最新语用学 2.deixis
语用学 指示语
bring also are components of place deixis
Equivalents of these words can be found in Chinese, that is:这儿， 那儿，这个，那个，左和右，来和去，带走和拿来。
③除此之外，地点指示语可以是表示空间位置的副
• last指示的是上一章中讲述意识流的信息,或是传达该信 息的篇章部分 • I bet you haven’t heard this story… this指示接下来要叙述的故事,或是叙述故事的那个篇章部 分。
• Now I wonder through my garden indecisively, trying to hold on to the last days of late summer. • Now主要的是起到语篇的衔接作用 • Here we choose to define...as... • here 指示的是这部分要叙述的内容
地点指示语指话语涉及的地点或空间位置。 ①In English, location adverbs and demonstratives such as :here, there，this，that，left, right are typical place deixis.
②Besides, pairs of motion verbs such as come and go, take and
词，或由“介词+方位名词”组成表示空间位置的
介词短语，或者是“介词+物体”等组成的表示方
位的介词短语。
英语中的come和go可以表示言语时间参与者的 移动方向不同：
• He is coming. He is going.
语用学—指代
Handout IIIDeixisDeixis is a technical term from Greek for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means …pointing‟ via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this …pointing‟ is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals, or indexical expressions. Typical examples are pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.Basically, there are five kinds of deixis: person deixis, temporal deixis, s pacial deixis, discourse deixis, and social deixis.Deictic center and deictic projectionIn general, deixis is used in an egocentric way, hence the egocentricity of deixis. That is, unless otherwise stated,” (i) the central person is the speaker, (ii) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance, (iii) the central place is the speaker‟s location at utterance time…, (iv) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance, and (v) the social center is the speaker‟s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative” (S. Levinson 1983: 64).The speaker projecting himself into a deictic context centered on the addressee is known as deictic projection. We often say: come in, come here, but go away, go there. But when someone is calling you a little distance away, you may say “ I am coming”. This deictic projection is called by some pragmatists as …polite shift of deictic center‟. （礼貌的观点转移：不以自己为参照点，而把参照点转移到听话人的位置，以示礼貌。
Deixis
Eg. We can illustrate the distinction by taking the word “there”. It has all three uses. Its gestural use can be seen in a sentence like,’ I want you to put it there’. You have to know where the speaker is pointing in order to know what place he is indicating. The symbolic use is exemplified in the telephoner’s utterance, “ Is Johny there?” This time we understand the word “there” as meaning “ in the place where you are.” An example of the anaphoric use of “ there” is a sentence like “ I drove the car to the parking lot and left it there.” In that case the word refers to a place which had been identified earlier in the discourse, namely the parking plot(C.Fillmore,1997).
There is the speaker of the utterance, the sender of the message,what grammarians call the “first person”; there is, secondly, the addressee of the message or utterance, the message’s intended recipient, what we usually refer to as the “second person”; there is a third category of person deixis which plays a role of the intended audience. Other individuals referred to in sentences can be identified negatively with respect to these categories as being, for example, somebody who is neither speaker nor addressee, or somebody who is neither speaker nor addressee nor audience(C.Fillmore,1997).
语用学2 deictic words
2.2.4 discourse or textual deixis(篇章指示) Discourse deixis has to do with the use of expressions in some utterances in reference to a certain portion of the on-going discourse. Some expressions of discourse deixis are taken directly from time and place deictic.
The word deixis is from a Greek word meaning indicating or pointing. It has been taken over as a technical term in linguistics to refer to certain aspects of their contexts of utterance, including the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal and social location.
在有一名说话人和至少一名听话人参与的语言交际活动中，对参与者所 谈及的人物、事物、事件、过程和活动等做出确切的理解都必须把它们 和某些语境构成要素联系起来。使用和理解指示词语必须有一个明确的 参照点（point of reference）。在语言交际活动中，这个参照点都集中 在说话人身上，处于交际活动中心的人是正在说话的那个人。
Person deictic information is mainly provided by the system of the first, second and third person pronouns. It also includes possessive(所有格) and vocative(呼格) forms.
英语语用学 名词解释(优.选)
1.Pragmatics is the study of language in use.Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaningPragmatics is the study of contextual meaningPragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.2.Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and whichsequences are well-formed.3.Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how wordsliterally connect to things.4.Deixis 指示语is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means‘pointing’ via language.Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis(such as, ‘me’, ‘you’), or location via spatial deixis(such as ‘here’, ‘there’), or time via temporal deixi s (such as ‘now’, ‘then’).5.Proximal terms近指are typically interpreted in terms of the speaker’s location, or the deictic center指示中心.‘this’,‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’near speaker6.Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’ from speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used to distinguish between‘near addressee’ and ‘away from both speaker and addressee’.7.Person deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified例证by the pronouns for firstperson, second person, and third person./ forms used to point to people, “me””you”8.Expressions which indicate addressee higher status are described as honorifics敬语.9.The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimesdescribed as social deixis./forms used to indicate relative social status10.A distinction between forms used for familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This is known as theT/V distinction.用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫T-V distinction。
语用学Chapter 2 Deixis and reference陈新仁何自然何伟
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(2) Spas concerns the encoding of spatial location relative to the location of the participants in the speech event.
• Pure deictic words (here, there) • Demonstrative (this, that) • Locations ( this room , this city )
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(4) Social deixis
Definition:
Social deixis concerns the use of deictic terms that indicate social status of the participants in the discourse and their relations.
4
Another general understanding:
Some invisible social or mental factors, especially social distance, power relations, encyclopedic knowledge and expectations, that affect the production or comprehension of certain utterances • Tang ：do you know Nanjing well ? • Wang : I have never been to Jiangsu.
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(3) Deixis is characterized by egocentricity.
Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. These points are called deictic centers.
《语用学deixis》PPT课件
centaurs, goblins, dragons, phoenix,…
In
pragmatic sense, we might think of reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader, to identify something. Those linguistic forms are referring expressions, which can be: Proper nouns: Shakespeare, Cathy Revuelto, Hawaii,…. Noun phrases: the author, the singer, the island, …or a man, a woman, a beautiful place,… Pronouns: he, it, her, them,…
A
horse is a four-legged solid-hoofed animal with flowing mane and tail, used from early times to carry loads, for riding, etc. My horse is white.
Unicorns,
Referennse and reference
•Referential and attributive uses
•Names and referents
•The role of co-text •Anaphoric reference
The
sense is the "cognitive significance" or "mode of presentation" of the referent. The sense of a proper name is whatever meaning it has, when there is no object to be indicated. The reference is the object that the expression refers to. The reference (or referent) of a proper name is the object it means or indicates.
语言学 2.Dexies
地点指示
11. Mom: Where are you Jane? Come here! Jane: Coming! 12. Put it here. No, not here but here. 13. Put my parcel over there. 14. ——照片上都是些什么人？ ——中间那个人是我。左边是我大姐，右 边是我二姐。
语用学为什么关照指示语？
人称 时间 地点 语篇 社交 who/what when where how
语用学为什么关照指示语？
• • • • • 语境 人际 面相 手势 身势 经济/省力原则 认知心理
脂砚斋重评石头记庚辰校本第二十七回
• 话未说完，李氏道：“嗳哟哟！这些话 我就不懂了，什么‘奶奶’、‘爷爷’ 的一大堆？” 凤姐笑道：“怨不得你不 懂，这是四五门子的话呢。” 我们奶奶 这里奶奶 五奶奶 舅奶奶 这里的姑奶奶 奶奶
“先638) Dexis and Anaphora: 指示语境指在言语事件中以说话者为中心角 色，以说话者说话时的时空参照为原点，并 以此为视点观察周围的其他事物或人。 • 先用现象涉及语言使用者在使用指示词语时 的一种心理趋势，即言语参与者对处于言语 指示域内的人、事物、时间和地点优先使用 指示词语指示。 • Why this way?
这刘姥姥心神方定，才又说道：“我今日带 了我外孙来，也不为别的，只因我女儿、女婿 在家里，连吃的都没有，如今天又冷，越想越 没个派头儿，只得带了我外孙奔了你老来。”
脂砚斋重评石头记庚辰校本第二十七回
• 到了李氏房中，果见凤姐儿在这里和李氏说话 儿呢。红玉上来回道：“平姐姐叫我回奶奶： 才旺儿进来讨奶奶的示下，好往那家子去，平 姐姐就把那话按着奶奶的主意，打发他去了。” 凤姐笑道：“他怎么按我的主意打发去了？”
2语用学指示语
b. 第二人称： 你班上多少人。（你们）两者可替换。
c、第三人称： 这两个男女却放他不得。（他们）
（2）复数人称形式表单数
a. 第一人称： 咱们是个计算机盲，不会拔弄那玩意儿。（我 ） 上次我们讲了语言的起源，今天接着讲语言的 发展。 在文学中，我们提出……（我） 我们那口子（我）。 我们抽烟，不小心把被子烧着了。（我）
二、指示语deixis
指示语deixis：来自希腊语，意思是：利用语言进 行指点或指示
指示语是话语中跟语境相联系的表示指示信息的词 语，也就是说涉及到话语所谈论的事物、事件以及 它们在时空中的存在方式、运动方式等问题。如： 时、空、人称等。如：我半小时后到那里。
指代词
(deictics)
小姐，我要 那个杯子。
性是自然语言固有的、不可避免的特性；人们所讲 的90%以上的陈述句都包括说话人、听话人、时间、 地点等指示信息，如i、you、this、here、now、 yesterday等，只有获知类似词语的指示内容之后， 才能完整理解话语语义。
（一）指示语的特征 指示语有两个基本特征：（1）是指示语的具体所指
人称指示的变数用法
人称指示存在单数与复数形式，在使用中可 以用单数形式表示复数意义，也可用复数形 式表示单数意义。包括：我、你、他、她、 它。
（1）单数形式表复数
a. 第一人称：出现的语用条件？语用功能？ 走，咱今晚看电影去（咱们） 还我河山（我们） 你大国敢不仁，我小国敢不义！（你们、我们 ） 今后七年，我花300亿美元引进210项重大技术 项目（我们）。 我外交部，我后方基地。指说话人所在一方。 （正规场合，存在对立双方）
1．人称指示语person deixis
用以表示说话人、听话人或第三者的词语或结构。 1、成员
语用学Unit2Deixis
3. Temporal deixis
Part One Person deixห้องสมุดไป่ตู้s
-Frist person -Second person -Third person -Translation
PART ONE Person deixis
First person: I, we, me, us, my, our ，我（们），咱（们），俺
Unit 2 Deixis and Distance
Group 1
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meet me here a week from now.
老时间，老地方见。
Contents
1. Person deixis
Frist person, Second person, Third person，Translation
PART TWO
Spatial deixis
### 2016164418
CONCEPT
空间指示（Spatial deixis）:又称地点指示，指话语交谈中所指 地点在不同语境中的远近所在。 地点指示信息来自话语中有关物体的方位或说话时刻说话人和 听话人双方所处的位置。物体的方位有些从物体本身可以表示 出来，但由于说话人或听话人所处位置与物体本身的方位不同， 话语会因此而产生歧义，导致谈话双方的误解。因此需要结合 语境来正确理解和表达话语的地点指示。 英语中常见的空间指示语有：here, there, where, left, right, up, down, above, below, in front, behind等
There
语用学Deixis
• (5) Social deixis: honorifics敬语 (forms
to show respect such as Professor Li)
• Big Sale Tomorrow.
• Deixis belongs to pragmatic study
since it reveals a very close relationship between language and context.
Deixis
CONTENT
• Exercise
• The notion of deixis
• Deictic usage VS non-deictic usage
• Different usages of deictic terms
EXERCISE
• a. Flying planes can be dangerous.
• Flying planes can be planes that are flying.飞行 中的飞机是危险的。 • To fly the plane is a dangerous behavior.飞飞机 是一件危险的事。
• b. Shooting of hunters is cruel.
• Shooting animals is a cruel behavior. • Shooting hunters is a cruel behavior.
• c. It’s the taste.
• It’s the taste I like • It’s the taste I dislike.
NOTION
• Deixis, derived from Greek, means “show”, “point” or “indicate” in English.
英语语用学名词解释
1.Pragmatics is the study of language in use.Pragmaticsis concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader).Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaningPragmatics is the study of contextual meaningPragmaticsis the study of the expression of relative distance.Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.2.Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and whichsequences are well-formed.3.Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how wordsliterally connect to things.4.Deixis指示语is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means‘pointing’ via language.Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis(such as, ‘me’, ‘you’), or location via spatial deixis(such as ‘here’, ‘there’), or time via temporal deixi s (such as ‘now’, ‘then’).5.Proximal terms近指are typica lly interpreted in terms of the speaker’s location, or the deictic center指示中心.‘this’,‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’near speaker6.Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’ from speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used to distinguishbetween ‘near addressee’ and ‘away from both speaker and addressee’.7.Person deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified例证by the pronouns for firstperson, second person, and third person./ forms used to point to people, “me””you”8.Expressions which indicate addressee higher status are described as honorifics敬语.9.The discussion of the circumstances which lead to the choice of one of these forms rather than another is sometimesdescribed as social deixis./forms used to indicate relative social status10.A distinction between forms used for familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This is known as theT/V distinction.用复数形态来表示单数敬语，在语言中叫T-V distinction。
《英语语用学》2
2.1 The notion of deixis
• Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. • It is used to indicate the function or property that certain words, such as personal and demonstrative pronouns, place and time adverbs and others have in language. • The function of these words is always tied up with the role of participants , time , and place of the utterance seen in relation to the speaker .
2.1 The notion of deixis
• Traditional categories of deixis are three: person deixis , time deixis and place deixis.
According to the modern classification, there are five categories including social and discourse deixis.
• • • • • (1)person deixis (2) Time deixis (3)Place deixis (4)Discourse deixis (5)Social deixis
• 4. A Sumary
Preliminary examples
语用学deixis
Peel the onion and slice it. Drop the slices into the hot oil. Cook for three minutes.
In a moment Stephen was a prisoner. - Tate made you buck up the other day, Heron went on, about heresy in your essay. - I will tell him tomorrow, said Boland. - Will you? Said Stephen. You’d be afraid to open your mouth. - Afraid? - Ay. Afraid of your life. - Behave yourself? Cried Heron, cutting at Stephen’s legs with his cane.
Reference and Inference
•Sense and reference
•Referential and attributive usesf co-text •Anaphoric reference
The
sense is the "cognitive significance" or "mode of presentation" of the referent. The sense of a proper name is whatever meaning it has, when there is no object to be indicated. The reference is the object that the expression refers to. The reference (or referent) of a proper name is the object it means or indicates.
语用学 2.deixis
To put it simply, those expressions
whose meaning cannot be fully
understood without reference to
the context in which they are
uttered, or whose references
根据夸克等人（Quirk et. al）合著的 《当代英语语法》（1973），let’s在非 常通俗的口语中有时也可用作单数，这
就是说它可以不包括谈话的对方，而只 借指单数的“让我”，相当于let me：
Let’s give you a hand. （＝Let me give you a hand.） 汉语？？我们－－我？
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精选2021版课件
第一人称复数代词借指单数的 功能在汉语中是常见的。
（1）经过观察和分析，我们认
为……
（2）本文只对乔姆斯基的转换源自生成语法作一概述，有关它的
近期发展我们准备另文介绍。
（3）咱们（＝我）是个计算机
盲，不会拨弄那玩意儿。
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精选2021版课件
2nd person
❖1. We should not do it, Tom. ❖2. You should not do it, Tom. ❖Style: intimate
▪ 1st person: the speaker
▪ 2nd person: the hearer
▪ 3rd person: third party (neither
the speaker nor the hearer)
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精选2021版课件
学生：“Ａ病了，今天不能去上课了， 他让我跟您请个假。”
语用学 2.deixis
Time deixis: The encoding of temporal points or spans relative to the time of speaking (the coding time as opposed to the receiving time) Proximal: now Distal: then Proximal: present tenses Distal: past tenses
（＝你们 （3）同志，咱们（＝你们）这儿有海尔电 ）同志，咱们（＝你们） 冰箱吗？ 冰箱吗？ （＝你 对小孩）别哭， （4）咱们（＝你，对小孩）别哭，妈妈给 ）咱们（＝ 你拿好吃的。 你拿好吃的。
Q. 汉语中哪些情况下第二人称指示信 息可以用第一人称指示语来表达？？ 息可以用第一人称指示语来表达？？ 这种现象的语用学解释？？ 这种现象的语用学解释？？
1.2 Defining Deixis
A technical term from Greek, meaning “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, which is also called an indexical. A deictic expression is used to indicate something in the immediate context. So a deictic expression encodes information in context (Yule, 1996)
社交指示（社会指示） 社交指示（社会指示）
语言中的社交指示信息，根据菲尔默（ 语言中的社交指示信息，根据菲尔默（Fillmore） ） 的意见，可以在下面几个方面得到反映： 的意见，可以在下面几个方面得到反映： A 人称标记，如语言中的代词等的应用。 人称标记，如语言中的代词等的应用。 B 不同的言语平面（speech levels），如坦率或礼 不同的言语平面（ ），如坦率或礼 ）， 貌的言谈、敬语或谦语等的认别。 貌的言谈、敬语或谦语等的认别。 C 谈话场合，如正式与非正式场合、严肃与随便场 谈话场合，如正式与非正式场合、 合的区别。 合的区别。 D 人名、职务和亲属的称谓，如根据说话人、听话 人名、职务和亲属的称谓，如根据说话人、 人和第三者的关系反映出不同的称谓表达方式。 人和第三者的关系反映出不同的称谓表达方式。 E 作为社交行为的言语表现方式，如问候、道谢等 作为社交行为的言语表现方式，如问候、 F 配合其他社交行为而使用的言语表现方式。 配合其他社交行为而使用的言语表现方式。 G 说话人运用言语手段向听话人发出的种种指示信 息。
语用学Chapter 2 Deixis and reference陈新仁何自然何伟
II. Types and properties of deixis:
1. The study of deixis:
(1）the first area of study in linguistic pragmatics （2) In 1954, the Israeli philosopher Yehoshua Bar-Hillel(巴尔-希勒 尔)wrote an article entitled "Indexical Expressions". （3）one of the central topics in pragmatics.
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2. The definition of deixis:
Deixis ( or deictic or indexical expressions) : Greek word meaning “pointing to” or “picking out”
They derive part of their meaning from their context of utterance. Their referents are identifiable only in the context concerned.
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(4) The social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees is relative. （5 )The discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of an utterance.
语用学 2.deixis
第一人称复数代词借指单数的 功能在汉语中是常见的。
（1）经过观察和分析，我们认 为…… （2）本文只对乔姆斯基的转换 生成语法作一概述，有关它的 近期发展我们准备另文介绍。 （3）咱们（＝我）是个计算机 盲，不会拨弄那玩意儿。
2nd person
1. We should not do it, Tom. 2. You should not do it, Tom. Style: intimate
classification
Person deixis: me, you, etc.人称指示 patial/place deixis: here, there…地点指示 Temporal/time deixis: now, then…时间指示
Others termed discourse deixis (that, this) Social deixis (tu, vous) 篇章指示 社交指示
Deictic expressions include definite noun phrases, personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, tenses, etc. 表空间位置的副词： Johnny lives upstairs. Harry lives nearby.
To put it simply, those expressions whose meaning cannot be fully understood without reference to the context in which they are uttered, or whose references depend critically on the context in which they are uttered (Levinson,
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❖Time deixis: ❖The encoding of temporal points or
To put it simply, those expressions whose meaning cannot be fully understood without reference to the context in which they are uttered, or whose references depend critically on the context in which they are uttered (Levinson,
2. Pragmatic description
▪ 2.1 categories used to describe deixis
▪ Person deixis: the role of participants
▪ 1st person: the speaker ▪ 2nd person: the hearer ▪ 3rd person: third party (neither
2nd person
❖1. We should not do it, Tom. ❖2. You should not do it, Tom. ❖Style: intimate
❖汉语第二人称指示语？？ ❖第二人称指示信息有时可以通过第一人称指
示语表达。
（1）我相信，我们（＝你们）每个青年同志一定 不会辜负党和国家对我们（＝你们）的期望。
第一人称指示语 （1）Let’s go to the cinema. （2）? Let’s go to see you tomorrow.
根据夸克等人（Quirk et. al）合著的 《当代英语语法》（1973），let’s在非 常通俗的口语中有时也可用作单数，这 就是说它可以不包括谈话的对方，而只 借指单数的“让我”，相当于let me：
A deictic expression is used to indicate something in the immediate context. So a deictic expression encodes information in context (Yule, 1996)
Deictics are expressions whose interpretations make essential reference to certain aspects of the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal and social location.
（1）你想在事业上取得成功，你就必须
下一番苦功夫。
（2）他那刻苦钻研的精神你不能不佩服
。
（3）这个人性格内向，不善表达，你问
他十句，他才答你一句。
❖Place deixis: ❖The encoding of temporal points or
spans relative to the location of the speaker ❖Proximal: here ❖Distal: there
Let’s give you a hand. （＝Let me give you a hand.） 汉语？？我们－－我？
第一人称复数代词借指单数的 功能在汉语中是常见的。
（1）经过观察和分析，我们认 为…… （2）本文只对乔姆斯基的转换 生成语法作一概述，有关它的 近期发展我们准备另文介绍。 （3）咱们（＝我）是个计算机 盲，不会拨弄那玩意儿。
语用学 2.deixis
1.2 Defining Deixis
A technical term from Greek, meaning “pointing” via language.
Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, which is also called an indexical.
❖Deictic expressions include definite noun phrases, personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, tenses, etc.
❖表空间位置的副词：
Johnny lives upstairs.
Harry lives nearby.
（2）你要记住，我们（＝你）是学生，我们（＝ 你）的主要任务是学习。
（3）同志，咱们（＝你们）这儿有海尔电 冰箱吗？
（4）咱们（＝你，对小孩）别哭，妈妈给 你拿好吃的。
Q. 汉语中哪些情况下第二人称指示信 息可以用第一人称指示语来表达？？
这种现象的语用学解释？？
❖第二人称指示还可以泛指任何人，这时 用单数\复数代词表示？
classification
Person deixis: me, you, etc.人称指示 patial/place deixis: here, there…地点指示
Temporal/time deixis: now, then…时间指示
Others termed discourse deixis (that, this) Social deixis (tu, vous) 篇章指示 社交指示
the speaker nor the hearer)
学生：“Ａ病了，今天不能去上课了， 他让我跟您请个假。”
教授：“好的，我知道了。那么， 你是谁？”
学生：“是我的同屋。”（Levinson，1983）
人称指示是以发话人作基准的，受话 人理解话语时自然要对人称指示作相 应的变换。这已成为一条交际的准则。