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心理学专业词汇G

心理学专业词汇G

G factor G 因素G factor 一般因素G periodG period G 期G score 年级分数G tolerance G 耐力G 期G 期GA 总平均数gab 空谈GABA γ 氨基丁酸gabble 急促不清的说话gabby 健谈的gaby 傻子GAD 泛焦虑症gad 游荡gaffe 失礼gag reflex 咽反射gage 量规Gagne s accumulative learning theory 加涅的累积学习论Gagne s hierarchy of learning 加涅的学习层次Gagne s hierarchy system of learning 加涅的学习层次系统Gagne s learning model 加涅的学习模型Gagne s learning outcome variety 加涅的学习结果种类Gagne s stages of learning 加涅的学习阶段Gagne s theory of instruction 加涅的教学论gaiety 快乐gain 增益gain experience 获得经验gain from illness 因病得益gaining new insights through restudying the old material 温故知新gainsharing 收入分成gain loss hypothesis 得失说gain loss model 得失模型gain loss theory 得失论gait 步态galactochloral 半乳糖氯醛galactosemia 半乳糖血galeanthropia 变猫妄想Galen s doctrine of temperament 盖伦气质学说galeophilia 爱猫癖gall 恐吓Gallup polls 盖洛普民意测验Gallup s public opinion poll 盖洛普民意测验Galton bar 高尔顿横木Galton Questionnaire 高尔顿问卷Galton whistle 高尔顿音笛Galton s law 高氏定律Galton s tube 高尔顿音笛Galton s whistle 高尔顿音笛Galton Watson process 高华二氏步骤高华二氏步骤galvanic current 电流galvanic reflex 电反射galvanic shock 电休克galvanic skin reflex 皮电反射galvanic skin response 皮电反应galvanic skin response apparatus 皮电反应仪galvanic stimulation 电刺激galvanocontractility 电流收缩性galvanogustometer 电味觉计galvanohypnotism 电催眠galvanometer 电流计galvanonervous 电流神经的galvanotropism 向电性gam 交际gambler 赌博者gambler s fallacy 赌博者的错误gambling 赌博gambling focus 赌胜性聚焦gambling house 赌场game 游戏game against nature 反自然博奕game against society 反社会博奕game of adult infant 成人 婴儿游戏成人 婴儿 戏game of dialogue 对话游戏game theory 博奕论gamenomania 求婚狂gamester 赌棍gamete 生殖细胞game with rules 规则游戏gamin 流浪儿gaming 赌博gamma distribution γ分布gamma fiber γ纤维gamma motor neuron γ运动神经元γ运动神经原gamma movement γ运动gamma rhythm γ节律gamma aminobutyric acid γ 氨基丁酸gamophobia 婚姻恐怖症gang 帮派gang 团伙gang age 帮团年龄gang behavior 帮派行为gangland 黑社会ganglia 神经节ganglia coeliaca 腹腔神经节ganglia lumbalia 腰腔神经节ganglia thoracalia 胸腔神经节ganglia trunci sympathici 交感干神经节交感 神经节gangliocyte 神经节细胞gangliolytic 神经节阻滞的ganglion 神经节ganglion basal 基底神经节ganglion cell 神经节细胞ganglion cell layer 神经节细胞层ganglion cerebral 脑丘ganglion ciliare 睫状脑神经节ganglion collaterale 副神经节ganglion cordis 心脏脑神经节ganglion geniculi 膝状脑神经节ganglion hypogastrium 腹下神经节ganglion neuron 节神经元ganglion oculare 眼神经节ganglion oticum 耳神经节ganglion prevertebral 椎前神经节ganglion spinale 脊神经节ganglion splanchnicum 内脏脑神经节ganglion sympathetic 交感神经节ganglionic blocking agent 神经节阻滞剂神经节阻滞剂ganglionic cell 神经节细胞ganglionic crest 神经节脊ganglionic layer 神经节层ganglionic neuron 神经节原ganglionoplegic 神经节阻滞的ganglioside 神经节苷脂ganja 印度大麻Ganser symptom 甘塞尔症状Ganser syndrome 甘塞尔综合症Ganser s twilight state 甘塞尔昏暗状态甘塞尔昏暗状态gaol 监狱gaolbird 囚犯gaol break 越狱gap 间断garbage 不准确数据garbage 垃圾Garcia effect 加萨效应gargalanesthesia 痒感缺失gargalesthesia 痒感gargoylism 脂肪软骨营养不良garrulity 喋喋不休GAS 一般适应综合症gas chromatography 气体分色法gasconade 夸口gasometer 气量计gasometry 气体定量法gasping center 喘息中枢gastralgia 胃痛gastric 胃的gastric anacidity 胃酸缺乏gastrin 促胃液素gastroduodenitis 胃十二指肠炎gastroduodenoscopy 胃十二指肠镜检gastroduodenostomy 胃十二指肠吻合术胃十二指肠吻合术gastrointestinal disorder 肠胃失调gastrointestinal hormones 肠胃激素gastrointestinal reaction 胃肠反应gastrointestinal system 肠胃系统gastrone 抑胃分泌素gastronome 美食家gastrorrhoea 胃液分泌过多gastroscope 胃窥镜gastroscopy 胃镜检查gastrosis 胃病gastrospasm 胃痉挛gastrospiry 吞气症gastroxynsis 胃酸过多症gastrula 原肠胚gate cell 闸门细胞gate control theory 闸门控制说gate control theory of pain 痛的闸门控制说gatekeeper 社会观察人员Gates Reading Readiness Test 盖茨阅读准备测验Gates Mckillop Reading Diagnostic Tests 盖麦二氏阅读鉴定测验Gates MacGinitie Reading Test 盖麦二氏阅读测验gateway 途径gather 收集gather data 收集数据gather experience 积累经验gather information 收集信息gating mechanism 闸门机制gatism 大小便失禁gauge 规范Gauss curve 高斯曲线Gauss distribution 高斯分布Gauss lens system 高斯透镜系统Gaussian curve 高斯曲线Gaussian probability distribution 高斯概率分布Gaza s operation 神经支切断术gaze 凝视GCA 地面控制进场GCI 普通认知指数gear ratio 传动比Geist Picture Interest Inventory 盖氏图画式兴趣量表gelasmus 憨笑Gelb effect 杰尔贝效应geld 阉割gelded 阉割了的Gelineau s syndrome 发作性睡眠Gelor lens system 塞洛尔透镜系统gelototherapy 欢笑疗法geminus 双生子gender consistency 性别一致性gender constancy 性别恒定性gender identity 性别认定gender identity disorder 性别认定障碍性别认定疾病gender role 性别角色gender stability 性别固定gender typing 性别特征形成gene 基因gene action 基因作用gene activation 基因活化gene activity 基因活性gene amplification 基因增殖gene balance 基因平衡gene conversion 基因转换gene copy 基因拷贝gene dosage 基因量gene duplication 基因复制gene expression 基因表达gene interaction 基因相互作用gene mutation 基因突变gene mutation rate 基因突变率gene order 基因序列gene recombination 基因重组gene replication 基因复制gene substitution 基因替代gene theory 基因学说genealogical table 系谱表genealogy 家系genecology 种群生态学geneogenous 先天性的general 一般的general ability 一般能力general ability test 一般能力测验general abnormality factor 一般异常因素一般 常因素general achievement test 一般成就测验普通成就测验general activity 一般活动general adaptation syndrome 一般适应综合症general amnesia 概括性遗忘general amnesia 全面性遗忘general anesthesia 全身麻醉general anxiety 一般性焦虑General Anxiety Scale 一般焦虑量表General Aptitude Test Battery 一般能力倾向测验普通文书测验general attention 一般注意general attitude type 一般态度型general average 总平均数general birth rate 一般出生率general census 全面普查general characteristic 一般特性general cognitive index 普通认知指数general concept 一般概念general condensed summary 要点说明general cortex 一般皮质general death rate 一般死亡率general didactics 普通教授学general diffused lighting 漫射照明general disturbance 整体性失调General Educational Development Tests 普通教育发展测验general factor 一般因素General Health Questionnaire 普通健康问卷general homology 一般相应general hunger 一般饥饿general intelligence 一般智力general intelligence factor 一般智力因素普通智慧因素general investigation 普查general knowledge 一般知识general lighting 一般照明general linguistics 普通语言学general mean 总平均数general measure 一般测量general measure of reliability 可靠性一般测量general mental ability 一般心理能力general methodology 普通方法学general microbiology 普通微生物学general mood of society 社会风气general paralysis of insane 麻痹性痴呆general paresis 轻瘫general phisical examination 一般身体检查general physiology 普通生理学general problem solver 通用问题解答general problem solver procedure 通用问题解决程序general process of reading comprehension 阅读理解的一般过程general psychology 普通心理学General Psychology and Experimental Psychology 普通心理与实验心理general range 一般范围general reaction 全身反应general reference group theory 一般参照组理论general sensation 全身感觉general sensory 一般感觉general sensory area 一般感觉区general sexual dysfunction 普遍性功能障碍general sociology 普通社会学general survey 普查general system 统摄系统general system theory 一般系统论general transfer 一般迁移general trend 一般趋势general will 共同意志generality 一般性generalizability theory 概化理论概化理论generalization 泛化generalization 类化generalization gradient 泛化梯度generalization hypothesis 泛化假说generalization of image 形象概括generalization of problem 课题的类化generalization of subject matter 教材的概括generalize 普遍化generalized anxiety disorder 泛焦虑症generalized epilepsy 全部性癫痫generalized expectancy 类化预期generalized imitation 类化模仿generalized least squares estimator 一般化最小二乘推定量generalized log series 类化对数数列generalized other 类化的他人generalized reinforce 类化强化物generalized seizure 普遍性发作generalized sexual inhibition 普遍性功能抑制generalized trait 类化特质generalized transduction 普通性传导generalized goal tension 类化目标扩张类化目标扩张generalizing abstraction 概括抽象generalizing assimilation 概识同化generate 生育generate test method 生成检验法generating structure 生成结构generation 生育generation gap 代沟generation interval 世代间隙generation discrimination theory 生成 辨别理论generative center 发生中心generative grammar 衍生语法generative organs 生殖器官generative power 生殖力generative semantics 生成语义学generative theory 生成理论generative transformational grammar 生成转换语法generativity 繁殖generativity vs stagnation conflict 创建与休怠冲突generator 发生器generator electrical potential 发生器电位发生器电位generator potential 启动电位generic 一般的generic coefficient 种属系数generic condition 一般条件generosity effect 宽容效应genesclinic 偏性遗传genesis 发生genetic assimilation 遗传同化genetic banks 物种遗传库genetic block 遗传性阻碍genetic carrier 遗传载体genetic code 遗传密码genetic complement 遗传互补genetic complex 遗传综体genetic constitution 遗传素质genetic continuity 遗传连续性genetic control 遗传控制genetic copying 遗传复制genetic correlation 遗传相关genetic counseling 遗传咨询genetic definition 发生论定义genetic differences 遗传差异genetic disorder 遗传性障碍genetic dominance 遗传支配性genetic dominant traits 遗传的显性特征遗传的显性特徵genetic drift 遗传漂变genetic effect of radiation 遗传辐射效应遗传辐射效应genetic element 遗传成份genetic engineer 遗传工程学家genetic engineering 遗传工程genetic epistemology 发生认识论genetic equilibrium 遗传平衡genetic factor 遗传因子genetic feedback 遗传反馈genetic gain 遗传获得量genetic guidance 遗传辅导genetic homeostasis 遗传稳态genetic information 遗传信息genetic limitation 遗传限度genetic load 遗传负荷genetic mark 遗传标记genetic material 遗传物质genetic method 发生法genetic obesity 遗传型肥胖症genetic potential 遗传潜力genetic predeterminism 遗传决定论genetic psychology 发生心理学genetic recessive traits 遗传的隐性特征遗传的隐性特徵genetic relationship 亲缘关系genetic sequence 发生次序genetic stability 遗传稳定性genetic statistics 遗传统计genetic surgery 遗传手术genetic synecology 群落发生学genetic theory 发生说genetic theory of language 语言天赋论语言天赋论genetic transcription 基因转录genetic variant 遗传性变型genetic variation 遗传性变异genetical mark 遗传标记genetical population 遗传群体genetics 遗传学genetous 先天的Geneva school 日内瓦学派gene environment interaction 基因遗传相互作用genic 基因的genic interaction 基因相互作用genic material 遗传物质genic value 基因值geniculate body 膝状体geniculocortical system 膝状体皮质系genital 生殖器的genital character 性征期性格genital disorder 性器失调genital locomotor stage 性运动期genital phase 性器期genital stage 性征期genital zone 性感区genitalia 外生殖器genitality 生殖力genius 天才genocatachresia 色情倒错genocide 种族灭绝genocopy 拟遗传型genome 基因组genome mutation 基因组突变genomotive 隐性动机genomotive 原生性动机genopathy 基因病genophobia 性事恐怖症genotype 遗传型genotype environment correlation 遗传 环境相关genotype environment interaction 遗传 环境互应genotypic control 遗传型控制genotypic environment 遗传型环境genotypic milieu 遗传背景genovariation 基因变异gens 氏族gentle 高贵的gentleman 有教养的人genu 膝genuflect 屈膝genuine epilepsy 真性癫痫genuine hallucination 真性幻觉genuineness 真挚genus 类genus homo 人属geographical environment 地理环境geometric average 几何平均数geometric construction 几何构造geometric distance model 几何距离模式几何距离模式geometric distribution 几何分布geometric figure 几何图形geometric horopter 几何视野单像区geometric mean 几何平均数geometric method 几何平均法geometric model 几何模型geometric series 几何级数geometrical concept 几何概念geometrical optical illusion 几何光学错觉geometrical progression 几何级数geometry 几何学geometry design 绘几何形geophagia 食土癖geophagist 食土癖者geopsychology 地理心理学gephyrophobia 过桥恐怖症geratology 老年医学gereology 老年学geriatric medicine 老年医学geriatric psychiatry 老年精神医学geriatric psychology 老年心理学geriatrics 老年病学geriopsychosis 老年精神病Gerlach s network 格拉赫网germ cell 生殖细胞germinal period 胚胎期germination inhibitor 萌发抑制作用gerocomia 老年保健gerontic 老年的gerontogenesis 老年发生gerontolinguistics 老年语言学Gerontological Apperception Test 老年统觉测验gerontological psychology 老年心理学gerontology 老年学gerontophile 亲老人癖gerontophile 嗜耄癖gerontophilia 爱恋老人gerontophilia 嗜耄癖者gerontopia 老视geropsychiatry 老年精神医学geropsychology 老年心理学Gerstmann s syndrome 格斯特曼综合症格斯特曼徵候 Gesell Development Scale 格塞尔发展量表Gesell Development Schedules 格塞尔发展测量表Gesell Development Test 格塞尔发展测验格塞尔学前测验Gesell developmental norm 格塞尔发展常模Gestal laws of organization 组织完形法则Gestalt 格式塔Gestalt 完形Gestalt Completion Test 完形补足测验Gestalt factor 完形因素Gestalt laws of perceptual organization 知觉组织完形法则Gestalt principles of organization 格式塔组织原则Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学Gestalt psychology 完形心理学完形心理学Gestalt psychotherapy 完形心理治疗法完形心理治疗法Gestalt quality 形质Gestalt Review 格式塔评论Gestalt theory 完形理论Gestalt theory of learning 学习的完形说学习的完形说Gestalt therapy 完形治疗法Gestaltests 完形心理学派Gestaltism 完形主义gestation 受孕gesticulate 姿态表达gestural language 手势语gesture 手势gesture 姿态gesture language 手势语get away with 侥幸做成GH 生长激素ghetto 犹太人区ghost 幽灵ghost word 造出来的字giant baby 巨大儿giantism 巨人症gibberish 言语凌乱gibberish aphasia 呓语性失语Gibson effect 吉卜生错觉效应giddiness 晕眩gift 天资gifted 天才gifted child 超常儿童giftedness 天才giftedness 资赋优异giftie 才能gigantism 巨人症Gilles de la Tourette s syndrome 图雷特综合症Gilmore Oral Reading Test 吉尔摩朗诵测验Gittinger personality assessment system theory 盖氏人格评估系统学说盖氏人格评估系统学说glamor 魅力glamour 魅力gland 腺glandula 腺glandulae 腺glandulae olfactoriae 嗅腺glandular endocrinica 内分泌腺glandular gustatoria 味觉腺glandular integumentaria 皮肤腺glandular optica 视神经节腺glandular theory 腺体理论glandular thyreoidea 甲状腺glare 眩目glare index 眩光指数glare recovery time 眩光视觉恢复时间眩光视觉恢 时间glare recovery time curve 眩光视觉恢复时间曲线glass sensation 玻璃感觉glassy eyed 目光呆滞的glaucoma 青光眼glaucosis 青光眼盲glia 神经胶质glial 神经胶质的glial cell 胶质细胞glial membrane 神经胶膜glial tissue 神经胶质组织glide 滑音glide illusion 下滑错觉glider 滑翔gliding model 滑动模型glimmer 模糊感觉gliosis 神经胶质变性global 全体的global 整体的global aphasia 完全失语症global convergence 全局收敛global focusing 总体聚焦global learning 全部学习global learning 整体学习global method 全体法globe thermometer 黑球温度计globus hysterics 癔病球感globus pallidus 苍白球glomeruli caudales 尾小球glossal 舌的glossolalia 荒诞言语glossolalia 语言含混glossology 语言学glossopharyngeal 舌咽的glossopharyngeal nerve 舌咽神经glossopharyngeus 舌咽肌glossophobia 言语恐怖症glossosynthesis 造语症glottis 声门glove anesthesia 手套型感觉丧失症glower 怒视GLU 谷胺酸glucagon 抗胰岛素glucostatic theory 葡萄糖恒定理论glutamic acid 谷胺酸glutethimide 苯乙派啶酮glutton 贪食者gluttony 暴饮暴食GL Y 甘胺酸glycine 甘胺酸glycogen 糖原glycogeusia 甘味症glycometabolism 糖代谢gnosia 直觉gnosis 感悟go bankrupt 破产goal 目标goal activities 目标活动goal analysis 目标分析goal behavior 目标行为goal directness 目标指向性goal discrepancy 目标差goal discrepancy score 目标差评分goal effectiveness 目标有效性goal frustration 目标挫折goal gradient 目标等级goal gradient hypothesis 目标等级假说目标等级假说goal object 目的物goal orientation 目标定向goal response 目的性反应goal set 目标定势goal setting 目标设定goal setting theory 目标设定理论goal setting training 目标设定训练goal situation 目标情境goal stimulus 目标刺激goals of crime 犯罪目的goals of sports collective 运动集体目标运动集体目标goal cognition theory of learning 学习的目的认知说goal directed behavior 目标导向行为目标导向行为goal directed learning 有目的的学习有目的的学习goal directed motivation 目标导向动机目标导向动机goal directed response 目标指向反应目标指向反应goal directed thinking 目的指向性思维目的指向性思考goal limited adjustment therapy 有限目标适应治疗法goal orientation 目标定向goal orientation conflict 目标定向冲突目标定向 突goal oriented 目标定向性goal seeking behavior 目标寻求行为目标寻求行为goggles 护目镜golden section 黄金分割Goldmann perimeter 高尔顿曼视野计Golgi method 高尔吉法Golgi type Ⅰcell 高尔吉Ⅰ型细胞Golgi type Ⅱcell 高尔吉Ⅱ型细胞Golgi Mazzoni s corpuscle 高尔吉 马祖尼小体Goltz s theory 戈尔茨学说gonad 性腺gonadal hormone 性激素gonadogenesis 性腺发生gonadoinhibitory 性腺抑制gonadopathy 性腺病gonadopause 性腺机能丧失gonadotherapy 性激素疗法gonadotrophic 促性腺的gonadotrophic hormone 促性腺激素gonadotropin 促性腺激素goniocraniometry 颅角测量法goniometer 测角器good figure 良型good me 良我good or evil 性可善可恶论good points 优点good sense 判断力强good shape 良形Goodenough Draw a Man Test 谷氏画人测验Goodenough Harris Drawing Test 谷哈二氏画人测验Goodman model 古德曼模式Goodman Kruskal s coefficient of predicta bility 古 克二氏预测系数goodness 德行goodness 优良goodness of fit 符合度goodness of fit test 适合度考验goodness of mind 良心good boy nice girl orientation 乖孩子取向good boy nice girl stage 乖孩子期good poor analysis G P分析good poor analysis 上位 下位分析goofball 镇静剂goon 怪人goosy 神经质的Gordon Occupational Check List 高登职业检核表Gordon Personal Inventory 高登个性量表Gordon Personal Profile 高登个人侧面图Gordon s reflex 戈登反射Gordon s sign 戈登症Gordon s technique 高登法gorge 暴食gorilla 大猩猩gossip 流言Gottschaldt Test 哥德沙尔特嵌入图形测验Gottstein s fibers 哥特斯坦纤维Gough Adjective Check List 高夫形容词检核表Gough model 高夫模式govern 统治govern oneself 克制government 支配关系governor meridian 督脉Gower s syndrome 高尔综合症gowster 吸毒者go or no go task 去或不去作业GPA 计点平均成绩GPAS 盖氏人格评估系统学说GPC rules 形 音转换规则GPIGPS 通用问题解答GRgradation 等级gradation 梯变grade 年级grade by sized 按大小分级grade differential 等级差别grade distribution 年级分配grade equivalent 等级当等grade equivalent scale 等级当等量表grade estimation 等级评定grade norm 年级常模grade scale 年级量表grade score 年级分数grade series 等级系列graded potential 级量电位graded response items 分级式作答试题分级式作答试题grader potential 渐变电位grade point average 计点平均成绩grade skipping 跳级gradient 递变度gradient analysis 梯度分析gradient descent 梯度下降gradient of generalization 类化递变gradient of reinforcement 强化递变gradient of stimulus generalization 刺激类化递变gradient of texture 结构递变gradient of texture density 结构密度递变gradient preference 梯度适应gradient search 递变度搜索grading 分等级gradual advance 渐升gradual decline 渐降gradualness 循序性gradualness of development 发展渐进说发展渐进说Graduate Record Examination 研究生入学考试graduated system of punishment 分级惩罚制graduation of curve 曲线修匀graffito pollution 涂写污染grammar 语法grammatical ellipsis 文法上的省略grammatical rules 语法规则grammatical structure 语法结构grammatical structure understanding 语法结构理解grammaticality 符合语法规则grand average 总平均数grand mal 癫痫大发作grand mean 总平均grandeur delusion 夸大妄想grandfather complex 祖父情结grandiloquence 夸大grandiosity 夸大grandmother 溺爱Granit Harper s law 格热尼特 哈伯律grant 准予granular cell 颗粒细胞granuloblast 成粒细胞grapevine 传闻graph 图表graph analysis 图解分析graph theory 图论grapheme phoneme conversion rules 形 音转换规则graphic analysis 图解分析graphic collection 图象归类graphic display 图示graphic expression 图示graphic individuality 书法个性graphic method 图示法graphic presentation 图像显示graphic psychology 版画心理学graphic rating scale 图示评定量表graphic record 图示法graphic representation 图示graphic symbol 图示符号graphical displays 图形显示器graphical representation 图形表象graphoanalysis 书写分析graphocatharsis 书写疏泄法graphokinesthetic 书写动觉的graphology 笔迹学graphology 字相学graphomania 书写狂graphomotor 书写运动的graphomotor aphasia 书写性失语graphomotor test 书写肌动测验graphopathology 书写病理学graphophobia 书写恐怖症graphorrhea 涂写癖graphorrhes 书写错乱graphospasm 书写痉挛Grashey s aphasia 格拉希氏失语症Grashey s aphasia 遗忘性失语症grasp 抓握grasping 贪婪的grasping reflex 抓握反射grass widow 离婚女子grass widower 离婚男子Grassmann s law 格拉斯曼定律grassroots 基础gratification 满足感grating 光栅gravamen 冤情Graves Design Judgment Test 格雷夫设计判断测验Graves disease 格氏病graviceptor 重力受纳器gravid 妊娠的gravidity 妊娠gravid puerperal psychosis 孕 产期精神病gravimeter 比重计gravimetric 比重测定的gravitation 重力gravitational receptor 重力感受器gravity effect 重力影响gravity free condition 失重状态gray matter 灰质Gray Oral Reading Test 格雷朗读测验格雷朗读测验greatest limit 最大极限greatest measure 最大数值great man theory 伟人论great man theory of history 历史伟人论历史伟人论great man theory of leadership 领袖伟人论great man theory of leadership 伟人领导论Greco Latin square design 希腊拉丁方阵设计greed 贪婪green 绿green blindness 绿色盲green vision 绿幻视gregarious instinct 群集本能gregarious personality 合群人格gregariousness 合群性gregariousness 群集性grey area 次贫地区grey market 半黑市grey matter 灰质grey reticular 灰质网grey reticular formation 灰质网状结构灰质网状结构grey scale 灰度标尺grid seminar 方格训练grid stereoscope 栅栏实体镜grief 悲伤grievance 牢骚grievance procedure 苦情处理制度grimace 愁眉苦脸grip diameter 手抓握径grip strength 握力grisly 吓人的gritty 勇敢的grizzle 诉苦groan 呻吟grooming 修饰grooming behavior 修饰行为grooming interpersonal conflict 整饰人际冲突Groos theory of play 格鲁斯游戏理论groovy 常规的gross 粗大的gross 总的gross figures 总数gross motor movements 大运动动作gross motor skill learning 粗大运动技能学习gross score 总分数Gros Schultze method 格罗斯 斯查尔茨法ground 背景ground 基础ground transportation 地面运输grounded theory 扎根理论grounding 基础训练groundless 无根据ground based flight 地面模拟飞行ground controlled approach 地面控制进场group 群体group 团体Group & Organization Management 群体与组织管理group acceptance 团体接纳group aggression 团体侵犯group analytic 群体分析group analytic therapy 集体分析治疗Group Assessment of Interpersonal Traits 人际特质小组评量group atmosphere 群体气氛group atmosphere 团体气氛group attack 团体攻击group average method 群平均法group behavior 团体行为group behavior modification 团体行为矫正group belongingness 群体从属性group boundary 团体界限group characteristics 团体特性group classification 群体分类group climate 团体气氛group cohesion 团体凝聚力group cohesiveness 群体凝聚性group communication network 团体联络网group composition 团体组成group congruence 群体协调一致group consciousness 团体意识group constitutional determinants 群体构造化要素group consumers 集体消费者group contagion 团体感染group counseling 团体咨询group data 分类资料group decision 团体决定group decision making 团体决策group delinquent reaction 群体犯罪反应 体犯罪反应group delusion 群体幻觉group demography 群体人口统计学group development 团体发展group difference 团体差异group dimension 团体维度group discussion 集体讨论group discussion interview 集体讨论面谈group discussion method 群体讨论法group discussion test 群体讨论测查group dynamics 团体动力学Group Dynamics Theorygroup ecology 群体生态学group effect 群体效率group emotional identification 群体情绪认同group error 分组误差group evaluation 团体评价group experience 团体经验group experiment 团体实验group factor 群体因素group fallacy 群体谬误group feeling 团体感group formation 群体形成group function 群体功能group goal 团体目标group guidance 团体辅导group hypnosis 集体催眠group identification 团体认同group identity 团体同一性group incentive 团体激励group instruction method 小组教学法group integration 团体统合group integrative determinants 团体统合要素group integrator 群体协调器group intelligence test 团体智力测验group interaction theory 团体互动理论团体互动理论group interval 组距group interview 团体访谈group interview method 小组交谈法group interview test 团体访谈测查Group Inventory for Finding Creative Talent 创造性天才团体测验group leadership 集体领导group marriage 群婚group measurement method 团体测量法团体测量法group mind 集团精神group mind 群体心理group mind theory 群体心理理论group morale 团体士气group norm 群体规范group norm 小组常模group normative analysis 团体范围分析团体范围分析group observation 团体观察法group of behavioral sampling 行为样组行为样组group of classes 组群group of images 意象群group order ranking 小组顺序排列法group oriented 团体取向group participation 集体参与group performance 集体业绩group performance theory 团体绩效理论团体绩效理论Group Personality Projective Test 团体个性投射测验group play therapy 集体游戏疗法group polarization 群体极化group polarization effect 群体极化效应群体极化效应group polarization phenomenon 群体极化现象group pressure 群体压力group pressure toward uniformity 群体齐一性压力group problem solving 团体问题解决团体问题解决group process 团体历程group productivity 团体生产性group psychology 群体心理学group psychotherapy 团体心理疗法group regulation 群体调节group risk taking 团体冒险group role 团体角色Group Rorschach Test 团体罗尔沙赫测验group sampling 分组抽样group sampling 集体抽样group schedule 团体表格group selection 群体选择group self preference 群体自我偏爱group size 团体大小group socialization 团体社会化group solidarity 团结一致group spirit 团队精神group star 群星group stress 集体应激group structure 团体结构group study 团体研究group suggestion 群体暗示group superego 团体超我group syntality 群体个性group test 团体测验group theory 群体理论group therapy 团体治疗法group thinking 团体思维group training 集体训练group types 群体类型group unity 群体团结group variation 集群变异group work 团体工作Group Z Test 团体Z测验grouped 分组grouped data 分组数据grouped frequency distribution 分组次数分布grouped measures 分组量数grouped observation 分组观测值grouped table 分组表grouping 分组grouping by ability 能力分组grouping error 分组误差grouping habit 集合习性grouping item 分组项目grouping of controls 控制器分组grouping of data 资料归类groupment 群体性groupshift 群体转移groupthink 集体思考group centered leader 团体中心领袖团体中心领袖group factor theory 群因素论group relations theory 团体关系论grown up 成人growth 成长growth 生长growth center 成长中心growth curve 生长曲线growth hormone 生长激素growth motivation 成长动机growth need 成长需要growth of population 人口增长growth pains 成长痛growth pattern 生长模式growth period 发育期growth periodicity 发育周期性growth phase 发育周期growth ratio 生长比率growth spurt 生长陡增growth stage 生长阶段growth promoting hormone 生长激素Gruber s test 格鲁伯试验grudge 妒忌GSR 皮电反应GT 概化理论概化理论GTH 促性腺激素guardian 监护人guardianship 监护guess 猜测guessed average 假定平均数guessing correction formula 猜测纠正公式guesstimate 瞎猜guesswork 猜测Guess Who Test 猜人测验guess who technique 猜人法guidance 辅导guidance function of test 测验的指导功能guidance learning 指导学习guidance of self study 自学辅导guidance services 辅导服务guide 指导guide specifications 指导性规范guided daydream 导向白日梦guided discovery learning 有指导的发现学习guided fantasy 导向幻想guided participation 引导参与guiding idea 主导观念Guilford factor 基尔福特气质因素Guilford Inventory 基尔福德人格测量Guilford law 基尔福特法则Guilford structure of intelligence theory 基尔福特智力结构论Guilford three dimensional structure model of intelligence 基氏智力三维结构模式基氏智力三维结构模式Guilford Zimmerman Aptitude Survey 基晋二氏能力倾向调查Guilford Zimmerman Interest Inventory 基晋二氏兴趣测量Guilford Zimmerman Temperament Survey 基晋二氏气质调查guilt 犯罪guilt 内疚guilt culture 犯罪文化guilty feeling 罪恶感gulp 吞咽gum opium 鸦片gust 味度gust scale 味尺度gustation 味觉gustation analysis 味觉分析gustatism 味联觉gustatory 味觉的gustatory adaptation 味觉适应gustatory analysis 味觉分析gustatory anesthesia 味觉丧失gustatory area 味觉区gustatory cell 味觉细胞gustatory hallucination 幻味gustatory hallucination 味幻觉gustatory nerves 味觉神经gustatory organ 味觉器官gustatory perception 味知觉gustatory receptor 味觉感受器gustatory receptor mechanism 味觉感受器机能gustatory sensation 味觉gustometer 味觉计gustometry 味觉测量法gustum 单味觉gutter 贫民区guttersnipe 流浪儿Guttman method 格特曼法Guttman Scale 格特曼量表Guttman scaling 格特曼量表法guttur 咽喉guttural 咽喉的gutturophony 喉音gutturotetany 喉痉挛性口吃guzzle 狂饮gymnophobia 裸体恐怖症gynecogen 促雌素gynecogenic 女性化的gynecomania 求雌狂gynephilia 爱女人癖gynephobia 女性恐怖症gyre 脑回gyrencephalic 多脑回的gyri cerebri 大脑回gyrometer 脑回测量器gyrus 脑回gyrus frontalis 额回gyrus frontalis inferior 额下回gyrus frontalis medius 额中回gyrus frontalis superior 额上回gyrus hippocampi 海马回G P I 麻痹性痴呆g inverse matrix g 逆矩阵。

西方三大语言学流派。

西方三大语言学流派。

西方三大语言学流派目录:【一】19世纪:历史比较语言学(也称比较语言学)【二】20世纪初期到中叶:结构主义语言学(也称结构语言学)【三】20世纪中叶至今:转换生成语言学【一】19世纪:历史比较语言学(也称:比较语言学)运用“历史比较法”,对不同语言进行比较分析,揭示语言间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展,这样的语言研究就是历史比较语言学。

【1】先驱人物——威廉·琼斯(英国东方学家,加尔各答最高法院法官)1786年是语言学诞生的一年,因为这年的9月27日有个名叫威廉·琼斯(W. Jones)的英国人在加尔各答“亚洲学会”宣读了一篇著名的论文《三周年演说》。

文章指出梵语(古印度语)和欧洲希腊语、拉丁语、凯尔特语和日耳曼语的结构具有惊人的相似之处,因而他断言,这些语言必有一个共同的来源。

威廉·琼斯的论文研究引起了欧洲学术界的广泛兴趣,在当时启蒙运动和浪漫主义思潮的影响下,许多学者把眼光引向过去,探索各民族的起源和史前史,古代的语言也是系统研究的对象之一。

此后的100年中,学者们忙于各种语言的历史比较——先是在印欧语系的各种语言之间进行比较,后来则是构拟它们的母语——原始印欧语。

【2】奠基人有:葆朴、拉斯克、格里木1816年,德国语言学家葆朴发表了《论梵语动词变位系统,与希腊语、拉丁语、波斯语和日耳曼语相比较》一文,揭示了这些语言的动词变位系统的对应规则,并认为这些语言应该具有共同的来源的结论,被认为是历史语言学的奠基之作。

1818年,丹麦语言学家拉斯克发表了《古代北方语或冰岛语的起源研究》,指出日耳曼诸语言和其他印欧语的词在语音上存在着有规律的形式对应关系。

拉斯克认为,语法对应是确定语言亲属关系和起源共同性的更为可靠的标志,该文所论述的方法和原理对历史语言学的建立具有很重要的意义。

德国语言学家雅各布·格里木对历史语言学的建立也作出了重要贡献。

他1819年出版的《德语语法》提出了语音演变规律(著名的格里木定律,受到拉斯克有关观点的影响),进一步揭示了日耳曼语与其他印欧语之间的语音对应关系。

语言学概论

语言学概论

语言学概论
语言学是研究语言的科学,它探讨语言的结构、功能、历史和社会背景。

语言是人类交流和思维的基本工具,通过语言我们能够表达想法、情感和信息。

语言学作为一门跨学科的学科,涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个领域。

语音学
语音学是研究语音的学科,探讨语音的发音、音素、音位等内容。

语音学研究不同语言的语音系统,比较其异同,探讨语音的共性规律。

语法学
语法学是研究语言的句法结构和组织规律的学科。

语法研究语言中词语之间的组合方式、句子的结构、语法规则等内容。

不同语言有着不同的语法特点,语法结构反映了人类思维和认知方式。

语义学
语义学是研究语言意义和符号关系的学科。

语义学关注词语、句子、篇章等级别的意义和交际意图。

语义学讨论语言中词汇的意义、句子的真值条件、逻辑关系等内容。

语用学
语用学是研究语言使用情境、交际行为和言语行为的学科。

语用学关注言语行为在具体语境中的意义和效果,研究言语参与者之间的交际规则和互动方式。

语言与社会
语言学也关注语言和社会的关系,研究语言在社会文化背景中的功能和影响。

语言反映了社会关系、身份认同、权力结构等方面,语言使用可以揭示社会结构和社会意识形态。

综上所述,语言学是一门涉及广泛的学科,它不仅关注语言的形式和结构,还关注语言的功能、意义和社会意义。

通过语言学的研究,我们能够更好地理解和解释人类言语交流和沟通的规律。

G认知语言学

G认知语言学

15) Please read Lakoff, G. & M. Johnson's Philosophy in the Flesh --- The Embodied Mind (1999) and give your comments.(杨玲加注,仅供参考)G. Lakoff & M.Johnson 于1999年出版了一本惊世著作《体验哲学》(Philosophy in the Flesh),尖锐地批判了在西方流行了多年的经验主义(experientialism)和唯理主义(rationalism)的传统哲学观(classical philosophical view),如客观主义(objectivism)、形式主义(formalism)、二元论(duralism)、天赋论(innatism)等,建立了一个全新的哲学理论(philosophical theory):体验哲学(Embodied Philosophy , Philosophy in the Flesh, Embodied Realism, the Philosophy of Embodied Realism)被认为是一种新理论,与英美分析哲学(Anglo-American Philosophy)和乔氏基于混合哲学(mixed philosophy)的心智观(mentalism)针锋相对,它彻底改变了西方哲学的观点,对西方传统思想是一个巨大挑战,对哲学、认知科学以及认知语言学产生了深远影响,成为第一代和第二代认知科学的分水岭(watershed),同时被视为认知语言学的哲学基础(philosophical basis)。

该理论主要包括三项基本原则(basic principle):心智的体验性(mental embodiment)、认知的无意识性(cognitive unawareness)、思维的隐喻性(metaphorical thinking)。

乔姆斯基语言哲学三问题评述

乔姆斯基语言哲学三问题评述
人类的千古之谜— 人类语言之谜被揭开。因此 ,
语言知识使一个人能把声音( 或符号语言的手 势) 和意义相联系, 也就是说能理解话语或符号, 并 且通过这种话语或符号表达思想。聋哑人的符号语 言与口 头语言没有多大区别, 只不过前者运用手势 或视觉, 后者运用声音或听觉。在讨论语言的本质 和特点时, 这里的语言包括口 语和符号语言。 表现在说话人b 智中的语言知识被称作语法。 语 言 理论就是 要揭开 这种语言知识的 语法的 心智 本质。 如果把语法定义为一个人的语言知识的心智 表现, 那么语言理论便是语法理论, 语法包括一个 人所知的有关他的语言的所有知识结构— 它的 词汇( 心智词典中的词或词汇)它的词形( , 词的结 构)它的句法( , 短语和句子结构)它的语义( , 词和 句子的意义) 以及它的语音( 声音和声音系统) 。
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每个人都知道构词, 如在英语中, 有完全由词 根构成的词, w c, 如 ih有词根加后缀构成的词,i t w- t ce, hs有词根加前缀 ,i一 n cat d e 一 hn, s 有词根加前缀

英语语言学辅音分类表

英语语言学辅音分类表

英语语言学辅音分类表英语辅音按照不同的分类标准可以分为多个类别。

以下是一些常见的辅音分类:按发音方法分类爆破音(Plosives)1. :/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/摩擦音(Fricatives)2. :/f/, /v/, /θ/,/ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/鼻音(Nasals)3. :/m/, /n/, /ŋ/边流音(Liquids)4. :/l/, /r/半元音(Semivowels or Glides)5. :/w/, /j/按发音部位分类唇音(Labials)1. :/p/, /b/, /m/, /w/齿龈音(Dentals)2. :/t/, /d/, /n/, /θ/,/ð/, /s/, /z/, /l/硬颚音(Palatals)3. :/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/软颚音(Velars)4. :/k/, /g/, /ŋ/喉音(Gutturals)5. :/h/, /r/按清浊音分类清辅音(Voiceless)1. :/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/浊辅音(Voiced)2. :/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /r/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /w/, /j/按声门化程度分类无声门化的辅音(Non-glottalized)1. :大部分辅音都是无声门化的。

声门化的辅音(Glottalized)2. :/h/ 和某些情况下 /ʔ/,在一些方言或特定语境下使用。

按送气程度分类不送气的辅音(Unaspirated)1. :有些语音学文献将不送气的/p/, /t/, /k/视为不同的音素,但通常它们与对应的送气音/pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/并无区别。

送气的辅音(Aspirated)2. :/pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/,这些是清辅音的送气形式。

语言学整理资料

语言学整理资料

第一章:语言与语言学A语言的特性:一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性:语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

2. 规约性:语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。

二、二层性:指拥有两层结构这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。

(有限手段无限使用,人类交际最显著特征)三、创造性:指语言的能产性,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

四、移位性:指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点(好处:使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考)B与动物语言区别:由于喉部结构的差异,不适合吐字发音。

但可使用手势语言C语言的功能:信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络:一、传统语言学:1.从哲学角度思考(名实之争):区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究(梵文):为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度(主要比较印欧语系):试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们共同母语(提供了科学的方法)二、现代语言学(20c,结构语言学)语言是一个符号系统,提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”(符号可感知)与“所指”(符号所代表的内容)、“组合关系”(两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系)与“聚合关系”(某一位置能够互相替代)(区分历时)更强调共时研究,重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”,认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。

E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想:生成语言学派:语言是人类内在化的能力,人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。

强调语法的天赋性、自主性,着重探索人类语言的机制、共性,同时探究各个语言的参数差异,即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。

天赋假设:语言是天赋,儿童生下了就有普遍语法,婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。

语言学

语言学

第三章英语语言学第一节语言学概述语言学(linguistics)是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有语言的特性。

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language,but languages in general.语言学研究的范畴(The scope of linguistics)比较广泛,包括以下几个方面:语音学(Phonetics)、音系学(Phonology)、形态学(Morphology)、句法学(Syntax)、语义学(Semantics)、语用学(Pragmatics)、社会语言学(Sociolinguistics)、心理语言学(Psycholinguistics)、应用语言学(Applied linguistics)。

此外,在语言学中还有一些需要区别的概念,比如:① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)③ Speech and writing言语与文字④ Langue and parole语言和言语⑤ Competence and performance语言能力与语言运用第二节语音学语音学(phonetics)是对发音特征的研究(phonetics is the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds or the study of the phonic medium of language) 。

口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds),也就是说人们通过声道(vocal track)发出的音来表达意义。

语言学概论

语言学概论

第一章语言和语言学第一节语言存在的客观形式1.1 什么是语言“语言”不是一种物质实体。

语言存在的客观形式首先表现在人类社会中人与人之间的口头交际行为。

“说话”或者说人与人之间“口头交际行为”,从表面上来看,只是两个人或几个人之间互相交替着“说”和“听”的过程,实际上却是一个非常复杂的过程。

1.2口语和书面语任何一种语言总是先有口语,后有书面语,而且大多数语言在其存在的历史上只有口语而没有相应的书面语。

书面语既不是口语绝对忠实的记录,也不是口语机械的复制品。

书面语和口语在大多数情况下一般是基本一致的。

如果书面语跟口语严重脱节,那么或迟或早最终还是要适应口语的演变而发生变化。

但是应该看到书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。

研究语言首先应该研究口语,并且当口语和书面语在某些方面问题上出现严重分歧的时候一般以口语为主。

但是决不能由于重视书面语的研究而忽视口语的研究,更不能认为书面语是语言研究的唯一对象或主要对象。

1.3语言和民族在绝大多数情况下一个名族使用同一种语言多数人会认为“民族”是一个历史形成的,“具有共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感的社会群体”。

所谓“民族国家”是指这些新兴国家大多数基本上是“一个民族,一种语言,一个国家”的现象,这些国家大多数是以单一民族、单一语言为基础建立起来的,如法国、西班牙、葡萄牙、英格兰、德国等等。

他们区分“语言”和“方言”的标准就是所谓“相互理解程度”【错误】:互相能理解的是同一种语言的不同的方言,互相不能理解的是不同的语言。

实际上只能按照“共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感”再参考社会政治因素来处理。

1.4语言和种族绝大多数人早已认识到语言和种族没有必然联系,因为全世界从生理的角度上能确定的种族为数不多,如蒙古人种,欧罗巴人种,闪米特-哈密特人种,尼格罗人种等有限的几种,但是语言而言,即使只算“语系”而不算下属的具体“语言”至少也有一二十种语系。

1、5语言的客观存在形式和语言研究语言客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语,而当出现文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。

g rithchie 幽默的语言学分析

g rithchie 幽默的语言学分析

g rithchie 幽默的语言学分析
作为一位喜欢嘲笑,幽默和讽刺的谈话者,乔治·里奇(George Ritchie)的语言学分析是一个有趣的话题。

乔治·里
奇的言论具有一种无厘头,讽刺,幽默的特性,可以让他的听众感受到他的谈话。

从乔治·里奇的语言学分析中,我们可以看到他的话题大
多是关于政治和社会的话题。

他的讽刺和幽默,使他的观点更加引人注目。

他把政治和社会现实描述得很有趣,使听众产生共鸣。

他把实际问题转化为幽默的话题,以此来宣传他自己的观点,也让他的听众记住他的观点。

此外,里奇还经常使用短语和比喻来表达他的观点。

他经常把某种概念比作其他概念,以此来帮助听众更好地理解他的意思。

这种比喻的使用也使他的谈话更具有趣味性。

他还会使用许多简短的短语,以便更有效地传达他的观点。

最后,乔治·里奇的语言学分析还反映出他的观点的真实性。

他的观点反映出他的观点是真实的,因为他经常使用实例来证明他的观点,而不是仅仅说话。

因此,他的观点和言论都更加有说服力,而不是仅仅是一种幽默的方式来引人注目。

总的来说,乔治·里奇的语言学分析表明他是一个有趣,
幽默,讽刺的谈话者,他的谈话不仅有趣,而且也富有说服力。

他使用的语言也包括短语,比喻等,使他的谈话更具有趣味性。

图书学科分类及代码详表

图书学科分类及代码详表

图书学科分类及代码详表图书学科分类及代码详表人文类图书基本学科B 宗教、C 伦理、D 逻辑、E 美学、F 心理、G 语 I 艺术、J 政治、K 经济、L 军事、M 法律、N 教育、 P 传媒、 Q 资讯、 R 管理、 S 商学、 T 历史、 U 考 X 财政、 Y 统计、 V 民族、 Z 社会。

自然类图书基本学科 a 天文、 b 地理、 c 数学、 d 物理、 e 化学、 f 生物、g 机械、 h 电子、 i 水利、 j 电力、 k 纺织、 l 食品、 m 建筑、 n 矿山、o 冶金、 p 能源、 —、主 r 航天、 s 医学、 t 工学、 u 农学、 v 林学、 w 养殖、 x 电脑、y 环保、 z 自然。

人文类图书附属学科分类及代码: A 哲学A1 马克思主义哲学A1.1 辩证唯物主义A1.2 历史唯物主义A 哲学、言、H 文学、O 体育、古、W 生A1.3 马克思主义哲学史A1.9 马克思主义哲学其他学科A2 自然辩证法A2.1自然观A2.2科学哲学A2.3技术哲学A2.4专门自然科学哲学A2.9自然辩证法其他学科A3 中国哲学史A3.1先秦哲学A3.2秦汉哲学A3.3魏晋南北朝哲学A3.4隋唐五代哲学A3.5宋元明清哲学A3.6中国近代哲学A3.7中国现代哲学A3.8中国少数民族哲学思想A3.9中国哲学史其他学科A4 东方哲学史A4.1印度哲学A4.2伊斯兰哲学A4.3日本哲学A4.9 东方哲学史其他学科A5 西方哲学史A5.1 古希腊罗马哲学A5.2 中世纪哲学A5.3 文艺复兴时期哲学A5.4 十七、十八世纪欧洲哲学A5.5 德国古典哲学A5.6 俄国哲学A5.9 西方哲学史其他学科A6 现代外国哲学A6.1 十九世纪末至二十世纪中叶西方哲学A6.2 分析哲学A6.3 欧洲大陆人文哲学A6.4 解释学A6.5 符号学A6.6 实用主义哲学A6.9 现代外国哲学其他学科A9 哲学其它学科。

26个字母表示数第七个字母的正确写法

26个字母表示数第七个字母的正确写法

26个字母表示数第七个字母的正确写法一、引言在日常生活中,我们经常会用到26个字母表示数,而正确书写这些字母是非常重要的。

本文将着重介绍第七个字母的正确写法,以帮助读者全面了解这一问题。

二、字母“G”的正确写法字母“G”是26个字母中的第七个字母,它在英文单词中的应用非常广泛。

在手写字母“G”时,我们应该注意以下几点:- 字母“G”应该由一根向上的直线和一条弧线组成。

直线应该从上到下,弧线则从左侧连接直线,向右下方延伸,并在连接点处呈现出一个流畅的曲线。

- 写字母“G”时,我们应该注重笔画的连贯和稳健度。

避免在书写时抖动,保持字母的整体美观和规整。

- 要注意字母“G”的大小和比例。

在书写时,应该与其他字母保持一致的大小和比例,以保证整体的协调性和美感。

三、练习书写字母“G”的方法为了能够掌握字母“G”的正确书写方法,我们可以采取以下练习方法:- 通过观察标准的字母“G”的样本,理解其结构和构造特点。

- 可以在练习簿上反复练习书写字母“G”,通过训练手腕和视觉,逐渐提高书写的准确度和美观度。

- 可以尝试在各种不同的材料上书写字母“G”,如纸张、板书、白板等,以提高书写的适应性和稳定性。

四、常见错误及改正在书写字母“G”时,有一些常见的错误需要我们注意和改正:- 首先是笔画不流畅,呈现断断续续的痕迹。

在这种情况下,我们可以通过缓慢练习,控制手部肌肉的运动,使笔画更加流畅。

- 其次是大小不一致,与其他字母不协调。

我们可以通过在练习时特意调整大小和比例,逐渐达到与其他字母的一致性。

- 此外是弧线的形状不规整,或者过于圆润。

在练习时,可以适当调整手腕的力度和角度,以达到最佳的弧线效果。

五、字母“G”在生活中的应用字母“G”在生活中的应用非常广泛,不仅出现在英文单词中,还常常被用作符号、标志、代号等。

无论是在书写、印刷、广告、设计等领域,字母“G”都扮演着重要的角色。

掌握正确书写字母“G”的方法和技巧,对于提高生活和工作效率,具有重要的意义。

语言学T-G Approach

语言学T-G Approach

Standard theory

D-structure
T-Rules
S-Structure
base component Category lexicon phonological rules
Semantic component
Semantic-representation phonological representation
Phrasal rules

S = NP +VP NP = (det)(adj)(p.p)N(pp)(s)\ VP = V(np)(pp)(s) AP = A(pp)(s) PP = P(np)
Transformational ruleominalization Object deletion Subject deletion NP-movement Wh-movement I-movement
Government and Binding Theory

X-bar Theory

XP

specifier
head
complement

xp x-


specifier
x (head) complement
ttgapproachgapproachdeepstructurecompetencesurfacestructureperformanceclassictheoryclassictheorydstructuretrulessstructurebasecomponentmorphphonemicphrasalstructurestructurephrasalrulesphrasalrules?snpvp?npdetadjppnpps?vpvnppps?apapps?pppnptransformationalrulestransformationalrules?passivevoice?nominalization?objectdeletion?subjectdeletion?npmovement?whmovement?imovementstandardtheorystandardtheory?dstructuretrulessstructure?basecomponent?categorylexiconphonologicalrules?semanticcomponentsemanticrepresentationphonologicalrepresentationextendedstandardtheoryextendedstandardtheory?dstructure?trules?sstructure?phonologicalsemanticrulesinterpretativerules??phonologicallogicalform?representationrepresentationgovernmentandbindinggovernmentandbindingtheorytheory?xbartheory?xp?specifiercomplementhead?xp?x?specifier?xheadcomplement

语言学 第一章

语言学 第一章

Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学) is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication, e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学)studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位) /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study(共时 的)---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study(历时 的)---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学)is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics(心理语言学) is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.

语言学导论-第4章Syntax

语言学导论-第4章Syntax
语言学导论第4章syntax语言学导论英语语言学导论现代语言学导论社会语言学导论语料库语言学导论软件工程导论第一章算法导论第三版答案算法导论第二版答案软件工程导论第5版
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.


no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Complements 补语
Complements can be phrases Providing information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head Attached to the right of the head
Adv.: to denote property of verbs e.g., Jenny left quietly.
Not always reliable: He stands still. love – hate be aware of – know about

语言学教程重点

语言学教程重点

1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic co nnection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human langua ges, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. T he term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings an d sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more tra nsparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that areappropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human languag e, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with so me animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child b y Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396). 1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to l anguage being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see H u Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. S ubconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence,the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one lang uage of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis whenit is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual re alization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influ enced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole,performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.1.47.What are open classes? What are closed classes?In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open -class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.1.48.What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard , even impossible, to define “word” linguistically. Non etheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1)a physically definable unit ,e. g.,[it iz …w](phonological), “It is wonder” (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit(look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence).According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield ). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2)relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words(e.g.,-mats, seldom-?); (2) grammatical and lexical words(e. g. to, in ,etc., and table, chair, ect. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words(see I.47).In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word” ,the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abtract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actualspoken or written texts. For example, “write” is the lexeme of the following words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.”“V ocabulary” usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage ou r students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or glossary.1.49.What is collocation?“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.1.50.What is syntax?“Syntax” is t he study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.1.51.What is a sentence?L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.1.52.What are syntactic relations?“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.By “relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.1.53.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate constituents)?“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two(or more) segm ents. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut are called “ultimate constituents”. For example, “John left yesterday” can be thus segmented: “John| left | | yesterday”. We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|), and they are “John” and “left yesterday”. Further split(||) thissentence generates three “ultimate constituents”: “John”, “left ” and “yesterday”.1.54.What are endocentric and exocentric constructons?“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head. “Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole ;that is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate(verb+object) construction, and connective(be+complement) construction.1.55.What is a subject? A predicate? An object?In some language, an “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case, such as “pater” in the following example: “pater filium amat” (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In English, a “grammatical subject” refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question t est, e.g., “He is a good cook(, isn‟t he?).”A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. e.g., in the sentence “The monkey is j umping ”, “is jumping ” is the predicate.Traditionally “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action, and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case ” for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order(after the verb and preposition) and by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the objec t. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.1.56.What is category?The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability ;and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.1.57.What is number? What is gender? What is case?“Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.“Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).“Case” identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”,etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways:。

语言学中的名词解释总结(3)

语言学中的名词解释总结(3)

语言学中的名词解释总结(3)语言学中的名词解释总结转义:以词的本义来比喻另一事物,因而双转生出另一种意义,这就叫…。

单义词和多义词:一个词的意义可以只概括反映某一类现实现象,也可概括反映相互有联系的几类现象,前者叫单义词,后者叫多义词。

同义词和反义词:几个声音不同而意义相同或基本相同的词叫同义词;语言中意义相反的词叫反义词。

22、语言意义:指语言体系中所固有的意义,特点是抽象、概括、多义、相对稳定。

言语意义:指在特定的交际环境中,人们在使用语言交流思想时双方所理解的特定意义和临时意义,特点是个别、单义、多变。

23、语法形式:表达语法意义的外部形式。

语法范畴:由词的变化形式所表示的意义方面的聚合叫…。

语法方式:把表达语法意义的语法形式概括成的类别叫~。

24、语法:是词法和句法的汇集,包含词的构形、构词规则和词组合成句、名组合成句群的规则。

构词法:指在词根基础上按一这的构词规则创造新词的方法。

构形法:指以一个词为中心的多种变形来表示某种语法意义的方法。

24、词类:具体说是具有相同语法功能的一类词的集合,抽象地说是一组分布环境的总和。

形态(词形变化):同一个词与不同的词组合就不同的变化,这些不同的变化形成一个聚合叫…。

内部屈折:指词内部的语音形式的变化。

25、显性意义:通过词形变化、辅助词和词序所反映出来的各种语法关系叫~,分为陈述、支配、修饰、平行关系。

隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为"施事—动作和动作—施事"等关系。

26、上限结构和下限结构:单句与单句组合成复合句叫上限结构;下限结构即单句,包括非主谓句和主谓句,人称句和非人称句,名词句、动词句和形容词句。

27、直接成分:句子分析中,每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫…。

句子成分分析法:从句法结构的关系意义出发,对句子作成分功能或作用分析的方法叫~,即用各种方法标出基本成分(主语、谓语、宾语)和次要成分(状语、补语)。

G.Leech的语言学研究管窥

G.Leech的语言学研究管窥
语 肓 本质 。
● 南 通 大 学 李杰 教 授 , 研 究 新 闻 语篇 话 题 推进 的模 式 , 认 为羡 余 成 分 依 次 复 现 有 利 于 信息 接 受 。 一 长 治 学 院 梁永 红 副 教 授 , 认为交通越来越发达, 大最 有 关 的词 通 过 隐 喻 的 方式 泛 化 , 形成 通 用 的新 词 义 。

的话 】 本栏 目由中国语文现代化学会语言理论和教学专业委员会协 办
尉 人 民大 学 陈 满 华 教 授 , 讨论 了 G e o f f r e y I  ̄ e c h的语 言 学 研 究 特 色 , 认为 他 对 人 们 动 态 把 握 语 言 规 则 有 突 出 贡献 。
■ 沈 阳师 范 大 学 于 全 有 教 授 , 认 为索 绪 尔 的语 言本 质观 : 念是 从 自然 角 度 提 出的 , 现 在应 该 从 语 言 实践 角度 认 识
所 论 及 的很 多语 义问 题都是 建 立在此 基 础上 的 。这
分 别代 表叙 实性 、 非叙 实性 和反 叙实 性三 类谓词 。
显然 . L e e c h在这 里讨 论 这 些句 法 、词 汇 问题 。
部著 作将 过 去基本 上 是词 汇和 语法 附庸 的语 义 问题 摆 到 了与 语 法 、 词 汇学 、 音 位 学 等并 列 的地 位 , 语 义
结 然而 . L e e c h是 当代 世界 著名语 言学 家 中少有 的
术思 想 , 仅 为管 窥盏 测 , 系个 人 学习大 师著作 之 点滴
刹 记 。①
Hale Waihona Puke 多面 手 . 其 涉足 的众 多 领域 包 括英 语 语 法 、 语 义学 、
二、 L e e c h的 几 部 代 表 作 有 关 语 文 学 、 语 法 学 及 语 用 学 方 面 的 重 要 主 张及 其 影 响

语言学概论复习(完整)

语言学概论复习(完整)

语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性:说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。

(互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响,做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。

)2.语言能力:人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合。

人的语言能力的生理基础相同。

3.心理现实:贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果,是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。

其来源:①感官对客观现实的直接感知,经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息;②对语言文字的接收处理。

4.颤音:舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。

(是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。

)例如:俄语中的Р(如РУка,手)是舌尖颤音[r]。

5.闪音:舌头颤动一次发出的音。

例如:英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[ʃ]。

6.区别特征:具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。

每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。

例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征;某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立,这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。

例如:英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。

7.语言节奏:语言的节奏是狭义的节奏,是语流中某些超音段要素在时间上等距离地、周期性地交替出现。

相当于音乐节拍但不如音乐规整严格。

包括音节(或韵素)型节奏和音步型节奏。

8.成句范畴:语气(陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹)、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。

成句范畴有一定的表达形式,例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。

9.黏着语:只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。

例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。

10.概念结构:词义之间的相互关系叫做一种语言的概念结构,词义的形成以现实现象为基础,同时也受制于本语言词义的相互关系(概念结构)。

不同的语言对现实有不同的切分,也就具有不同的概念结构。

11.中心意义:离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义,它大多同本义一致,有时同本义不一致。

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