandmarketing市场与行销materialflowsautomation物流自动化mathematicalprogramming数学规划multicriteriadecisionmaking多目标规划multi-criteriadecisionmethods多准则决策分析networkanalysis网络分析numericalanalysis数值分析organizationandmanagement组织与管理productandtechnologydevelopmentmanagement productionmanagement生产管理productionplanningandcontrol生产计划与管制qualitycontrol质量管理qualityengineering品质工程queueingtheory等候线理论reliabilityengineeringresearch，研究发展管理半导体生产管理simulationstochasticprocesses随机系统strategicmanagementoftechnology技术策略systemanalysisanddesigninlargescale大型系统分析与设计systemperformanceevaluation系统绩效评估技术systemqualityassuranceengineering系统品质保证工程systemsengineering系统工程systemssimulation系统仿真visionandcolors视觉与色彩workphysiology工作生理学workstudy工作研究AccountingAssistant会计助理AccountingClerk记帐员AccountingManager会计部经理AccountingStall会计部职员AccountingSupervisor会计主管AdministrationManager行政经理AdministrationStaff行政人员AdministrativeAssistant行政助理AdministrativeClerk行政办事员AdvertisingStaff广告工作人员AirlinesSalesRepresentative航空公司定座员AirlinesStaff航空公司职员ApplicationEngineer应用工程师AssistantManager副经理BondAnalyst证券分析员BondTrader证券交易员BuyerCashierCivilEngineer土木工程师Clerk/Receptionist职员/接待员ClerkTypist&Secretary文书打字兼秘书ComputerDataInputOperator计算机资料输入员ComputerEngineer计算机工程师ComputerProcessingOperator计算机处理操作员ComputerSystemManager计算机系统部经理Copywriter广告文字撰稿人DeputyGeneralManager副总经理EconomicResearchAssistant经济研究助理ElectricalEngineer电气工程师EngineeringTechnician工程技术员EnglishInstructor/Teacher英语教丨师ExportSaleѕManager外销部经理ExportSalesStaff外销部职员FinancialController财务主任FinancialReporter财务报告人F.X.(ForeignExchange)Clerk外汇部职员F.X.SettlementClerk外汇部核算员FundManager财务经理GeneralAuditor审计长GeneralManager/President总经理GeneralManagerAssistant总经理助理GeneralManager'sSecretary HardwareEngineerImportLiaisonStaff进口联络员InterpreterLineSupervisor生产线主管MaintenanceEngineer维修工程师ManagementConsultant管理顾问Manager经理ManagerforPublicRelationѕ公关部经理ManufacturingEngineer制造工程师ManufacturingWorker生产员工MarketAnalyst市场分析员MarketDevelopmentManager市场开发部经理MarketingManager市场销售部经理MarketingStaff市场销售员MarketingAssistant销售助理MarketingExecutive销售主管MarketingRepresentative销售代表MarketingRepresentativeManager市场调研部经理MechanicalEngineer机械工程师MiningEngineer采矿工程师MusicTeacher音乐教丨师NavalArchitect造船工程师OfficeAssistant办公室助理OfficeClerk职员OperationalManager业丨务经理PackageDesigner包装设计师PassengerReservationStaffPersonnelClerk人事部职员PersonnelManager人事部经理PostalClerkProfessionalStaff专业人员Programmer电脑程序设计师ProjectStaff项目策划人员PromotionalManager推售部经理Proof-reader校对员PurchasingAgent采购进货员QualityControlEngineer质量管理工程师RealEstateStaff房地产职员RecruitmentCo-ordinator招聘协调人RegionalManger地区经理Research＆.DevelopmentEngineer研究开发工程师RestaurantManager饭店经理SalesandPlanningStaff销售计划员SalesAssistant销售助理SalesClerk店员、售货员SalesCoordinator销售协调人SalesEngineer销售工程师SalesExecutive销售主管SaleѕManager销售部经理Salesperson销售员SellerRepresentative销售代表SalesSupervisor销售监管SchoolRegistrar学校注册主任SecretarialAssistant秘书助理Secretary秘书SecuritiesCustodyClerkServiceManager服务部经理SimultaneousInterpreter同声传译员SoftwareEngineer计算机软件工程师Supervisor监管员SystemsAdviser系统顾问SystemsEngineer系统工程师SystemsOperator系统操作员TechnicalEditor技术编辑TechnicalTranslator技术翻译TechnicalWorker技术工人TelecommunicationExecutive电讯（电信）员Telephonist/Operator电话接线员、话务员TouristGuide导游TradeFinanceExecutive贸易财务主管TraineeManager培训部经理TranslationChecker翻译核对员Translator翻译员TrustBankingExecutive银行高级职员Typist打字员WordprocessorOperator文字处理操作员:]。
2014考研英语一真题及答案
2014考研英语一真题及答案题目：2014考研英语一真题及答案2014年的考研英语一真题是考查考生阅读理解能力的一套题目。
以下是对该真题的详细解析和答案，希望对考生备考有所帮助。
文章一：The secret of making things easyIt is very simple. It is not the business of living things towork; it is their business to be what they are. Hence doingwhat one does well is a good rule. It will teach one about theshame of making mistakes and about oneself. The people whohave never learned to do anything and have never made amistake have the greatest difficulty in learning to live thesmall life. They always think of themselves and often try toimprove their own lives personally to their own satisfaction.Such people, following their own weaknesses, are full offrustrations and find themselves bored all the time, even whenbusy.Doing what one does is doing what is natural. Thus thebody of a child becomes an awkward thing because theawkward thing it does is never forgiven. The Chinese used totrain all their children to kneel, to walk, to carry trays on their heads and to climb the sword ladder. All these feats, as well as swimming, were taught with infinite care to children between the ages of one and three, so that when they came to perform any of them there was no struggle and they felt no awkwardness because it was not an awkwardness to them, but an ease.The thing which is important and surprising is that thechild who never makes any mistake is seldom intelligent. The child who never makes any mistake is seldom able to produce anything on his own. He does well on a lead and mainly makes his teacher glad. One the other hand, the child who makes mistakes and sometimes trespasses, who tries experiments that fail, continually changes his teachers’ minds for him and makes him busy. This child seems to act very soon after the fashion of the cells in his own body. He seems to focus rather than to integrate, but he is an integrator, and his lack of uniformity makes uniformity possible. He is a cultivator, but he cultivates what he likes—useless things like language.1. What general advantage is obtained by following the rule in the first sentence?A) One learns to eliminate mistakes.B) One learns to improve one’s own life.C) One learns to be one’s own master.D) One learns to better oneself.【答案】A) One learns to eliminate mistakes.【详解】本题为细节题，考查的是对文章第一句话的理解。
关于娱乐至死的英语作文
关于娱乐至死的英语作文Title: The Perils of Entertainment: A Modern Paradox。
In Neil Postman's seminal work, "Amusing Ourselves to Death," he eloquently dissected the insidious impact of the entertainment industry on our culture and society.Postman's insights, though penned in the 1980s, ring truer than ever in today's hyper-connected world, where screens dominate our attention and triviality often triumphs over substance.The ubiquity of entertainment in contemporary society is undeniable. From television shows to social media platforms, we are bombarded with a constant stream of distractions designed to captivate our minds and numb our critical faculties. However, as Postman argued, this relentless onslaught of amusement comes at a grave cost.One of the most profound consequences of our entertainment-saturated culture is the erosion ofmeaningful discourse. In an age where soundbites and memes reign supreme, complex ideas are reduced to simplistic slogans, and genuine dialogue gives way to sensationalism and spectacle. The rise of reality television and clickbait journalism exemplifies this trend, as sensationalism and superficiality become the norm, while substance isrelegated to the sidelines.Moreover, the emphasis on entertainment has also had a profound impact on our political landscape. Politicians are increasingly viewed through the lens of entertainment, valued more for their charisma and entertainment value than their policies or principles. This phenomenon, oftenreferred to as the "celebrification" of politics, has serious implications for the functioning of democracy, as substantive debate and informed decision-making are supplanted by personality cults and theatrical performances.Furthermore, the pervasive influence of entertainment extends beyond the realm of politics and into our everyday lives, shaping our values, beliefs, and behaviors in subtle yet significant ways. From the images we see on screen tothe products we consume, entertainment exerts a powerful influence on our perceptions of the world and ourselves. This can lead to a superficial understanding of complex issues, as well as a preoccupation with instantgratification and hedonistic pursuits at the expense of long-term goals and genuine fulfillment.However, while Postman's critique of entertainment culture is undoubtedly incisive, it is important to recognize that not all forms of entertainment areinherently detrimental. Indeed, when wielded thoughtfully, entertainment has the potential to educate, inspire, and unite. From thought-provoking films that challenge our assumptions to immersive video games that foster empathy and collaboration, entertainment can serve as a powerful medium for social change and personal growth.Ultimately, the challenge lies in striking a balance between the pleasures of entertainment and the demands of a meaningful life. By cultivating discernment and critical thinking skills, we can resist the seductive allure of mindless amusement and instead seek out forms ofentertainment that enrich our lives and expand our horizons. In doing so, we can reclaim control over our attention and our destiny, ensuring that we do not succumb to the perilsof entertainment, but rather harness its potential for positive transformation.。
“民粹”概念解读
民粹”概念解读秦宗川(西南政法大学法学院,重庆 401120)摘 要: 民粹”(或 民粹主义”)是与 精英主义”相对的概念㊂诸多领域都已出现了民粹思维和实践,但其概念较为模糊㊂美国的人民党运动和俄国民粹派实践是民粹话语的经典形象㊂评价视角上,民粹是以草根或平民价值为导向㊁是富含情绪化和批判性的思维和实践㊂思想内核上,民粹一是主张以 大众”为中心㊁奉行 人民至上”,二是以 精英”的视角构建的思想体系,三是一个矛盾体㊂关键词:民粹,精英主义,大众,情绪化,民主,理性中图分类号:D;C04 文献标识码:A DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1673-8578.2018.01.013The Interpretation of the Concept of Populism //QIN ZongchuanAbstracts: Populism”is a relative concept with elitism”.Many social fields have emerged populist thinking and practice,but its concept is fuzzy.The People’s Party movement in the United States and the Russian populists practice is the classic image of populist discourse.From the perspective of evaluation,populism is a thinking and practice which is grass⁃roots or populist civilian value oriented and is rich in emotional and critical.The core of populism as following:first,it advocates the mass”as the center,and pursues the people first”;second,its ideological system is constructed from the perspective of elite”;third,it is a paradox.Keywords:populism,elitism,the masses,emotional,democracy,reason收稿日期:2017-07-01 修回日期:2017-11-02基金项目:重庆市社会科学规划项目 刑罚民粹主义研究”(2015BS040)作者简介:秦宗川(1986 ),男,法学博士,西南政法大学法学院讲师,主要研究方向为刑法学㊁犯罪学㊂通信方式:selfqzc@㊂ 民粹”(或 民粹主义”)是与 精英主义”相对的概念㊂在历史长河中,精英主义都长期主宰并引领着人类思想和社会实践㊂而随着社会民主化程度的不断提升,诸多领域都催生出了更多民粹的思维和实践,即 唯民众论”,过度注重和强调普通民众的意志和诉求㊂民粹思维和实践既有积极价值亦有消极隐患,而其出现具有相当的历史必然性,人们应当正视此现象,并采取措施对其加以有效 扬弃”㊂而正视的前提须是有效认知,即对 民粹”概念本身有基本了解㊂民粹是一个甚为复杂的社会现象,可谓一种政治思潮,也是一种社会运动,还是一种政治策略[1]89-90㊂其所指向内容本身的复杂多样性,决定了其概念内涵外延的纷繁多样和模糊性㊂既有的关于民粹问题的研究著述基本都未能给予 民粹”非常确切的概念,本文在结合学术界既有认知和研究成果的基础上,主要运用描述性手段和方法,尽可能准确揭示民粹的核心要素或突出特征,使人们对其有进一步清晰的认知㊂一 民粹”话语的经典形象当前,国内外学术界所探讨的 民粹”话语的经典形象包括两种历史现象,或者称为民粹话语的两种解释体系或两种实践背景[2]3㊂一种形象为美国的人民党运动,一种形象为俄国民粹派实践㊂民粹(populism)在西方学者的视野中,最初就来源于19世纪90年代的美国人民党(People’s Party)运动的理论与实践,其词根是英语的people,这决定了绝大部分欧美学者所认同的民粹的基本26要素和本质特征[2]3㊂美国的人民党运动是一场自下而上的社会运动,其主体为美国当时底层社会的广大农民㊂当时美国社会长时间在政治上呈现保守主义的放任政策和大量腐败㊁经济上国家对诸多行业予以高度垄断,致使社会矛盾激化,工人斗争和各种改革运动风起云涌,下层民众的斗争日益激烈㊂突出表现为广大农场主为摆脱垄断资本在货币金融㊁铁路运输㊁市场价格㊁土地资源等方面对农业的控制,展开了一系列激烈斗争㊂其实质根源在于美国政府所作所为与民间情绪和诉求之间产生了明显冲突与矛盾,持改革倾向和反垄断倾向的政治势力对民主㊁共和两大党控制美国政治表示不满,认为两党制并不合时宜,主张重组美国政党体制㊂以农场主为主体并代表农民利益的人民党在此背景下组建形成,迅速参与美国的政治竞争㊁表达政治诉求并荣获佳绩,使人民党一度成为两大党之外能够在全国政治中取得发言权的第三党㊂但人民党最终败北于党派斗争,这股美国社会独立的政治力量最终消散,如今仅成为历史记忆[2]220-224㊂但受其影响,美国在20世纪中陆续见证了几大典型民粹思潮和运动,包括以休伊㊃朗主导下的 共享财富”计划㊁乔治㊃华莱士掀起的种族主义与民粹之风㊁罗斯㊃佩罗领衔的民粹政治运动[3]40-59㊂中国学者所称的民粹基本源于俄国民粹的概念框架㊂民粹在俄语中的词根是narod,即人民的意思,与英语中的people㊁德语中的Volk所指代的内容是相同的[2]3㊂俄国民粹整体上是一场在 亲民㊁爱民㊁崇尚信仰人民”的思想主张之下践行 到人民中去” 到民间去”的政治运动,自这场运动开始,民粹(narodnichestvo)及民粹派(narodniki)的术语形成并被广泛使用㊂民粹作为一种纯思潮形成于19世纪50 60年代的俄国,并于60 70年代起在俄国发展成为社会运动( 民粹派” 到民间去”),后在80 90年代经历了演化和低潮( 革命民粹”分化 黑土平分社”与 民意党”㊁ 改革派民粹/自由民粹”形成㊁ 民粹”向 马克思主义”的转变),到20世纪初再度活跃㊁高涨( 社会革命党”及其分裂 左派㊁中派㊁右派)㊂其理论创建和社会实践的主要代表人物包括赫尔岑㊁车尔尼雪夫斯基㊁巴枯宁㊁拉甫罗夫㊁特卡乔夫㊁索科罗夫㊁科洛连科㊁切尔诺夫㊁普列汉诺夫㊂俄国民粹在其长达近百年的历史发展演变过程中,形成了一个相当庞杂㊁包括各种思想成分的理论体系㊂其共同思想与实践特征包括:一是崇尚和信仰 人民”(主要指农民和贫困劳动者),并把 人民”理想化;二是把农村公社理想化,企图通过保持农村公社,发展农民 固有”的社会主义精神;三是企图通过俄国独特的公社道路,绕过资本主义阶段, 直接过渡”到社会主义;四是对一般文化抱着鄙视态度,反对文化崇拜,倾向于以虚无主义的态度评价文化,以道德主义和极端功利主义的观点对待科学和文化[4]3-5㊂俄国民粹具有一般的文化内涵和精神要素,但更多的或本质上是同俄国社会主义革命事业联系在一起,实质上是一种较为激进的带有 浪漫主义”和 空想主义”色彩的有关社会主义的政治思想和政治实践[4]24-25,40-42,257-263㊂此外,学界探讨的民粹所指向的形象往往也包括拉美式的民粹(庇隆主义)政治㊁欧洲新民粹运动㊁中国台湾地区民粹政治㊁非洲民粹解放道路㊁中国带民粹气息的革命与改革实践等政治思潮和社会运动[2]237-276㊂由此可知,民粹在经典形象或核心内容上指向的是历史与现实中的一些政治思潮和社会运动,系对与政治密切相关的社会现象的概括与描述,属于极富政治色彩的词语㊂因此,民粹在经典形象上应属于政治学㊁历史学领域的概念,大体指这样一种社会现象,即个人或组织在依靠㊁信仰㊁崇拜 人民”这一思想观念下,以 人民”为 名”,宣传㊁发动㊁组织特定的人群和团体开展具有政治诉求或利益倾向的社会活动㊂二 民粹”概念的多维认知经典形象主要从历史源起㊁中心景象方面帮助人们认知民粹概念,揭示了民粹大致的外部轮廓㊂而民粹在历史发展演变和不同国度与地区的实践中却给人留下甚为丰富的审视视角或维度,从多维视角的感知中,我们能对民粹概念有更细致㊁更全面的认知㊂(一)研究领域的认知36民粹这一概念在形成之初及其日后发展始终都与多种政治思潮和政治运动紧密相连,可谓伴随着政治思潮和运动产生和发展,所以,民粹在最初意义以及核心意涵上可谓专属于政治学领域的概念,即使至今其政治指向仍占主导地位㊂但事实上,民粹这一概念早已不再局限于政治学研究视野,已经渗透到多个人文社会科学领域而成为多种研究视角或学科背景下的概念㊂历史学[5]㊁社会学[6]㊁文学[7]㊁心理学[8]㊁新闻传播学[9]㊁法学[10]等学术领域都已呈现民粹的身影,几乎表明民粹已走下政治 神坛”而成为大众化㊁通俗性的话语㊂同时,民粹一词甚至走出学术研究领域而成为一个通俗的概念,政治家㊁知识分子㊁新闻记者乃至普通民众都在不时谈论有关民粹的话题㊂似乎 民粹成了一个万能的术语,它无所不包,可以用来指涉各种不同的现象”[1]88㊂(二)评价视角的认知在多数人的眼中,民粹更多是负面的㊁消极的㊂在早期,人们对民粹的否定㊁批判态度往往源于阶级观念和政治斗争,其评价带有很强的情绪性和功利性,因而也就有失客观和理性㊂随着社会的发展进步,人们对民粹的评价日趋客观和理性,即使是批判,也是更为学理式的而非动辄 上纲上线”式的㊂以下几方面可谓当前人们对民粹较有共识性的整体评价㊂1.民粹是以草根或平民价值为导向的思维和实践无论是关于政治制度和意识形态,还是关于一般社会现象和实践,民粹始终高举 人民”旗帜,自称为 人民的主义”㊂此 人民”并非纯粹抽象㊁空洞意义上的人群,而有具体所指,比如农民阶层㊁城市贫民㊁工人阶级等生活于社会底层的人群㊂民粹者试图在政治㊁经济㊁文化等方面集中代表并表达作为社会主体的广大底层民众的利益和需求,以实现政治民主㊁社会正义㊁经济平等等理想状态㊂在传统意义上,民粹中的 人民”是有别于乃至对立于掌权者㊁上层政治精英㊁经济财阀㊁知识分子等 精英”的,平民或草根阶层才是民粹的社会基础和力量源泉,平民崇拜成为民粹的显著标签㊂由此,平民或草根价值和理性是民粹者思维和实践的主要标准[2]46-47㊂2.民粹是情绪化的思维和实践基于民粹浓厚的群众性色彩,其思维和实践也由此呈现明显的情绪化㊁非理性特征,突出表现在:(1)主张政治的简单化㊂民粹大力提倡以易于理解的方式和常识性的方案进行政治制度的构建,主张直接民主,反对繁文缛节式的代议制以及复杂的官僚政治㊂认为人民的要求和意志均是直接的,政治本身也应该是直接和简单的,任何复杂化或者技术化的政治设计都有违人民的意志,宣扬坦诚㊁朴实㊁明晰的政治体制和风格[2]57-58㊂部分民粹者甚至宣扬政治的虚无主义以及无政府主义[4]120-125,集中体现了民粹对普通民众的崇拜以及对现行制度的不信任感㊂(2)主张卡里斯马型政治㊂按照马克斯㊃韦伯的观点,政治统治权威分为传统型㊁法理型㊁卡里斯马型(个人权威型)三类[11]241㊂按此分类,民粹的政治主张及实践接近于卡里斯马型㊂民粹对群众运动有着浓烈的偏好,希望借助某些热情来推动非政治化的大众融入政治事务,以此推动精英主导下的政治去拯救国家或实现民族复兴㊂因此,充分酝酿和激发大众的政治热情是民粹重要的关切内容和行动指向㊂而卡里斯马型统治的前提在于被统治者即大众对少数精英或个别领袖所具有品质的无条件接受,这无疑需要某种情感的支持㊂因为卡里斯马型政治的适用本质上是由被统治者对特定领导人个人品格的认可来决定的,只要领导者声称要为被统治者谋幸福㊁安康或希望,而被统治者在情感上热情拥戴领导者,个人魅力型权威便可出现和维持㊂而民粹的平民拯救与谋幸福的主张以及丰富的群众宣传动员实践,无疑让更多底层民众认识到自身的各种局限与不足,并对能为其提供庇护以及带领其走上更加幸福道路的超凡领导者予以无限渴望与崇拜,从而引发浓厚的群众性的政治热情㊂最终,民粹在让卡里斯马型权威政治成为理论可能的同时,更让卡里斯马型权威政治在特定时空背景中得以真实上演㊂(3)奉行道德至上主义㊂所谓道德至上主义, 46是指以各种美好而纯粹的信念㊁理想㊁道德或情感(如没有剥削㊁财富共有㊁平均分配㊁绝对平等)作为社会制度与精神文化的最高评价标准㊂民粹者往往形成近乎想象乃至乌托邦式的观念与形象㊂如政治制度上由农村公社的小农经济直接过渡到社会主义而跳过资本主义发展阶段,同时实行直接民主乃至主张无政府主义;经济上实现绝对的平均分配㊁反对市场;极端崇拜普通民众而对远离普通民众生活的科学文化及其代表者的知识分子持排斥㊁否定态度,也即持文化虚无主义以及极端的功利主义㊂总之,民粹奉行道德主义而非科学真理的思维方式[12]166,让科学真理和文化价值服从于他们的道德 政治价值”[4]273,凸显了情绪化㊁非理性特征㊂3.民粹是批判性的思维和实践民粹具有浓厚的批判性和反叛色彩㊂经典形象意义上的民粹或对(俄国)农奴制度㊁官僚贵族㊁封建专制或对(美国)代议制民主㊁政治腐败㊁高压或垄断的经济社会政策的抵制与斗争,体现了对现行政治体制㊁制度以及权力精英主导下社会政策的反叛和否定;精神文化层面的民粹呈现出的反智和文化虚无主义,很大程度上也源于对传统精英文化主导下普通民众 失声” 被忽略”现状与事实的不满;当代新民粹(多个学科领域内展现的民粹)不断显现,几乎均源于对政治民主程度不够㊁社会贫富差距悬殊㊁弱势群体利益难以受保障㊁民众安全感下滑等现状的失望㊁不满与批判㊂可以认为,民粹本质上是一种批判主义㊂而且, 就批判性而言,民粹是彻底而广泛的,它的刀锋不仅指向政治㊁经济机制,还指向代表精英价值的学术和媒体中的舆论制造”[2]83-84㊂(三)存在与否的认知基于民粹概念本身的不确切性,就给人一种 它可以指一切东西,又同时似乎什么都没指”之感[13]45㊂由此让人产生民粹究竟为何物,乃至民粹是否确切存在的疑问㊂一个较为凸显的事实是,民粹一词大量出现在相关学术著述中㊁经常萦绕在人们的耳边,但同时很多人对此却甚感陌生㊁不太清楚其究竟何义,民粹似乎成为 熟悉的陌生词”㊂对此,至少有两点需要明确:一是 民粹”这一概念本身的存在是确定无疑的,这从存在诸多以此为题的研究著述这一事实中便可予以证明㊂尽管民粹的概念还不够明晰,但经过多年的研究探讨,民粹一词所欲揭示的现象或表达的内容至少已经让人们能够大致㊁初步地理解,并且对此已形成了一些共识,尤其是就学术研究和知识分子而言㊂可见,无论从语词的真实运用还是从意涵的理解上,均可认为民粹一词是真实存在的㊂二是民粹概念本身确实较为模糊,难觅精确的界定,这同样可在相关学术著述中得以查证㊂相关的学术著述几乎均对民粹仅进行描述而不做精确概括㊂如此局面的形成,根本上源于民粹所欲揭示现象本身的复杂性让人难以用简单几句话将其全貌精确呈现给世人㊂或许民粹一词注定无法形成精确的概念,但只要其所揭示的现象真实存在并且运用这一概念能让人对此产生共识性认知,概念精确与否已无关紧要,至关重要的是如何有效描述民粹的内核㊂三 民粹”思想的核心内涵学者普遍认为,法律概念的 中心”往往是明确的,而 边缘”却相当模糊,因此产生法律解释的必要性㊂事实上,不仅法律概念如此,任何一种概念均具有此属性,即一种概念的核心所指往往较为明确,但其涵盖的整体范围或确切外延却不甚明晰㊂因此,准确揭示某一概念的核心内涵,往往是使该概念被有效认知㊁理解的最易于把握和实现的方式或途径㊂民粹作为一股思潮及其伴随的一系列社会实践或运动,有力的思想主张是民粹的鲜明特征,也可认为民粹本质上就是一种思想体系㊂因此,揭示出这一思想体系的核心观点便可使民粹的概念 中心”得以明确,相应地,民粹的概念便可有效成型㊂(一)主张以 大众”为中心,奉行 人民至上”人民”一词具有高度的政治性,但在指代对象上与 大众” 公众” 群众”等凸显社会学意味的词语是近义的㊂就民粹而言, 人民”一词实质上是一个抽象同质的整体概念,即从抽象空洞意义上而非从个别具体 人”的角度指称 人民”,因此,民56粹实质上是一种整体主义[2]32-33㊂尽管如此,民粹所指称或宣扬的 人民”却共同拥有以下特征[2]38-39:一是 团结的人民”,即属一体化㊁一致性而且与政党和各政治派别相异的人群;二是 我们的人民”,即排除权贵阶层或国外移民等 异己”的人群;三是 平凡的人民”,即不同于那些受过高等教育的精英㊁权贵等 不平凡”人士的人群㊂而民粹凸显的思想主张便是以 大众”为中心㊁ 人民至上”㊂ 民粹”之 粹”有 纯粹”和 精粹”两种意涵,前者有 完全” 彻底” 绝对”之义,后者有 精英” 精华” 佼佼者”之义㊂与此相对应,形成了 以民为粹”和 民之精粹”两种互有差别但关系紧密的意涵㊂ 以民为粹”指部分知识分子和社会精英视人民为绝对的真理,应毫无保留地崇尚人民的力量㊁智慧与品格,大众是精英的力量源泉,大众是不容忽视㊁不容污蔑的,也是至高无上的,精英应服务大众㊁为大众谋幸福,喜大众之喜㊁厌大众之厌,总之奉行绝对的 人民崇拜”㊂ 民之精粹”系对 民粹”的另一种解释,即同样坚持人民主体㊁人民利益的至上性,但同时认为人民存在消极落后㊁愚昧保守的一面,因此,需要知识和社会精英去带领㊁开化,而有此情怀和意识的精英便自视为人民的精粹,自身有责任在历史和社会发展中起着相应的绝对和主导作用[2]41-45㊂可见,尽管 民粹”存在两种解释,不同解释会产生明显的观念和实践差异,但以大众为中心㊁以人民为主体和人民利益至上的思想无疑是共同的,这也成为民粹最显著的标签㊂(二)是以 精英”的视角构建的思想体系民粹尽管以 大众”为中心㊁奉行 人民至上”,但这一观念却出自 精英”,是 精英”自我觉醒㊁设计乃至标榜的产物㊂ 精英”是相对于普通社会公众而言的,通常指那些所掌握的政治㊁经济和文化资源超出社会平均水平而更具社会优势或具有更多社会主导权和话语权的人[2]40㊂从民粹概念产生的背景看,民粹的建构和解释主体并非其高扬的 普通大众”而系与 普通大众”对应的社会精英㊂正是在一批社会精英意识到需向人民靠拢㊁以人民为归宿并以人民为力量源泉时,民粹思想方才形成㊂ 民粹”一词最早出现在俄国19世纪60年代中期的文献中,在此之前, 虚无主义”曾是对它的称呼[4]3㊂而民粹思想则在19世纪初之后陆续兴起的 十二党人运动” 秘密小组” 斯拉夫派和西欧派”等社会运动中便已开始酝酿㊂而这些运动的领衔者几乎均为少数受到西方先进思想特别是启蒙思想的影响而致力于实现民族自新和社会变革的贵族青年,他们无疑属于当时社会的精英㊂但在良知的拷问与理性的指引下,这批被视为沙皇专制统治阶级的 逆臣贰子”开始 忏悔”, 反思”既有社会制度的罪恶以及普通民众的种种不幸㊂他们出于对俄国人民及其命运深切而真挚的同情而积极进行社会变革的探索与实践,以期为俄国人民谋得社会正义与幸福[4]18-36,266-270㊂可见,民粹在起源上便是由社会精英倡导㊁发起的, 民粹是概念上的 底层的主义’和实际上的 精英的主义’”[2]143㊂同时,从上述 民粹”的两种解释内涵上也可以得知, 精英主义是民粹隐藏着的逻辑”[14]113㊂因为, 以民为粹”尽管强调对人民的绝对崇拜和信仰,但这无疑是精英的自我要求,其前提和隐含逻辑必须是精英的高度自觉,所以精英的自我认知㊁高度自觉意识的存在无疑是奉行 以民为粹”的前提㊂而 以民为粹”的解释路径更是甚为直接而旗帜鲜明地体现了 精英”意识,是精英自视精英㊁自我界定㊁反思或标榜的产物㊂可见,民粹贯穿着精英意识,是在 精英”视角下建构而成的①㊂(三)民粹是一个矛盾体称民粹是一个矛盾体,是因为民粹的一些主张与其隐含的逻辑和实践不一致,同时其一些观点让人深感困惑㊁难以理解,突出表现在两方面:一方面,民粹缺乏始终的明确的核心价值,使人在认知上倍感困惑㊂尽管民粹始终高扬 人民”旗帜,奉行人民至上,这看似民粹的核心价值,但人民至上的观点事实上是甚为空洞和抽象的,缺乏足够的可操作性和可验证性㊂它不像一些现代思想体系如自由主义㊁保守主义㊁女权主义㊁社会主义对平等㊁自由㊁社会公正等相对更具体㊁更明确的价值有一贯的坚持,这使得民粹在思想上呈现出 空心化”倾向[2]22㊂核心价值的模糊不定致使 民粹很容易成为一种依附于其他意识形态之上的形容词, 66比如民粹依附于自由主义而形成社会自由主义,民粹与女权主义结合而形成激进女权主义等”[2]22㊂另一方面,民粹的一些主张和理念与其隐含的逻辑和实践之间存有矛盾㊂其一,民粹在反体制的同时又依附于体制本身㊂民粹在政治立场上是不反政治而反体制的思想㊂政治学意义上的民粹实质上是在国家政治内整体解释精英 大众关系的理论,民粹整体上是认同政治的㊂整体上 他们不是不要政治,而只是不要精英的政治”[2]85㊂但民粹却具有显著的反体制性,即反对以代议制为代表的传统政治体制㊂民粹者自称是 人民的而非体制的”,他们以人民的名义发动一些反抗现存权力结构的运动[2]75, 其基本立场和现行体制是相对立和相反的”[12]167㊂而 民粹最初只是一种由危机意识触发的原始的政治直觉与反应,它要维护自身和赢得与代议政治的斗争,又必须利用自己深恶痛绝的代议制和政党政治”[2]22,其具体实践也大都依附于现行体制之下㊂其二,民粹表面上反对精英统治,但实质上又极易成为精英阶层掌控权力的工具㊂民粹是由社会或权力精英进行命名㊁宣扬和主导的实践,尽管主张人民至上㊁崇尚人民㊁反对精英统治,但现实中,却表现为由精英阶层宣传㊁动员㊁组织广大人民群众参与相应政治进程和社会运动,俨然可以被视为精英阶层整体上对平民大众进行控制和操纵的工具和 口实”㊂其三,民粹与民主有着相生相克的关系㊂它孕育着民主的思想和实践,有利于大众民主思想的培育和民主政治参与;但同时它又潜藏着多数人暴政的危机,很容易假借 人民”的旗号行违背人民意志乃至对人民不利之事,或步入以多数人的名义剥夺少数人权利的极端㊂综上所述,可将 民粹”概念大体界定如下:民粹是集中在政治领域并逐步扩散到诸多其他社会领域,由知识和权力精英积极宣扬㊁标榜和主导的,以奉行 人民至上”并以 人民”之名行事㊁旨在代表和反映平民大众利益为主体内容,同时具有强烈道德情感色彩和批判性的社会思潮和实践㊂注释①事实上,几乎所有的 主义”以及其他思想体系均可谓精英构造的产物㊂在智力资源㊁话语权㊁责任使命感等方面也基本决定了只有社会精英才能进行宏达思想体系的构建,社会大众尽管是历史发展和社会进步的主体和源动力,但却难以进行方向的指引和思想的概括与提炼㊂在历史发展和社会进程中,精英和大众的关系犹如轮船的舵盘与发动机,精英是舵盘进行方向引领,大众是发动机提供源动力㊂而在此强调民粹主义凸显着精英意识,只是希望人们面对民粹主义时更理性,能拨开迷雾看到更多内核㊂参考文献[1]俞可平.现代化进程中的民粹主义[J].战略与管理,1997(1).[2]林红.民粹主义 概念㊁理论与实证[M].中央编译出版社,2007.[3][英]保罗㊃塔格特.民粹主义[M].袁明旭,译,长春:吉林人民出版社,2005.[4]马龙闪㊁刘建国.俄国民粹主义及其跨世纪影响[M].桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2013.[5]姚署光.国民革命失败的民粹主义分析 以湖南农民运动为个案的探讨[J].南京大学学报:哲学㊃人文科学㊃社会科学,2003(3).[6]祝东力.社会不公是民粹主义的温床[J].文化纵横,2012(3).[7]高平.文化民粹主义批判[J].探索与争鸣,2009(5).[8]林红.群体心理学视野下的民粹主义[J].河南师范大学学报:哲学社会科学版,2007(1).[9]陈尧.网络民粹主义的躁动:从虚拟集聚到社会运动[J].学术月刊,2011(6).[10]刘练军.民粹主义司法[J].法律科学,2013(1).[11][德]马克斯㊃韦伯.经济与社会[M].林荣远,译,北京:商务印书馆,1997.[12]Lonescu G,Gellner E.Populism:Its Meaning and Na⁃tional Characteristics[M].London:Weidenfeld andNicolson,1969.[13]Piccone P.Postmodern Populism[J].Telos,1996(1).[14]Urbinati N.Democracy and Populism[J].Constellations,1998.76。
cracy后缀的用法
cracy后缀的用法以下是“-cracy”后缀的用法、固定搭配及双语例句：“-cracy”后缀通常表示“统治；政体；政权”的意思。
常见固定搭配：1. democracy （民主政体；民主制度）2. autocracy （独裁政体；独裁统治）3. plutocracy （富豪统治；财阀统治）双语例句：1. Isn't it wonderful to live in a democracy where everyone's voice matters? （生活在一个每个人的声音都重要的民主国家难道不美妙吗？）2. How can we prevent the rise of autocracy in our society? （我们怎样才能防止独裁统治在我们的社会中兴起呢？）3. Do you think plutocracy is fair to the majority of people? （你认为财阀统治对大多数人公平吗？）4. The essence of democracy is the participation of the people. （民主的本质是人民的参与。
）5. Autocracy often leads to oppression and injustice. （独裁统治常常导致压迫和不公正。
）6. Can a country thrive under a plutocracy? （一个国家在财阀统治下能繁荣发展吗？）7. We should strive for a more perfect democracy. （我们应该为更完美的民主而努力。
）8. Isn't autocracy the opposite of freedom? （独裁统治难道不是自由的对立面吗？）9. Plutocracy seems to favor the wealthy few. （财阀统治似乎偏袒少数富人。
英文争论类作文题目
英文争论类作文题目Title: The Paradox of Freedom of Speech: Balancing Rights and Responsibilities。
Freedom of speech, a cornerstone of democratic societies, has sparked countless debates over its limits and implications. While it empowers individuals to express themselves freely, it also raises questions about where the line should be drawn between exercising this right and respecting others' rights and dignity.One of the most contentious aspects of free speech is its intersection with hate speech. On one hand, proponents argue that even the most offensive speech should be protected to uphold the principle of free expression. They contend that allowing the government to censor speech sets a dangerous precedent and undermines the very essence of democracy. Moreover, they assert that exposure to diverse viewpoints, even those we find repugnant, fosters intellectual growth and critical thinking.However, this perspective neglects the real-world consequences of hate speech. Words have power, and hateful rhetoric can inflame prejudices, incite violence, and marginalize vulnerable communities. In a society that aspires to equality and justice, permitting hate speech unchecked contradicts these values. Therefore, some argue that restrictions on hate speech are necessary to safeguard the well-being of individuals and maintain social cohesion.Finding the balance between protecting freedom of speech and combating hate speech is no easy task. It requires nuanced approaches that recognize the complexity of the issue. One such approach is the "harm principle," which suggests that speech should only be restricted if it directly causes harm to others. While this principle provides a framework for assessing the impact of speech, it raises questions about how to define and measure harm accurately.Another consideration is the role of social media platforms in regulating speech. With the rise of onlinecommunication, platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube have become de facto public forums where discussions unfold and opinions are shared. However, their algorithms and content moderation policies often fail to address hate speech effectively, leading to the spread of harmful misinformation and extremist ideologies. As private entities, these platforms face the challenge of balancing their commitment to free expression with the need to create safe and inclusive online environments.Education also plays a crucial role in addressing the root causes of hate speech. By promoting media literacy, critical thinking skills, and empathy, we can empower individuals to discern fact from fiction, challenge stereotypes, and engage in constructive dialogue. Moreover, fostering a culture of respect and tolerance encourages people to think twice before engaging in hateful speech and promotes mutual understanding and solidarity.In conclusion, freedom of speech is a fundamental right that must be upheld, but it is not without limits. We must recognize that with great freedom comes greatresponsibility. By adopting a multifaceted approach that balances the protection of free expression with the prevention of harm, we can create a society where diverse perspectives are valued, and all individuals are treated with dignity and respect. Only then can we truly fulfill the promise of democracy and justice for all.。
自由与统一作文英语
自由与统一作文英语Title: The Paradox of Freedom and Unity。
Freedom and unity, two concepts often seen as opposing forces, are nonetheless intertwined in the fabric of societies worldwide. While freedom champions individual rights and autonomy, unity fosters collective identity and solidarity. Balancing these seemingly contradictory idealsis a perpetual challenge for nations striving for social harmony and progress.Firstly, let us delve into the essence of freedom. Freedom is the cornerstone of democracy, enabling citizensto express themselves, pursue their aspirations, and participate in governance. It encompasses civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, religion, and association, which empower individuals to voice their opinions and engage in diverse lifestyles without fear of repression. Moreover, economic freedom allows for entrepreneurship and innovation, driving economic growth and prosperity.However, the pursuit of unchecked freedom can lead to disunity and chaos within a society. When individual interests supersede the common good, societal cohesion weakens, giving rise to conflicts and divisions along various lines—be it ideological, cultural, or economic. History bears witness to how excessive individualism can fragment societies, eroding trust and solidarity among citizens.Conversely, unity serves as a cohesive force binding diverse individuals and communities together under a shared identity or purpose. Whether it be national unity forged through a common history and values or social unity based on mutual respect and inclusivity, cohesive societies tend to be more resilient and prosperous. Unity fosters collaboration and collective action, enabling societies to tackle shared challenges, from economic downturns to natural disasters, with greater efficacy.Nonetheless, the pursuit of unity should not come at the expense of individual liberties. History is repletewith examples of oppressive regimes that enforced unity through coercion and suppression of dissent, resulting in widespread human rights violations and social injustices. Genuine unity emerges organically when individuals freely associate and cooperate based on shared values and aspirations, rather than through coercion or manipulation.The challenge, therefore, lies in striking a delicate balance between freedom and unity, ensuring that neither is sacrificed at the altar of the other. A society that upholds both freedom and unity recognizes the inherent dignity and rights of every individual while fostering a sense of belonging and solidarity among its members.One approach to reconciling this paradox is through the cultivation of a robust civil society. Civil society institutions, such as NGOs, community associations, and independent media, play a crucial role in safeguarding individual freedoms while promoting social cohesion and inclusivity. By providing platforms for civic engagement, dialogue, and collective action, civil society bridges the gap between diverse interests and perspectives, fostering asense of belonging and shared responsibility among citizens.Furthermore, inclusive governance mechanisms that respect diverse voices and interests are essential for maintaining both freedom and unity within a society. Participatory decision-making processes, decentralizationof power, and protection of minority rights are indispensable in building consensus and fostering social cohesion. When citizens feel empowered to shape thepolicies that affect their lives and have their voices heard, they are more likely to uphold the values of unity and solidarity.Education also plays a pivotal role in reconciling freedom and unity by nurturing informed and engagedcitizens capable of navigating complex societal issues. A comprehensive education system that promotes critical thinking, empathy, and civic literacy equips individualswith the tools to appreciate diverse perspectives, resolve conflicts peacefully, and contribute positively to their communities. By instilling values of tolerance, respect,and social responsibility, education lays the foundationfor a harmonious and inclusive society.In conclusion, the quest for freedom and unity is not a zero-sum game but rather a continuous journey towards a more just and cohesive society. By upholding individual liberties while nurturing a sense of collective identity and solidarity, nations can transcend the dichotomy between freedom and unity, realizing the full potential of their diverse populations. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, let us strive to build societies where freedom and unity flourish hand in hand, enriching thelives of all citizens.。
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民主理论中的矛盾By Richard Wollheim民主政治的发明一般归功于克里斯提尼（Cleisthenes）。
很多人反对这个归因，很多并不是基于事实依据，而是因为其享有英雄主义或者普罗米修斯式的历史观。
但在这里这种观点至少是合乎情理的。
我们对这位伟大的改革者的动机和观点了解极其有限，但他所实现的成就确实具有长期持续的重要性的这一点是毋庸置喙的。
他所设计的制度只略加调整便长期作为雅典的政治结构：围绕其产生了一种对流行政府的信念或理论，其中只有部分流传了下来，最后希腊词XXXX的最初所指正是这些制度。
到公元前五世纪中期，民主政治已经作为一系列制度，一种政府理论和一个词汇而存在。
由于制度最先产生并推动其他所有，故设计这套制度的人当然有最好的理由被尊为民主政治的发明者。
从克里斯提尼的年代起，民主政治已经在西方文化中已经长期的历史，如果有时是稀少的。
雅典的政治经验从未被忘记也从未完全消失，只要因为其被记载于那些总能因些非直接原因而从受教育者处获得持续的关注和崇敬的文本中。
但是，尽管有延续性，也存在着改变。
在数个重要方面，古代民主政治的都与现代世界的民主政治相异：不仅仅是在实践上，也在理论上。
举个明显的例子：对一个经典的头脑来说，民主与某些特定的政治制度本质上相联系的。
这种联系不复存在了。
因为古人将民主政治与之密切相连的制度不再被与之相联系（或始终联系），如同在公共审查或全部的情况中，或者即使仍然与民主政治相连却不能以可以直接获得民主政治本质的方式，如同法治。
但现代民主政治和古代民主政治相区分的最重要方面是，即使经典民主政治是一种阶层统治，对现代人来说，民主政治是反对任何形式的阶层统治的。
从词源学上可以解释为什么古人这么理解。
因为民主政治被视为是一种与其他与之拥有相同平行结构的名字的统治形式平行的，尽管不同，统治形式，即贵族政治（Aristocracy），寡头政治（Oligarchy），富豪政治（Plutocracy），暴民政治（Ochlocracy）。
其中每一种权力都是被人口的某一阶层所掌握，因权力所掌握阶层的不同故而每种统治形式也就不同相区别，每一种统治习惯是的权力阶层由统治形式的前缀予以表明。
在贵族政治中，统治阶层是Arstoi或精英；在寡头政治中，统治阶层是Oligoi或者极少数人；在暴民政治中，统治阶层是Plutoi或者暴民；在民主政治中，统治阶层是Demos即民众、人民。
古代希腊城邦中德Demos即人民是人口中一个特定的或者确定的阶层，即平民或者贫民。
通过对比发现，民主政治的现代概念是一种管理主体不受到任何限制的政治形式：这里的管理主体与公民主体具有相同的所指。
我们可以这样来对古典民主和现代民主做出区分：两者都是人民的统治；但在古典理论中，人民指某个阶层或者人口中的一个部分，而现代理论中的人民则指人口整体或全体。
问题立即就出现了：如果民主指全体人民的统治，如何去实现？对很多现代国家而言，人民都难免即众多而且多样，或者忽略这两者的连词，至少占据其中一端，所以必必须创建一个个人组成的可以进行有效的统治的集团。
在古代，或者在任何的古代政治理论中，这个问题都没有出现。
因为，古希腊城邦的Demos首先是相对较小的；其次，应当是由于利益上的一致而获得了欲望和需求的统一。
这个问题的其中一个解决方案是回到希腊城邦的状态，或者宁说，那种支持希腊城邦Demos的那种可以被用来支持现代民主政治的人民的状态。
这些人口首先在规模上要做相当的缩减。
并且当其不再众多时，它将自动停止变得多样。
否则如果任由多样性存在，这种多样性会变为纯现象的或表面的。
这种大致能相当于卢梭的合法规则的解决方案明显是不受欢迎的。
人口限制是不切实际的；其所倡导的正确的和真实的与任何程度的有意识的多样性相一致的统一也是无价值的。
另外一种解决方法由弱化附于有效规则的观念上的评判标准。
因为如果我们如希腊人那样通过“统治”“设计和编撰法律”，那么一个巨大和多样的人口来实践集体原则就变得明显不可能。
如我们所见，其中一个答案就是我们应该保证一个民主政治下的人口既不众多也不多样；另外一个答案是我们应该通过“统治”表达另外一些东西，或者在阐述民主政治时，我们应该使用另外一个“统治”的概念。
正是这第二个方案明白地、无保留地被现代民主政治理论吸收于其中。
如果现代民主理论坚持认为，民主政治下的人口整体意义上的人民，而非人口的某个阶层，那么它就坚持认为人民应当从选择和控制法律的意义上而非设计和创始法律的意义上进行统治。
这个观点的重要性在于允许一个无关规模和多样性的民族进行统治。
规模并非人民统治的障碍，从这个弱化的意义上变得非常明显。
既然立法的控制和选择并不要求人们的一致性，数量就不会削减其效用。
多样性也同样不再是障碍就没有那么明显了。
这并不直接源于鉴于说人们在强烈的责任感下统治必须使所有人赞成颁布的法律，鉴于说人民统治在较弱的责任感下统治有那么多的需要：在统治意味着控制的流行统治，可以说是坚持即使有相当比例的人们并不赞成但已被通过的东西。
但是，即是大众统治与某些程度的异议相容，也必然会有一些程度的异议与之不相容。
或者，换言之，对被称为是被人民选择的法律，其必须置于与那种个体的市民所希望法律的所是的积极关系中。
这种关系应当具有如何的特征？当然，在实践中，如果（1）与大多数人的所期望的相一致和（2）因为一致而通过的法律，我们就说这样的立法是民主的。
但也有争论称，尽管实践中多数人原则是没有问题的，其较于任何形式的理想民主结构都是不充分的；因为民主政治的任何正当理由都极关系到理想结构，因而这也就显得很重要了。
在阐述多数人原则的不足性之前，在新政策制定中的歧义需要先澄清。
因为这个原则需要坚持立法与市民选择的绝大多数或尽是最多数票保持一致。
如果绝大多数是预期的，那么多数人原则就是可以接受的，因为若是公民的选择，其绝不会选择自觉上无法接受的立法。
但问题在于，有极大范围的可能性情况多数人原则根本就不选择绝对多数立法。
相应的，如果管理成为持续的，多数人原则需要被其他原则所补充，这个角色最好的候选人就是相对多数原则。
这个原则在仁义情况下都能选出专门的立法，但是问题在于其所选择的立法有些情况下是反直觉的，比如如果是市民的选择。
一个例子可以说明这种情况。
我们试想，有三个人们必须从中选择的政策：A，B，C。
40%，选择了A；35%选择了B；25%，选择了C。
基于纯粹的多数人原则，A被选定了。
但是，如果选择B人更倾向于C而非A，选择C的人更倾向于B而非A。
根据此信息，如果民主原则被执行，那么A是正确的抉择就远非清晰的了。
因为有60%的人，都更倾向于B或C而非A。
这个例子阐述了，倘若公民的个人选择，如果我们所有考虑仅是公民的第一选择，那么民主政治下的政策或者立法应该被实行就不总是那么明确。
我们需要更加深入并考虑个体市民的整体的倾向情况。
深究多数人原则的这类批评意见，政治科学家们已经设想民主政治的问题作为（的解决方案）设计一种可以从个体市民有序的选择或者倾向情况中导出所谓的“民主抉择”的功能。
我们只有构建了这么一种功能我们才可以宣称我们已经阐述了根据现代理论人民在民主下统治的弱性的统治。
近来，这个方法遭到了逆转。
因在《社会选择和个人价值》中，Arrow已经证明了构建一种可以满足某些直觉标准的功能是不可行的。
Arrow的专业顾虑在于他称为“社会福利功能”，其主要任务是在个体倾向的基础上确定完整的社会倾向表。
但是，最近的研究表明Arrow不可能定理也更适用于更加直接与民主政治相关的不那么宏大的构建仅仅基于个体倾向表给我们社会第一选择的功能的工程。
我完全是顺道提及这个问题：并非因为我意图解决它，而是因为我意图搁置它。
这篇论文的目的，我意图假设所谓的“聚集的难题”已经被解决了；并且确实存在着一种理论或者统治，可以从个体选择通到某些特定立法，以至于我们可以合理的把这个法案的通过称为民主政治的一个实例。
完成这个预设后，现在我继续将民主政治视为一种依据这种理论或规则运转的机器。
这部机器，为方便起见，我们称之为民主机器以一种间断的方式不停运作。
我们以一定的间隔向其输入个体公民的选择。
这部机器就能根据预先设定的规则或者理论将其糅合，并提出所谓的其自己的“选择”。
如果这个机器不运转的阶段自始自终，人们都依据机器最新近做出的选择行事，就说民主的规则实现了。
现在问题出现了：机器所表达的选择的权威是什么呢？具体说，为什么将自己的选择输入机器却被机器得出一个与自己不同的选择的人会觉得有义务接受呢？不论如何，为了进一步深化质疑，我们现在必须注意到一个区别。
因为个体市民输入民主机器和民主机器所赖以做出决策的根据的选择容易收到两种不同的理解的影响。
一方面，我们将这些选择视作需求的表达。
说某个市民选择A或者他更倾向于A而非B，即是说他相对于其他任何选择或者相对于B他更倾向于A。
当一个人决定他相对B更倾向于A时，他有可能已经因非他自己的狭隘利益而是某种对别人的福利的关心而改变。
但是相同的是，选择了A，他并非坚持别人想选择A，也非A是他们的利益所在，亦非A即是理想解决方案，亦非A应该付诸现实；他仅仅只是表明他想要A。
如果我们设想民主机器是依据选择所表达的需求运转的，那么我们的问题分解为某种近似于古老的功利主义难题的东西：为什么一个想要A的人会认为B应该被选择，而B却与A明显不一致，但通过考虑社会其他人的需求去有了这个想法？我认为必须做对这个联系做两个简要的分析。
首先，无论怎样，即使是A和B本身并不一致，想要A却认为应该是B也没有什么不一致。
我们也许常有欲望并且也同时有与欲望相抗衡的道德信仰。
事实上，很多伦理学家认为如果没有一些道德信仰与欲望相抗衡反而是意见难以置信的事情。
但是，尽管想要A和认为应该是B之间并没有不一致，同样明显的是，前者也不能充当后者的原因，当然后者也不能从前者中得出。
但这个问题中似乎有个预设，此即应该展现出来的。
然而矛盾的是，功利主义者（我颇为笼统地用这个词）似乎持有“想要而却认为应该是B有着先入为主的不一致”以及“只有‘应该是B’的想法是基于‘想要A’时才能消除这种不一致”这两种误解。
但是当然，后一种要求是一种谬论。
它要么源于一种“证明一致性”的错误夸大概念，即为了证明两个命题的一致，其中一个必须由另外一个得出；要么源于道德基础概念的根本自我中心立场，即所有的道德信仰根源于需求。
事实上，一个表达出想要A，鉴于民主机器的运行，认为应该是B的人可能考虑到，因为应用了某些更高位原则到民主机器选择应该是什么的效果上而认为应该是B。
他顾及，换言之，他的原则，他不再回头并重新考虑他的需求。
他所需要确认的所有只是他的原则和他的需求，尽管会通向不同的方向，事实上并不一致；以及将任何意义附着在他们可能是的可能性上变得非常困难。