胡壮麟语言学教程第五版chap ppt课件
胡壮麟语言学总复习课件
句子由主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状 语等不同的成分组成，各成分在句子 中起到不同的作用。Biblioteka 句法结构与句型句法结构
句法结构是指句子的内部构造和组织方 式，包括简单句、复合句、并列句等。
VS
句型
句型是根据句子的结构特点和语义功能划 分的句子类型，如陈述句、疑问句、祈使 句等。
语法的层级体系
01
层级体系
语言学的研究对象与范围
总结词
语言学的研究对象是语言，包括语音、语法、词汇、语义等方面。
详细描述
语音学研究语言的发音和音系规则，语法学研究词法和句法规则，词汇学研究词汇的构成和意义，语义学研究词 汇和句子的意义。此外，社会语言学、心理语言学、计算机语言学等分支学科也丰富了语言学的研究范围。
语言学与其他学科的关系
详细描述
该领域关注第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学 习策略等，旨在揭示第二语言学习的本质和规律 ，为外语教学提供理论支持和实践指导。
语言教学理论与实践
总结词
语言教学理论与实践主要研究如何有 效地教授和学习语言。
详细描述
该领域关注语言教学方法、教材设计 、课程设置等方面，旨在提高语言教 学的效果和质量，培养学习者的语言 运用能力。
语言接触与变异
语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的接触和交流 01 ，这种接触会导致语言的变异和融合。
语言变异是指在一个语言的内部，由于地域、社 02 会、年龄等因素的影响，导致语音、词汇、语法
等方面的差异。
社会语言学研究语言接触与变异，旨在揭示语言 03 变化的原因和规律，以及变异对语言的生存和发
展的影响。
音变现象
音变定义
音变是指语音在连续发出时发生的音素变化， 包括同化、异化、弱化等。
英语语言学及应用课件PPT胡壮麟史上最全面
Hale Waihona Puke Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
1. Bilabial双唇 ; 2. Labiodental唇齿的; 3. Dental or
interdental齿音和齿 间; 4. Alveolar齿龈音 ; 5. Palatoalveolar腭齿音; 6. Palatal 腭音; 7. Velar软腭音; 8. Uvular小舌音; 9. Glottal声门.
2019/12/24
What is linguistics
Linguistics, the scientific study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so.
The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:
I Language as a Formal System
The study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. is called phonology音系学.
语言学精品课胡壮麟版ppt课件
2. Scopes of linguistics
☺General linguistics—studies linguistics as a whole.
☺ Phonetics—study of sounds ☺ Phonology--study of the system of
sounds, how they are combined ☺ Morphology—study of the structure and
language development, more practical than written form, hard to record • writing : • permanent, can be recorded
• ngue and parole • —by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure
• descriptive –describes and analyzes the language people are currently speaking. It deals with “what people actually say”
• 3.2 synchronic vs. diachronic • synchronic—description of a language at
• 2.1.4. Language is symbolic. • 2.1.5. Language is human –specific. • 2.1.6. Language is used for
communication
2.2. Design features of language
• 2.2.1. arbitrariness • 2.2.2. productivity • 2.2.3. duality • 2.2.4. displacement • 2.2.5. cultural transmission
胡壮麟语言学总复习ppt
CHENLI
5
Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?
However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds.
But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.
Contents
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds: phonetics and Phonology
Chapter 3 Words and Morphology
Chapter 4 Sentences: Syntax
The details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted .
Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.
Chapter 5 大学语言学概论第5章ppt课件
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2. Linguistic model of the
conceptualist view
• SEMANTIC TRIANGLE • THOUGHT/REFERENCE
• 1. 形式与意义直接相关 ，用实线连接。意义通过 符号形式来表达，形式是 语义的载体。
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1. Definition
• Contextualism（语境论）： is a view
concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
• 2. 意义是在各观事物的 基础上概括而成的，是客 观事物在头脑中的概括反 映，两者也有直接联系， 用实线连接。
• 3. 形式和所指之间没有
SYMBOL/FORM REFERENT 必然的联系，故而两者间
用虚线连接，所以同一事
(Ogden and Richards 1923: 物可以用不同的形式来表
• Or what is exactly meant by “thinking of a concept”?
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6. Question
• What do you think of when you hear or see the words:
胡壮麟语言学课件
Chapter OneInvitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language⏹Language⏹Features⏹Function⏹Language learning⏹first language leaning⏹second language learning1.2 What Is Language⏹Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.⏹System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules.⏹Arbitrary: There is no intrinsic connection between the word and its meaning.⏹Symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.1.3 Design Features of Language⏹Design features are features that define our human language.⏹Design Features of Language(1)⏹Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.⏹arbitrariness at different levels of a language⏹1) arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning⏹2) arbitrariness at the syntactic levelapples, pears and bananas⏹pears, apples and bananasb) He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.⏹c) She got married and had a baby.⏹She had a baby and got married.⏹d) 屡战屡败⏹屡败屡战⏹3) arbitrariness and convention⏹arbitrariness⏹→ language creative⏹convention⏹→ learnabili ty;⏹→ learning a language laborious1.3 Design Features of Language(2)⏹Duality: the property of having two levels of structures⏹1) sound— secondary units⏹2) meaning — primary units1.3 Design Features of Language(3)⏹Creativity(productivity): Users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.⏹1) Words can be used in new ways to mean new things.⏹mouse bridge⏹2) Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness （递归性）⏹e.g. a. Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ b. Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ c. Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ d. Brown believes Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经……1.3 Design Features of Language(4)⏹Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which arenot present (in time or space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Design Features of Language(5)⏹Cultural transmission: language is passed on through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.4 Origin of Language⏹The bow-wow theory汪汪理论: imitate the sounds of the animals. onomatopoeic⏹The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论: instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. interjection⏹The yo-he-ho theory哟嗬哟理论: rhythmic grunts produced when working . chantsOrigin of Language⏹The divine-origin theory⏹“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. So the man named all the birds and the animals,…”（Genesis，Chapter11：6）⏹The invention theory⏹ a. imitative b. cries of nature⏹ c. grunts of men working together⏹The evolution theory1.5 Functions of Language(1)⏹Jakobson⏹"Linguistics and Poetics: Closing Statement"⏹All acts of communication, be they written or oral, are contingent on six constituent elements: context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code⏹Each of the constituent elements of the communicative act has a corresponding function; thus:⏹referential，poetic，emotive，phatic, conative and metalingual⏹context⏹REFERENTIAL⏹Addresser message addressee⏹EMOTIVE POETIC CONA TIVE⏹contact⏹PHA TIC⏹code⏹METALINGUAL⏹Referential : to convey message and information⏹Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions⏹Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake⏹Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and requests⏹Phatic: to establish communion with others⏹Metalingual: to clear up intentions and meanings1.5 Functions of Language(2)⏹Halliday: three metafunctions of language:⏹1) ide ational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons,things actions,events,states,etc.达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学 语言学教程 胡壮麟
Definitions of Semantics
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. (Dai & He, 2002, p. 67) Term coined by Bré (1897) for the al subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the analysis and description of the so-called „literal‟ meaning of linguistic expressions. (Bussmann, 1996, p. 423) Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning: the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. (Wen, P. 210)
5.1 Meanings of „Meaning‟
Scholars like Ferdinand de Saussure have stressed that the study of linguistic meaning is part of the general study of the use of sign systems, and this general study is called semiotics.
2) It is not possible for some words to find referents in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc. 3) Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.
语言学 chapter5(胡壮麟版)---group 4
The classification is not comprehensive, or it still has something unclear, because the seven meanings are inseparable. Generally, the affective meaning for the often are usingthe existence of connotative meaning, social meaning or rational meaning; With a sense of meaning is sometimes rational transfer performance, and so on. Therefore, our sense of significance to facilitate the classification is analyzed and studied, and they can't arbitrary isolation and dividing them. And, our main concern is the actual communication effect, this will involve a pragmatic category, which requires more we grasp the meaning from the general went up.
Q2. Why does G. Leech recognize 7 types of meaning?
• Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981) classified seven types of meaning:
– Conceptual meaning – Connotative meaning – Social meaning – Affective meaning – Reflected meaning – Collocative meaning – Thematic meaning
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.1.What is language“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connectionbetween meanings and sounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological andgrammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct andunderstand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language,refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmittedfrom generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both aproducer and a receiver of messages.3.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for settingup a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.(2)Directive function: The “directive function” means t hat language may be usedto get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function,e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”(3)Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used totell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informativestatements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it servesan “interrogative function”. This includes all questio ns that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to revealsomething about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of langua ge to createcertain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or performactions.4. What is linguistic“Linguistics” is the scie ntific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguisti c study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared b y all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists. (5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’scompetence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. (6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phoneticsis phonetics？“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we he ar and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p]is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, ., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist. 8.Minimal pairsWhen two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.10. Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature ofa sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the st udy of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. Morphology1.Morpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship b etween expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.2.Types of Morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total lossof identity. It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes”is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to w hich an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix.Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able).3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be future sub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, whichhave a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also calleda maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” r efer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.a.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the sequ ential arrangementto words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.b.“Relations of substitutability” refer t o classes or sets of words substitutablefor each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.c.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means that w ords of different sets of clausesmay permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.3.Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.4.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.5.Endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.6.Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two of more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”.Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, ., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now the object ofa preposition, is called the logical subject.(2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure ina binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. ., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of a n action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case”for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). ., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.(1)Number: “Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classesdisplaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2)Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”,or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic rel ationship between words in a sentence. InLatin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.(4)Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may be defined as requirement that the forms oftwo or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, ., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relationSyntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather” and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation:it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, ., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, ., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”(1)Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinatedor conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”(2)Embedding: “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause isincluded in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, ., “I saw theman who had killed a chimpanzee.”12. Beyond the sentence(1) Sentential connection: the notion of hypotactic and paratactic relations can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.a. “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, . “He bought eggs and milk.”b. “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).(2). Cohesion:Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse of text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution etc.Chapter Five. Meaning1.Semantics:“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.2.What is meaningThough it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to;(6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to…linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”,。
语言学教程第一章ppt
语言学教程第一章ppt语言学教程胡壮麟主编Contents ?Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(Phonetics) Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase (Morphology)Chapter 4 From Word to Text(Syntax) Chapter 5 Meaning(Semantics)Chapter 6 Language and Cognition ?Chapter 8 Language in Use(Pragmatics)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics ?1.1 Why study linguistics?1.2 What is language?1.3 Features of language1.4. Origin of language1.5. Functions of language1.6. What is linguistics1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.8. Macrolinguistics1.9 Important distinctions in linguisticsLead-inQestion1: Other animals can beat us in many different ways, but what makes us superior to all of them?Qestion2: Why are children easy to undrstand their mother's tongue??Qestion3: Why do people in different social classes speak in different ways??Qestion4: Why is it "I love you" in English, but "私はあなたを愛して" in Japanese?1.2 What is language ?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.__ by （英）沃德霍(Wardhaugh,R.)1.3 Design Features of languageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacement1.3.1 Arbitrariness ?Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning –Saussure.Eg: name,book,pen(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.Eg: Hi, Aha,Hush, Hem, Hey.(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: according to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words.Eg: He came in and sat down.(3) Idiom is not arbitrary.Eg: apple-polisher, black sheep, a yellow dog.1.3.2 DualityDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless Eg: Consonants and Vowels)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning Eg: word)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent.A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a1.3.3 CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Eg: 说曹操曹操到（not refer to Cao Cao himself）1.3.4 Displacement----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters, in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.Eg: 911 events , New York1.4. Origin of language语言的起源是语言学的基本理论问题之一。
胡壮麟语言学课件
胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter OneInvitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study LanguageLanguageFeaturesFunctionLanguage learningfirst language leaningsecond language learning1.2 What Is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules.Arbitrary: There is no intrinsic connection between the word and its meaning.Symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.1.3 Design Features of LanguageDesign features are features that define our human language.Design Features of Language(1)Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.arbitrariness at different levels of a language1) arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2) arbitrariness at the syntactic levelapples, pears and bananaspears, apples and bananasb) He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.c) She got married and had a baby.She had a baby and got married.d) 屡战屡败屡败屡战3) arbitrariness and conventionarbitrariness→ language creativeconvention→ learnabili ty;→ learning a language laborious1.3 Design Features of Language(2)Duality: the property of having two levels of structures1) sound— secondary units2) meaning — primary units1.3 Design Features of Language(3)Creativity(productivity): Users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.1) Words can be used in new ways to mean new things.mouse bridge2) Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness （递归性）e.g. a. Smith believes that the earth is flatb. Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatc. Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatd. Brown believes Smith believes that Brown believes thatSmith believes that the earth is flat山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经……1.3 Design Features of Language(4)Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time or space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Design Features of Language(5)Cultural transmission: language is passed on through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe bow-wow theory汪汪理论: imitate the sounds of the animals. onomatopoeicThe pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论: instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. interjectionThe yo-he-ho theory哟嗬哟理论: rhythmic grunts produced when working . chantsOrigin of LanguageThe divine-origin theory“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. So the man named all the birds and the animals,…”（Genesis，Chapter11：6）The invention theorya. imitativeb. cries of naturec. grunts of men working togetherThe evolution theory1.5 Functions of Language(1)Jakobson"Linguistics and Poetics: Closing Statement"All acts of communication, be they written or oral, are contingent on six constituent elements: context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and codeEach of the constituent elements of the communicative act has a corresponding function; thus:referential，poetic，emotive，phatic, conative and metalingualcontextREFERENTIALAddresser message addresseeEMOTIVE POETIC CONA TIVEcontactPHA TICcodeMETALINGUALReferential : to convey message and informationEmotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotionsPoetic: to indulge in language for its own sakeConative: to persuade and influence others through commands and requestsPhatic: to establish communion with othersMetalingual: to clear up intentions and meanings1.5 Functions of Language(2)Halliday: three metafunctions of language:1) ide ational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons,things actions,events,states,etc.达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。
胡壮麟语言学课件
2. What is this course about?Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language and cognitionChapter 7 Language, Culture, and SocietyChapter 8 Language in useChapter 9 language and literatureChapter 10 language and computerChapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teachingChapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics1. languageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1) Definition:Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。
）Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。
胡壮麟语言学课件
胡壮麟语言学课件chapter12（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学课件chapter11-名牌大学教授整理胡壮麟语言学chapter10（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第九章课件-名牌大学教授整理胡壮麟语言学第八章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第六章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第五章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第四章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学第三章课件（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟英语语言学教学笔记Chapter 2 （名牌大学语言学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学教程第一章课件，名牌大学英语专业课课件，概括很全面，很到位哦胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 12（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 8（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 7（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 6（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 5（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 4（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 2（名牌大学教授整理）胡壮麟语言学分章练习课件-chapter 1（名牌大学教授整理）大家论坛--英语专业考研--资料汇总--希望能对您的英语学习有帮助！！！鲜花送人，留己余香。
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symbolizes
refers to
symbol (word)
stands for
referent (object)
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airplane
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5. Sense
‘Meaning’ is not some kind of ‘entity’ separate from language.
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3. The meaning of meaning
C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923).
The Meaning of Meaning.
John means to write. A green light means to go.
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Health means everything. His look was full of meaning.
Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semantics
Pragmatics:
The meaning of utterances
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2. Semantic Meaning
Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!
I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or
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Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.
Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.
Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. Province: language of law, of science, of
advertising, etc. Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes,
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What is the meaning of life?
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What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you?
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What does ‘cornea’ mean? The transparent, convex, anterior portion of
the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.
Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.
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Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.
pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.
handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.
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(7) Thematic meaning
Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.
When you hear ‘click the mouse twice’, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.
That words ‘have meaning’ means only that they are used in a certain way in a sentence. There is no ‘meaning’ beyond the meaning of individual words and sentences.
Will you belt up.
21Leabharlann ‘Colorful’ meaning
Commendatory tough-minded resolute, firm shrewd childlike wiseman
man of usual talent portly, stout, solid, plum
The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
Smith. They stopped at the end of the corridor. At the end of the corridor, they stopped.
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4. The Theory of Reference
Words → Meaning: Words ‘name’ or ‘refer to’ things -- Platonic
etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.
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domicile: very formal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: general
steed: poetic horse: general nag: slang gee-gee: baby language
Many taboo terms are result of this.
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(6) Collocative meaning
The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.
Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.
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Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:
Conceptual meaning
Connotative meaning
Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning
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Step mother
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(3) Social meaning
What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.
Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.
A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.
What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.
Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize. The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie
Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.