语用学教程期末复习资料修改版
语用学术语期末资料
语⽤学术语期末资料Definition1. B road context: any contextual information that is relevant to the working outof what the speaker overtly intends to mean, and to the successful and felicitous performance of speech acts.2. C onstancy under negation: a property of presupposition which dictates that apresupposition generated by the use of a lexical item or a syntactic structure remains the same when the sentence containing that lexical item or syntactic structure is negated.3. C onstative: an utterance that is employed to make an assertion or a statement.4. C ontext: any relevant features of the dynamic setting or environment in whicha linguistic unit is systematically used.5. C onventional implicature: a non-truth-conditional inference which is notdeductive in any general, natural way from the saying of what is said, but arises solely because of the conventional features attached to particular lexical items and/or linguistic constructions.6. C onversational implicature: a set of non-logical inferences which containsconveyed messages which are meant without being part of what is said in the strict sense. It is derived from the saying of what is said via the co-operative principle and its component maxims of conversation.7. C o-operative principle: the overarching principle put forward by Grice in histheory of conversational implicature, which determines the way in which language is used most efficiently and effectively to achieve rational interaction in communication.8. D eixis: the phenomenon whereby features of context of utterance or speech eventare encoded by lexical and/or grammatical means in a language.9. D irect speech act: a speech act whose illocutionary force and sentence type aredirectly matched. In addition, an explicit performative, which happens to be in the declarative form, is also taken to be a direct speech act, because it has its illiocutionary force explicitly named by the performative verb in the main part(or “matrix clause”) of the sentence.10. E ntailment: a semantic relation between propositions or sentences expressingpropositions.11. E xplicature: a term used in relevance theory which refers to an inferentialdevelopment of mone of the incomplete conceptual representations or logical forms encoded by an uttereance. In other words, an explicature functions to flesh out the linguistically given incomplete logical form of the sentence uttered, yielding fully propositional content.12. F ace: the public self-image that every member of a society claims for him orherself.13. I llocutionary act: an act or action intended to be performed by a speaker inuttering a linguistic expression, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it, either explicitly or implicitly.14. I ndirect speech act: a speech act whose illocutionary force and sentence typeare not directly matched.15. L ocutionary act: an act of producing meaningful linguistic expression.16. M axims of conversation: the term used by Grice for the nine subprinciples ofhis co-operative principle classified into four catagories: Quality, Quantity, Relation, and Manner. The co-operative principle and its associate maxims of conversation enjoin the speaker to make a well-founded, appropriately informative, and relevant contribution to communication in a perspicuous manner.1. What are locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts? Illustrate with atleast an example.Three facets of a speech act:1)Locutionary act: the production of a meaningful linguistic expression. (1’)Illocutionary act: the action intended to be performed by a speaker in uttering a2)linguistic expression , by virtue of the conventional force associated with it, eitherexplicitly or implicitly. (1’)3)Perlocutionary act: the bringing about of consequences or effects on theaudience through the uttering of a linguistic expression, such consequences or effectsbeing special to the circumstances of the utterance. (1’)For example, one may utter “The gun is loaded”with the locutionary act of saying that sentence, the illocutionary act of warning or explanation, and theperlocutionary act might be that the hearer is scared to kneel down, or fight back, etc.(2’)2. Consider the use of here in (i)-(iv). What is the function of here? What are thedifferences?(i) I’m over here!(shouted to companion through the woods)(ii)Oh, it’s just beautiful here!(with sweeping arm gesture to countryside)(iii) Doctor, it hurts here.(with hand on abdomen)(iv) They live over here, but we live here.(pointing to a small map)These heres are called demonstrat ives and they are deictic adverbs of space. (1’)(i) The region referred to is restricted to the speaker’s place and excludes that of the addressee. (1’)(ii) The region referred to is of broad extent and includes both the speaker and the addressee(s). (1’)(iii) The place referred to is a small segment of the body of the speaker. (1’)(iv) The region referred to is a deferred place using a map in the common perceptual field of the interlocutors. (1’)3.When will presuppositions be canceledLike conversational implicatures, but unlike semantic entailments, presuppositions are cancelable. (1’)They are nullified if they are inconsistent with:(i) background assumptions,(ii) conversational implicatures, and(iii) certain discourse context. Furthermore, they can also drop out in certain contexts, some of which give rise to the projection problem of presupposition. (3’)?Defeasibility has in general been taken as the second most important property of presupposition. (1’)4.What are the three main types of cognitive effects to which the processing of new information in a context may give rise Illustrate them with a proper example, please.(i) generating a conclusion derivable from new and old information together, but from neither new nor old information separately, which is called a contextual implication, (1’)(ii) strengthening an existing assumption, (1’)(iii) contradicting and canceling an existing assumption. (1’)Suppose that a bus driver is to leave from a bus stop. He sees in his rear mirror the reflection of an anxious-looking woman carrying a bus pass, trying to cross the road behind him. In the first place, given the assumption that if a person is holding a bus pass, then he or she intends to travel on a bus, the derive will derive the new assumption or the contextual implication that the woman in question has the intention of traveling on his bus. Secondly, the bus driver’s existing assumption that the woman is trying to cross the road to catch his bus may be supported and strengthened by the assumption that she is carrying a bus pass. Thirdly, the driver’s existing assumption that the woman intends to take his bus is contradicted and eliminated when he sees the woman walk off in the opposite direction handing the bus pass to someone who is standing by the bus stop. (2’)PPP19 What is context? Why is it so important to pragmatics?C ontext: any relevant features of the dynamic setting or environment inwhich a linguistic unit is systematically used.。
应用语言学期末复习各章知识点百题汇总
应用语言学期末复习补充问题一．名词解释个别语言学属于本体语言学，是探讨一种语言的结构和发展规律。
如：汉语语言学，英语语言学；普通语言学是研究人类语言一般的性质和普遍的性质及普遍的结构规律的学科。
由于讨论的是对各种具体语言有普遍指导意义的理论，又被称为理论语言学；共时语言学又称“描写语言学”，是指选取语言的某一个历史阶段，描写这个阶段的语言的状态。
如：现代汉语、先秦汉语；历时语言学又称“历史语言学”，它研究语言的发展变化。
如：汉语史；自然语言处理是运用计算机技术来研究、处理自然语言的交叉性学科。
主要目标是让计算机懂得和理解人的自然语言，实现人机对话；中文信息处理是自然语言信息处理的下位概念，是指用计算机对中文进行存储、转换、分析、传输等加工，以形成各种信息处理系统的科学；语言能力传统上指运用语言进行听说读写的能力或指用书面或口语进行交际的能力。
（如：语音能力、词汇能力、语法能力。
）从而规范地、正确地使用语言；语言交际能力说话者适应交际主体、主旨、语境，有效地进行言语交际的能力。
即更加得体、有效地使用语言的能力；对比分析就是把两种或两种以上的语言或方言进行共时对比，描述他们之间的异同。
目的是由此找出目标语学习者的学习难点，以便于最有效的方法来组织教学；偏误分析指对学生在第二语言学习中所产生的偏误进行分析，进而研究第二语言的学习过程。
它是研究学习过程的捷径，也是研究学习过程的第一步；应用语言学应用语言学分为狭义、广义两种。
狭义的应用语言学特指第二语言教学，中国一般取广义的，我们也取广义的，包括语言应用的各个方面，范围是开放的。
简单地说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面，包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性学科。
《马氏文通》（1）这是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。
（2）马建忠认为必须缩短学习本国语文的过程，才能学习西方先进科学技术，才能使国家富强。
语用学期末考试
1.语义和语用学的意义区别2.语境因素的内容3.所指论的观点4.所指封闭性5.指示:时间地点人称指示其中之一画几个扭曲关系6.什么是指示性，什么是非指示性7.Austin的主要工作8.言外行为分类9.几句英文例句，用Levinson三原则分析1.语用学和语义学既有联系又有区别。
其共同点在于，语用学和语义学都是对于意义的研究。
但它们是在两个不同的层面上对意义的研究。
语用学：广义上指对人类有目的的行为所做的研究；狭义指对有目的的语言活动的研究。
语用学研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系，是对使用中的语言意义的研究；结合具体语境分析，考虑说话的时间、地点、交际双方的身份、正在从事的活动等。
语义学对意义的研究是基本的，它研究符号与符号所代表的事物之间的关系，是语言本身固有的内在意义，是对抽象于使用之外的语言意义的研究。
例：那里有一只狗2.狭义的语境指语言的上下文，广义的指语言活动进行的特定的时间、空间、情境、参与者等语言外因素。
语用语境包括：（1）语言知识：交际双方具有对所使用语言的知识（双方拥有共同的语言）；交际过程中双方必须了解语言交际的上文。
（2）语言外知识：背景知识、情景知识、交际双方互相了解背景知识指常识，人们对客观世界的一般了解，是百科全书式知识。
例如，病了要治疗，重病要住院情景知识：与特定的交际情境有关的知识，包括某一次特定的语言活动发生的时间、地点、交际活动的主题内容、交际场合的正式程度、参与者的相互关系、他们在交际活动中的相对地位、各人所起的作用等。
相互知识：交际双方对对方的了解例如：共同知道一个人，才能用he准确指示。
3.传统所指论认为：名称具有各自的内涵和外延，即具有各自的意义和指称；名称的指称是由名称的意义所决定的。
因果的历史的所指理论：专有名词和表示类属的名词不具有意义，而是直接地、任意地指称其所指对象，无须通过对名称的意义先进行解释这一中介过程。
(Aristole 历史文化链条的传递，依据这一名字与某个活动保持着历史的因果的联系)4. 所指封闭性：两个指称相同的指称语相互替换并不能总能保证这两个句子的真值条件固定不变例如：I wanted to meet Margaret Thatcher.I wanted to meet the first woman Prime Minister of Great Britain.因为专有名词重名，确定性描述语有指称性和归属性两种用法等因素。
(完整版)语用学级期末复习思考题
I。
Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10’)所指对象referent所指论Referential theory专有名词 proper name普通名词 common nouns固定的指称记号 rigid designators指称词语deixical items确定性描述语definite descriptions编码时间 coding—time变异性variability表示反复的词语 iterative表述句 constative补救策略redressive strategies不可分离性 non—detachability不确定性indeterminacy不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为 representatives承诺类言语行为 commissives指令类言语行为directives表达类言语行为expressives，宣告类言语行为declarations诚意条件 sincerity condition次要言外行为 secondary illocutionary act等级含义 scalar implicature等级划分法 rating scales副语言特征 paralinguistic features非公开施行面子威胁行为 off record非规约性non—conventionality非规约性意义 non-conventional implicature非论证性的 non—demonstrative非自然意义non—natural meaning (meaning—nn)否定测试法negation test符号学 semiotics构成性规则 constitutive rules古典格莱斯会话含义理论 Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature关联论Relevance Theory关联原则Principle of Relevance归属性用法 attributive use规约性含义conventional implicature人际修辞 interpersonal rhetoric篇章修辞textual rhetoric含蓄动词 implicative verbs合适条件 felicity conditions呼语 vocatives互相显映 mutually manifest会话含义 conversational implicature话语层次策略 utterance-level strategy积极面子positive face间接言语行为 indirect speech acts间接指令 indirect directives结语 upshots交际意图communicative intention可撤销性 cancellability可废弃性 defeasibility可推导性 calculability跨文化语用失误cross—cultural pragmatic failure跨文化语用学cross—cultural pragmatics命题内容条件 propositional content condition面子保全论 Face-saving Theory面子论 Face Theory面子威胁行为 Face Threatening Acts （FTAs）蔑视 flouting明示 ostensive明示－推理模式ostensive—inferential model摹状词理论Descriptions粘合程度 scale of cohesion篇章指示 discourse deixis前提 presupposition前提语 presupposition trigger强加的绝对级别absolute ranking of imposition确定谈话目的 establishing the purpose of the interaction确定言语事件的性质 establishing the nature of the speech event 确定性描述语 definite descriptions认知语用学 cognitive pragmatics上下文 co—text社会语用迁移sociopragmatic transfer社交语用失误 sociopragmatic failure施为句 performative省力原则 the principle of least effort实情动词 factive verbs适从向 direction of fit手势型用法 gestural usage首要言外行为 primary illocutionary act双重或数重语义模糊 pragmatic bivalence/ plurivalence顺应的动态性 dynamics of adaptability顺应性adaptability语境关系的顺应(contextual correlates of adaptability)、语言结构的顺应(structural objects of adaptability)、顺应的动态性（dynamics of adaptability)和顺应过程的意识程度（salience of the adaptation processes）。
语言学期末复习资料
语⾔学期末复习资料语⾔学复习纲要说明：1.此份材料最多只考80%，还有20%不在范围内2.请务必结合教材复习，例⼦没列举的请看教材3.匆忙整理，答案有不够完整的，请⾃⾏补充更正4.语⾔学太抽象请保证有充⾜的时间来复习祝⼤家考试顺利加油1、语⾔的作⽤是什么？) 语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
⼈类传递信息，进⾏交际和交流思想，除了使⽤语⾔外，还可以使⽤⽂字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及⾝势、表情等，在⼀定场合使⽤，可以弥补语⾔的⼀些不⾜，但是这些交际⼯具使⽤范围有限，有的仅⽤于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际⼯具，都离不开语⾔，都是在语⾔的基础上产⽣的，是辅助语⾔进⾏交际的，没有语⾔，这些⼿段的存在没有任何意义。
（即为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
）2) 语⾔是⼈类的思维⼯具。
语⾔不但是⼈类的交际⼯具，同时也是⼈类思维的⼯具，是认识成果的贮存所。
思维过程离不开语⾔，需要借助语⾔来进⾏⽐较、分析、综合等⼀系列活动，需要借助语⾔来形成思想，利⽤语⾔把它储存在头脑中，再借助语⾔把思想表达出来，传达给听话⼈，同时使听话⼈产⽣思想。
⽽且⼈类思维的成果－概念，还可以通过词语固定下来。
总之，思维活动的过程不可能离开语⾔⽽单独进⾏，思维离不开语⾔，必须借助语⾔材料才能进⾏。
语⾔也离不开思维，⼆者是互相依存，共同发展的。
（即语⾔和思维的关系）2、为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具？1) 语⾔存在于说话和所说出来的话中，说明语⾔在社会⽣活中具有⾮常重要的作⽤，因为不会说话⼈就失去了它的本质，与动物⽆异。
⼈们⽤语⾔进⾏交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的⾏为，以取得最佳的效果。
所以，语⾔是⼈们的⼀种交际⼯具。
2) ⼈类的交际⼯具不⽌语⾔⼀种，其它如⽂字、⼿势表情等也都能实现交际的任务，也是交际⼯具，但它们与语⾔相⽐重要性就要差多了。
根本上说⼈类各种辅助性交际⼯具，都是在语⾔基础上制定的，没有语⾔基础，这些⼯具也就失去了存在的意义。
语用学复习题
《语用学》复习范围一、绪论1.语用学的由来和发展（“语用学”这个术语的提出；语用学成为新学科的标志）；“语用学”（pragmatics拉丁词“行动、做”）这个术语是由美国哲学家莫里斯于1938年在《符号理论基础》一书中首先提出，而哲学家和逻辑学家卡纳普也在其后提出。
莫里斯的符号学包括句法学（符号之间的形式关系），语义学（符号及其所指对象的关系）和语用学（符号和使用者的关系）。
而《语用学杂志》于1977年在荷兰阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行则是语用学成为一门独立的新学科的标志。
1986年，国际语用学学会成立。
2.语用学产生和发展的语言学背景；（索绪尔的语言和语言学理论开创了20世纪的语言学。
受其影响的结构主义语言学派，主张研究语言系统、结构，并尽力追求语言描写形式化。
50年代末，乔母斯基提出转换生成语法理论，使语言分析高度形式化。
从结构主义语言学到转换生成语法，存在两大明显的缺陷，即忽视语言运用研究；语义研究薄弱。
而20C5/60年代，语言系统、结构的研究已经取得了杰出成就，完全具备了重点地研究语言运用的条件和可能性。
而语义研究遇到了难于解决的新问题，为语用学的产生和发展提供了良好的机遇。
）3.语用学的研究内容；语境、指示词语、会话含义、预设、言语行为、会话结构4.语用学和修辞学的区别与联系；●联系：两者的中心问题都是语言运用。
●研究目的不同：修辞学要对语言运用的形式，判别好与不好的界限，注意力是修辞技巧。
而语用学则是解释性的，它的目的是分析语言运用活动，建立意义解释理论，寻找语言运用的规律。
●理论基础不同：修辞学基础薄弱，基本上是一门纯经验的学科，而语用学理论基础雄厚。
●研究方法不同：修辞学主要采纳归纳的方法，而语用学不排斥归纳，但主要方法是理论解释和推理分析。
●研究兴趣和学科传统不同：修辞学以辞格、句子、词语的交际特色、语体风格为具体研究对象；而语用学以语境、指示词语、会话含义等为研究的具体对象。
5.语用学研究的理论意义和实用价值。
(完整word)语用学(期末)
语用学一，名词解释1。
指示语：指示语是话语中跟语境相联系的表示指示信息的词语，也就是说涉及到话语所谈论的事物、事件以及它们在时空中的存在方式、运动方式等问题。
如：时、空、人称等。
如：我半小时后到那里。
指示词语包括:指示代词、人称代词、物主代词、时态助词、某些情态助动词和表示移动的动词、时间和地点副词、某些称谓，以及在特定语境中表示事物关系和人的社交关系的词语。
指示语的功能，可分为指别功能和照应功能两种。
2。
言语行为:①言语行为:用言语来施行各种语用意图的行为。
例如：你不冷吗？言语行为（语用意图：请把门关上)。
②奥斯汀的理论一个完整的言语行为包含三个层次，即：语谓行为，语旨行为，语效行为③塞尔的发展将言语行为分为四个层次，即：话语行为,命题行为，语旨行为，语效行为3.会话含义：“会话含义”（conversational implicature)是美国哲学家格莱斯首先提出的,它是语用学的核心内容，在言语交际中起着非常重要的作用。
在特定的语境中，话语所隐含的意义.（多于话语字面意义的含义在格赖斯的理论里面,会话含意是依据合作原则及其准则的。
只有假定说话人是遵守准则的，至少是遵守合作总原则的,才会有推导会话含意的基础。
4.言语行为的类型：言语行为的类型①言内行为—-指说话这一行为本身。
这是一个“以言表意”的行为.②言外行为——指用说话来体现发话者的意图.这是一个“以言行事行为”(1）退休工人老张昨天去世了。
（告诉了受话者一个事实 )（2）请把茶杯递给我,好吗?（向受话者发出一个请求）（3)你再敢说这种话，我绝饶不了你！(警告或威胁了受话者）（4）对不起，我来晚了. （向受话者道了歉）③言后行为-—指话语所带来的后果.这是一个“以言取效”的行为。
例如：（1）我明天会来的.（2)哥哥，你不要这样。
人家是好心好意来安慰我们. （《雷雨》）5会话原则:美国哲学家保罗。
格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。
他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。
语用学概论知识点总结
语用学概论知识点总结语用学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，研究语言在特定语境中的使用和理解。
语用学主要关注语言的交际功能，研究语言的使用方式、用语者的意图和言语行为等方面。
在日常生活中，语言的使用涉及到很多细节和差异，语用学的研究可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用语言。
一、语用学的基本概念1. 语言的交际功能语言不仅仅是一种工具，它更是人们进行交际的重要方式。
语用学研究的重点就是语言在交际过程中的使用和理解。
2. 语用言语行为语用言语行为是指用语者在言语行为中所包含的具体交际目的和意图。
通过语用学研究，可以揭示用语者的意图，帮助我们更好地理解言语行为。
3. 语境的重要性语用学强调语境对语言使用和理解的重要性。
语境包括语境的环境、参与者的身份、前后文的内容等多个方面，对语言的使用产生着重要影响。
4. 言外之意言外之意是指言语中不直接表达的含义和信息，它可能依赖于语境、用语者的意图等多种因素。
二、语用学的研究内容1. 语用能力语用能力是指语用者在语言交际中的能力，包括语言的适应能力、交际策略的运用等方面。
语用能力的高低直接关系到语言交际的效果和质量。
2. 言语行为的分类言语行为可以根据其所包含的交际目的和意图而分类，如陈述、疑问、命令、祝愿等。
3. 言语行为与语用规则语用规则是指语言交际中的一些约定俗成的规则，如礼貌用语、语用禁忌等。
语用规则对交际的顺利进行起着重要的作用。
4. 言语行为的承受能力言语行为的承受能力是指用语者对言语行为的接受程度和态度。
不同的文化和人群对于言语行为的承受能力可能有所不同。
三、语用学的相关理论1. 言语行为理论言语行为理论是语用学中的一个重要理论，强调言语行为的目的和意图，将言语行为看作是一种特殊的行为活动。
2. 言语行为的演化理论言语行为的演化理论是指言语行为的发展和演变过程。
语言交际在不同历史时期和文化环境中有着不同的使用方式和规则，言语行为的演化理论可以帮助我们更好地理解这种规律。
语言学语用学知识点
语言学语用学知识点1. 概述语言学是研究语言的科学，而语用学是语言学的一个分支领域，关注语言在社会交际中的使用和理解。
本文将介绍语言学语用学的主要知识点，包括交际意图、言辞行为、场景适应、语用推理和言语间关系等。
2. 交际意图交际意图是指说话人使用语言表达时的意图和目的。
在语用学中，我们常常会分析说话人的交际意图，以理解他们使用特定语言表达的含义和目的。
交际意图可以通过直接问句、反话、暗示等方式来实现。
通过研究交际意图，我们能够更好地理解语言在社会交际中的功能和作用。
3. 言辞行为言辞行为是指说话人通过语言所实现的特定行为。
根据语用学的观点，说话人的语言使用不仅仅是传递信息，还包含着言辞行为。
例如，当我们说“请帮我关一下窗户”时，实际上是在表达一个请求行为。
言辞行为可以分为直陈陈述、承诺、威胁、命令等不同类型。
4. 场景适应场景适应是指说话人根据语境和交际环境来选择合适的语言表达方式。
语境包括时间、地点、参与者身份等因素，而交际环境则涉及到社会文化和情境。
在语言交际中，我们需要根据具体的场景适应自己的语言选择和表达方式，以确保对方能够准确理解我们的意思。
5. 语用推理语用推理是指我们通过语境和常识对言语进行的推理和理解。
在语用学中，我们意识到语言表达的含义不仅仅取决于字面意思，还需要通过推理来理解隐含的意思。
通过语用推理，我们能够更好地解读他人的言辞，准确理解对方的意图和目的。
6. 言语间关系言语间关系是指多个句子或言语之间的关联和衔接。
在交际过程中，说话人通常会使用多个句子或言语来表达连续的思想和意思。
通过理解这些句子或言语之间的关系，我们可以更好地理解对方的观点和意图。
言语间关系包括因果关系、对比关系、条件关系等。
结语通过学习语言学语用学的知识点，我们能够更好地理解语言的使用和理解。
掌握语用学的理论和方法，可以帮助我们更准确地理解他人的意思，有效地进行社会交际。
希望本文能够为读者提供有关语言学语用学的基础知识，并对相关研究领域产生兴趣。
语用学期末复习
1、语用学术语的提出：1938年，美国哲学家莫里斯首先提出。
符号学包括句法学（研究符号和语义之间的形式关系）、语义学（研究符号与其对象的关系）、语用学（研究符号与解释者的关系）。
2、语用学的发展：1）语言哲学家巴尔—希勒尔于1954年提出语用学的具体研究对象是指引词语。
2）英国哲学家奥斯汀于1955年在哈佛大学做了题为《论言有所为》，提出“言语行为理论”。
3）美国语言哲学家格莱斯提出“会话含义理论”以及“合作原则”。
4）1977年，《语用学杂志》在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行，这是语用学作为语言学一门独立的新学科得到承认的标志。
5）1983年出版了语用学的两本优秀教材：列文森《语用学》、利奇《语用学原则》。
6）1986年，国际语用学学会在荷兰成立，并决定把《语用学杂志》作为学术刊物。
3、语用学的定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当表达和准确理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当表达和准确理解的基本原则和准则。
4、语用学和语言学其他分支学科的关系：p95、语用学的研究方法：纯语用学、描写语用学、应用语用学。
6、“语境”是波兰人类语言学家马林诺夫斯基提出的。
7、陈望道在1932年出版的《修辞学发凡》中说：“修辞学以适应题旨情境为第一义，不应该是仅仅语辞的修饰，更不应是离开情意的修饰”。
“六何说”：何故、何事、何人、何地、何时、何如。
8、语境是人们运用自然语言进行语言交际的语言环境。
索振羽的划分p219、语境意义是在特定语境条件下，说话人希望传递的交际信息。
10、指示词语的组织形式：（自我—说话人为中心）1）中心人物是说话人；2）中心时间是说话人说话的时间；3）中心地点是说话人说话时所处的地点；4）语篇中心是一句话中说话人当时正说到的部位；5）社交中心是说话人相当于说话对象的社会地位。
11、指示词语的不同用法：1）指示用法：A、身势用法：指示词语只有借助对言语事件的实在的听觉、视觉、触觉才能理解。
B、象征用法：只需要知道言语事件的基本空间参数就可以理解。
(完整word版)语用学期末复习
1、语用学术语的提出：1938年，美国哲学家莫里斯首先提出。
符号学包括句法学（研究符号和语义之间的形式关系）、语义学(研究符号与其对象的关系）、语用学（研究符号与解释者的关系）。
2、语用学的发展：1）语言哲学家巴尔-希勒尔于1954年提出语用学的具体研究对象是指引词语。
2）英国哲学家奥斯汀于1955年在哈佛大学做了题为《论言有所为》,提出“言语行为理论”。
3）美国语言哲学家格莱斯提出“会话含义理论"以及“合作原则"。
4）1977年,《语用学杂志》在荷兰的阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行，这是语用学作为语言学一门独立的新学科得到承认的标志.5）1983年出版了语用学的两本优秀教材：列文森《语用学》、利奇《语用学原则》。
6）1986年，国际语用学学会在荷兰成立，并决定把《语用学杂志》作为学术刊物.3、语用学的定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当表达和准确理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当表达和准确理解的基本原则和准则。
4、语用学和语言学其他分支学科的关系:p95、语用学的研究方法：纯语用学、描写语用学、应用语用学。
6、“语境”是波兰人类语言学家马林诺夫斯基提出的。
7、陈望道在1932年出版的《修辞学发凡》中说：“修辞学以适应题旨情境为第一义，不应该是仅仅语辞的修饰，更不应是离开情意的修饰”。
“六何说”：何故、何事、何人、何地、何时、何如。
8、语境是人们运用自然语言进行语言交际的语言环境.索振羽的划分p219、语境意义是在特定语境条件下,说话人希望传递的交际信息.10、指示词语的组织形式：（自我—说话人为中心)1)中心人物是说话人；2）中心时间是说话人说话的时间;3)中心地点是说话人说话时所处的地点；4）语篇中心是一句话中说话人当时正说到的部位;5）社交中心是说话人相当于说话对象的社会地位。
11、指示词语的不同用法：1)指示用法：A、身势用法：指示词语只有借助对言语事件的实在的听觉、视觉、触觉才能理解。
完整版新编语用学教程课后答案
In troductio n [check your un dersta nding]1. f Syn tax and sema ntics each have their own stre ngths.2. f Pragmatics is also in terested in how Ian guage use affects the Ian guage system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK(1) Yes, he ' s coming.⑵ Yes. [No, he isn ' t comi ng](3) His kno wledge about whether Pat likes cog nitive lin guistics or not.2.(1) a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as aninanimate object can ' t play a human being (John).c. It is a case oftautology that conv eys no new in formati on.d. “Idea ” doesn ' t have color and can ' t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn' t make sense.(2) a. it can be used for com muni cati on in a con text where Joh n shares somepers on ality with Hitler.b. whe n Joh n is a poor player of golf.c. in a con text where a certa in boy has done someth ing wrong (out of n aught in ess).(3) whe n the sentence is used in poetry to pers on alize the word "idea".2. (1) a. In an entrance of a park.b. I n the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infantdiapers.3. (1) Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly (and the implicit request for them to stop talking).(2) By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “ my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite to listen to other people ' private conversation, it is normal that hear a word“(tIh”us cthaen ' t couple can continue their talk).4. (1) This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.(2)讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰。
《语用学》复习提纲·补充
本次考试共四种题型：填空题、名词解释、简答题、应用题填空题：（举例如：）（每空1分，共10分）1.语用学源于哲学家对语言的探索。
“语用学”这一术语是由美国哲学家（莫里斯）于1938年首先提出的。
2. 1977年，( 《语用学杂志》)在荷兰正式出版发行，“语用学成为语言学的一门独立新兴学科”最终得到认可。
名词解释：（每个4分，共20分）语用学语境指示词语隐性施为句优选结构预示序列会话含义直接言语行为间接言语行为分支系列预设触发语话轮话轮对1、语用学定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当表达和准确理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当表达和准确理解的基本原则和准则。
2、语境定义：语境是人们运用自然语言进行交际的言语环境。
这个定义指明：a我们研究的是运用自然语言进行的言语交际； b言语交际有成效地进行（即说话人恰当地表达话语意义和听话人准确地理解话语意义）必须依赖言语环境。
因此我们认为，“语境”是指言语环境，而非语言环境。
3、指示系统：人们典型的交际方式是面对面交谈，即由一人对一人或由一人对多人，通过说—听的方式进行交谈。
在面对面的交谈中，指示系统，一般地说，是以自我（说话人）为中心组织起来的。
4、隐性施为句：人们在言语交际中实际上更经常使用一些不那么明确、不那么特定的语言手段来实施某种行为。
5、优选结构：相邻对中所有可能跟始发语配对的应答语并不具有同等地位，有一组优选结构在起作用，即各种可能的应答语中至少有一类是“合意的”（即听话人的应答能满足说话人发话的期待），有一类是“不合意的”（即听话人的应答不是说话人所期待的）。
合意的应答语是无标记的——在结构上以较简单的一轮话出现。
而不合意的应答语是有标记的——在结构上有各种复杂的形式。
6、预示序列：说话人在以言行事之前用以探听虚实的一类话语。
说话人使用这类话语的主要动机是考察有无向听话人实施某一言语行为的可能性，即说话人实施某一言语行为能否从听话人那里得到“期待的”反应。
英语专业语用学期末考试复习整理汇总
Chapter 21.Deictic expression/ indexical : deixis is a technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. For example, when you notice a strange object and ask, “What’s that?”, you are using a deictic expression “that ” to indicate something in the immediate context.2.Person deixis: forms used to indicate some people, eg, me you.3.Spatial deixis: forms used to point to location, eg. Here there.4.Temporal deixis: forms used to point to location in time, eg, now then.5.Proximal terms: indicate near speaker, this here now. For example, “now”is generally understood as referring to some point or period in time that has the time of the speaker’s utterance at its center.6.Distal terms: indicate away from speaker, that there then.7.Deictic center: the speaker’s location/ time.8.Honorifics: expressions which indicate higher status.9.T/V distinction: the distinction between forms used for a familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. For example, tu familiar vous non-familiar.10.Deictic projection: speakers acting as if they are somewhere else. Fro example, speakers may project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in those locations, as when they say”I will come later.”11.Psychological distance: speaker’s marking of how close or distant something is perceived to be. For example, a speaker may wish to mark something that is physically close (for example, a perfume being sniffed by the speaker) as psychologically distant “I don’t like that”.Chapter 41.Presupposition：a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. For example, in producing the utterance “Mary’s brother bought three horses.”, the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions that a person called Mary exists and that she has a brother.2.Entailment:an entailment is something that logically follows form what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments. For example, the sentence “Mary’s brother bought three horses”will be treated as having the entailments that Mary’s brother bought something, bought three animals, bought two horses, bought one horse, and many other similar logical consequences.3.Constancy under negation:it means that the presupposition of a sentence will remain constant even when that statement is negated. For example, when “Everybody knows that John is gay” is negated as in “Everybody doesn’t know that John is gay”, the presupposition that “John is gay ” is still true.4.Potential presupposition:an assumption typically associated with use of a linguistic form, eg. The use of the verb “regret” in “He regrets doing that” carries an assumption that he actually “did that”.5.Existential presupposition: an assumption that someone or something, identifiedby use of a noun phrase, does exist. For example, the noun phrase “your car” assumes the presupposition that “you have a car”.6.Factive presupposition: the assumption that information stated after certain words, eg, “know”“regret”, is true. For example, the utterance that “I’m glad that it’s over”assumes the truth that “It’s over”.7.Lexical presupposition: the assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning will be understood. For example, each time you say that someone “managed”to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way.8.Structural presupposition: the assumption that part of a structure contained information being treated as already known. For example, the wh-question construction like “when did he leave?”, is interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh-form, “he left”, is already known to be the case.9.Non-factive presupposition:the assumption that certain information, like that associated with verbs “dream”, “imagine”and “pretend”, is not true. For example, when you say”I dreamed that I was rich”, the presupposition is that what follows the word “dreamed” is not true. That is “I was not rich.”10.Counter-factive presupposition:the assumption that certain information is the opposite of true. For example, a conditional clause like “If I had a car” presents the truth that I don’t have a car.11.Projection problem:the meaning of some presuppositions (as parts) doesn’t survive to become the meaning of some complex sentences (as wholes). For example, the presupposition “Kelly was ill”is assumed to be true in the simple structure “Nobody realized that Kelly was ill”. But it is not true in the complex structure that “I imagined that Kelly was ill and nobody realized that she was ill”.12.Background entailments: all logical consequence of an utterance. For example, the background entailments of “Rover chased three dogs” can be “something chased three dogs”, “Rover did something to three dogs”, or “Rover chased three of something” and so on.13.Foreground entailment: the main logical consequence of an utterance. For example, when Rover is the focus of the utterance “Rover chased three dogs”, the main assumption is that something chased three dogs.Chapter 51.Tautology: an apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself, eg. Business is business.2.Implicature/ Conversational implicature: an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, eg. If someone says “The President is a mouse ”, something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.3.Cooperative principle: a basic assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the current exchange of talk.Four sub-principles of the cooperative principle are called maxims:Quantity(1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).(2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)do not say what you believe to be false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevantMannerBe perspicuous.(1)avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).(4)Be orderly.4.HedgesCertain kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principles.Show speakers be cautious of the ...maximQuality: as far as I know I may be mistaken I’m not sure I guessQuantity: as you probably know to cut a long story short I won’t bore you with all the detailsRelation: I don’t know if this is important, but this may sound like a dumb question, butManner: this may be a bit confused, but I’m not sure if this makes sense I don’t know if this is clear at all.5.Generalized conversational implicature:an additional unstated meaning that does not depend on special or local knowledge. For example, phrases like a/an X are typically interpreted according to the generalized conversational implicature that: an X +> not speaker’s X6.Scalar implicature: an additional meaning of the negative of any value higher on the scale than the one uttered, e.g. In saying “some children”, I create an implicature that what I say does not apply to “all children”.7.Particularized conversational implicature:an additional unstated meaning that depends on special or local knowledge. For example, here is a dialogue. Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight ? Tom: My parents are visiting. In order to make Tom’s response relevant, Rick has to draw on some assumed knowledge that one college student in this setting expects another to have. Tom will be spending that evening with his parents, and time spent with parents is quiet (consequently +> Tom not at party).8.Conventional implicature: as additional unstated meaning associated with the use of a specific word, e.g. “A but B” implies a contrast between A and B, so “contrast” is a conventional implicature of “but”.Chapter 61.Speech act: an action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.2.Speech event: a set of circumstances in which people interact in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome.3.On any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.Locutionary act:the basic act of utterance or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. If you have difficulty with actually forming the sounds and words to create a meaningful utterance in a language(for example,because it’s foreign or you are tongue-tied ), you might fail to produce a locutionary act.Illocutionary act/ force: the communicative force of an utterance. For example, we might utter “I’ve just made some coffee.”to make a statement, an offer, an explanation or for some other communicative purpose.Perlocutionary act/ effect: the effect of an utterance used to perform a speech act. For example, you will utter “I have just made some coffee” on the assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect you intended (for example, to account for a wonderful smell, or to get the hearer to drink some coffee).4.IFIDs illocutionary force indicating device: indication in the speaker’s utterance of the communicative force of that utterance. It is an expression where there is a slot for a performative verb that explicitly names the illocutionary act being performed. Like I promise you that I will see you later. Other IFIDs which can be identified are word order, stress and intonation.5.Performative verb: a verb that explicitly names the speech act, e.g. The verb “promise” in the utterance “I promise to be there”.6.Felicity conditions: the appropriate conditions for a speech act to be recognized as intended. For some clear cases, the performance will be infelicitous if the speaker is not a specific person in a special context. General conditions:preconditions on performing a speech act. For example, participants can understand the language being used and that they are not play-acting or being nonsensical. Content conditions: in order to count as a particular type of speech act, an utterance must contain certain features, e.g. A promise must be a future event. Preparatory conditions: specific requirements prior to an utterance in order for it to count as a particular speech act. For example, when I promise to do something, there are two preparatory conditions: the event will not happen by itself; the event will have a beneficial effect. Sincerity conditions:requirements on the genuine intentions of a speaker in order for an utterance to count as a particular speech act. For example, for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action. Essential condition: in performing a speech act, a requirement that the utterance commits the speaker to the act performed. For example, by the act of uttering a promise, I thereby intend to create an obligation to carry out the action as promised.7.Performative hypothesis: a proposal that, underlying every utterance, there is a clause with a verb that identifies the speech act. The basic format is I (hereby) Vp you(that) UExplicit performative: a speech act containing a performative verb.I hereby order you that you clean up this mess.Implicit performative:a speech act without a performative verb. Clean up this mess!8.Speech act classificationOne general classification system lists five types of general functions performed by speech acts: declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives.Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.E.g. A judge pronouncing a sentence.Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not, like assertions, conclusions, and descriptions. The speaker makes words fit the world of belief. For example, the earth is flat.Expresssives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels, like statements of pleasure,likes, pain,joy and so on. The speaker makes words fit the world of feeling. For example, I’m really sorry!Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something, like commands, requests, orders, suggestions and so on. The speaker attempts to make the world fit the words via the hearer. For example, gimme a cup of coffee.Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action, like promises, threats, refusals and so on. The speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words via the speaker.9.Direct speech act: speech act where a direct relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. Using an interrogative form (can you....?) to ask a question.10.Indirect speech act: speech act where an indirect relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. The use of an interrogative (can you...?) not to ask a question, but to make a request (can you help me with this?) Chapter 71.Face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.2.Politeness in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face.3.Face wants: a person’s expectations that their public self-image will be respected.4.FTA/Face threatening acts: utterance or action which threatens a person’s public self-image.5.Face saving act: utterance or action which avoids a potential threat to a person’s public self-image. For example, I’m going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now! Perhaps you could just ask him if he is going to stop soon because it is getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep.6.Negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not tobe imposed on by others.7.Positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others. 8.Negative politeness: a face saving act which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the other’s time or concerns.9.Positive politeness: a face saving act which is concerned with the person’s positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing, and that they have a common goal.10.Off record: utterances not directly addressed to another.11.On record: utterances directly addressed to another.12.Bald on record: utterances, e.g. Orders, directly addressed to another where the illocutionary force is made explicit. For example, lend me your pen.13.Mitigating devices is expressions used to soften an imposition, eg please, would you.14.A positive politeness strategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship, via expressions like “How about letting me use your pen?”15.A negative politeness strategy is an attempt to demonstrate awareness of another’s rights not to be imposed on. Like could you lend me a pen?16.Solidarity strategy is the tendency to use positive politeness forms, emphasizing closeness between speaker and hearer. Eg. Come on, let’s go to the party. Everyone will be there. We will have fun.17.Deference strategy is the tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearer’s right to freedom. Eg. There’s going to be a party, if you can make it, it will be fun.18.Pre-sequencesOne way of avoiding risk of threatening others’ face is to provide an opportunity for the other to halt the potentially risky act.Pre-request: utterance before a request to check if a request can be made. Eg. Are you busy? Not really. Check over this memo. Okay.Pre-invitation: utterance before an invitation to check if an invitation can be made. Eg. Are you doing anything later? Oh, yeah, busy busy. Oh, okay.Pre-announcement: utterance before an announcement to check if an announcement can be made. Eg. Mom, guess what happened? Silence. Mom, you know what? Not right now, Jacy, I’m busy.(stop).。
语用学教程期末复习资料修改版
语用学教程一、绪论〔填空〕1.1938年美国哲学家莫里斯首先提出了“语用学〞这个术语，他于?符号理论根底?一书中，提出了符号学包括三个局部：句法学、语义学和语用学。
句法学：研究符号之间的形式关系。
语义学：研究符号及其所指对象的关系。
语用学：研究符号和解释者的关系。
1939年，于?美学和符号理论?一书中，将“解释者〞改为“使用者〞。
2.1954年，巴尔希勒尔提出语用学的具体研究对象是指引词语〔指示词〕。
3.1955年，英国哲学家奥斯汀在哈弗大学?论言有所为?系列演讲中提出“言语行为理论〞。
4.美国语言哲学家塞尔于1969年出版?言语行为?、1975年出版?间接言语行为?，至此，“言语行为理论〞成为语用学研究的重要内容之一。
5.1975年，格赖斯提出了“会话含义理论〞以及“合作原那么〞及其包括的四条准那么：量准那么、质准那么、关系准那么和方式准那么。
6.1977年，?语用学杂志?在荷兰阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行是语用学成为语言学的一门独立学科的新学科得到成认的标志。
7.80年代，语用学得到进一步完善的具体表现：列文森的?语用学?〔堪称第一本比较系统、完整的语用学教科书〕和利奇的?语用学原那么?〔优秀的语用学教材〕的出版。
〔二者代表了80年代出语用学研究的最高水平〕8.1986年，国际语用学学会成立，并把?语用学杂志?和?语用学和其他学科?作为学会的学术刊物。
9.1987年，列文森提出“新格莱斯会话含义理论〞。
10.现代语言学的奠基人是索绪尔〔区分语言和言语、区分内部要素和外部要素、区分共时状态和历时演变〕。
索绪尔的语言和言语理论开创了20世纪的语言学。
结构主义语言学的几个主要学派：哥本哈根学派、布拉格学派、美国描写语言学派、乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论，使语言分析高度形式化。
11.1966年在波兰召开“国际语义学讨论会〞。
12.从结构主义到转换生成语法，存在两大明显的缺陷：无视语言运用研究。
语义研究薄弱。
语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第八章语言的使用复习笔记I.语用学1．定义语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
2．语用学和语义学的区别虽然语用学和语义学都是研究语言意义的学科，但是它们有着很大的差别：语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，而语义学研究的是句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
II.言语行为理论言语行为理论是牛津大学哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。
它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。
1．施为句和叙事句奥斯汀提出自己理论的第一步是把句子分成两类：施为句和叙事句。
它们不能应用于传统的真值判断方法。
因此，他对施为句和叙事句作了区分。
(1)定义施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
(2)合适条件虽然施为句没有真假，但必须满足一定条件才是合适的。
我们把奥斯汀的合适条件简化如下：①必须有一个相应的规约程序，并且相关的参与者与环境是合适的。
②该程序必须正确全面地得到执行。
③有关人必须有相关的思想、感情和意图，而且必须有相关的后续行为。
但是奥斯汀很快就认识到，这些条件只适用于部分情况。
2．行事行为理论后来，奥斯汀放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句所做的区分。
他建立了另一种模式来解释如何通过语言实施行为。
根据这种新的模式，说话人说话时可以完成三种行为：发话行为，行事行为和取效行为。
发话行为是说出词、短语、分句的行为，是通过句法、词汇和音位手段表达字面意义的行为。
行事行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中所完成的行为。
取效行为是通过说话完成或通过说话所产生的行为，是由话语所带来的结果和变化。
在上述三种言语行为中，语言学家最感兴趣的是行事行为，因为这种言语行为与说话人的意图一致。
在研究语言交际时，语言学家最感兴趣的是说话人如何表达他的意图和听话人如何识别说话人的意图。
语言学-期末考试-复习材料
语言学-期末考试-复习材料一、选择（20个）二、判断（10~20个）三、填空（5分）四、词语解释（3个，各5分）五、简答（2个，各10分；其中一个是语用学）六、句子分析（4个）IC analysis 是倒着的树形图Chomsky 是有S, NP,VP…与其中的树形图。
1. Phonetics & Language Introduction:1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is __B____one of the design features of language.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is __B__ . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement3. __C___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement4. ___D__ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn?t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement5. ___D___ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission6. ___C___ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission7. To say “How are you. ”“Hi”to your friends is the ___C____of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic function (adj. 交流感情/交际应酬的)D. interrogative function8. “Tell me the result when you finish.”If you want to get your hearer to do something, you should use the ___B__ function of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _____.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. natural C. abnormal10. A linguist is interested in _______.A. speech sounds onlyB. all soundsC. vowels only C. consonants only11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [t]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate?A. [y]B. [t∫]C. [z]D. [dЗ]13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel?A. [ ? ]B. [ i ]D. [a: ]14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ?A. [ s ]B. [∫]C. [ l ]D. [θ]15. In the following sounds , ______ is a voiceless affricative ?A. [dЗ]B. [ v ]C. [t∫]D. [θ]16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel17. Of the “words”listed below, _____ is not an English word ?A. [r∧b ]B. [ l? b ]C. [m?sta:∫]D. [lm?p]18. _____ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released.A. Back vowelsB. StopsC. Fricatives C. Glides19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in ______.B. 1957C. 1888D. 178820. ____ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. PhoneB. PhonemeC. AllophoneD. SoundII. Tell which statements are true or false.1. [ f ] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methodsfor their description, classification and transcription.3. Phoneme is a phonological unit.4. Phone is a phonetic unit.5. When we study the different [ p ]’s in “[ pit ], [tip ], [spit ]”, they are similarphones which belong to phonetics.6. But the three [ p ] belong to the different phoneme / p /.7. The three / p / are allophones.8. ‘peak’is aspirated , phonetically transcribed as [ph]; ‘speak’isunaspirated （不送气的）phonetically[ p=].9. [ph ], [p=] do not belong to the same phoneme / p /.10. [p h] and [ p=] are two different phones, and are variants of the phoneme / p /,which is called ALLOPHONES of the same phoneme.key: BACDD CCACA DDABC DDBCB FFTTT FTTFTI. Choose the best choice(语音)1. Which is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]2. Which is a voiceless affricate?A. [w]B. [f]C. [t∫]D. [n]3. Which is monophothong?A. [i]B. [au]C. [ai]D. [ei]4. Which is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]5. Which is a voiced affricate?A. [j]B. [z]C. [t∫]D. [dЗ]6. Which is a central vowel ?A. [i]B. [?:]C. [ou]D. [a:]7. In English if a word begins with [l] or [r] , then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel8. Which is a palatal fricative?A. [s]B. [k]C. [∫]D. [l]9. Which is not a English word?A. [r ?b]B. [l?b]C. [sta:∫]D. [ lm?p]10. Which is a unaspirate?A. skyB. killC. likeD. kite2. Semantics 练习1._______ is not included in Leech?s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning2. Among Leech?s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it refers to _______.A. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic3. According to the referential theory, a word is not directly related to the thing it refers to. They are connected by ______.A. meaningB. referenceC. conceptD. sense4.”Big” and “Small” are a pair of ______ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. Converse5. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ______.A. gradable opposites B, converse opposites C. co-hyponymsD. synonyms6. A word with several meaning is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple7. The semantic compone nts of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as ___.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultA. +animate, -male, +human, -adult D. + animate, -male, +human, +adult8. _____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of themeaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym9. In the triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards, “thought or reference” is____A. word, sentenceB. the objectC. conceptD. symbol10. A linguistic is interested in _____.A. What is said.B. What is right both in syntax and in semantics.C. What is grammaticalD. What ought to be said.11. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hyponyms12. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. Lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words13. What is t he meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip” ?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy14. The words “railway” and “railroad” are _____.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synomyms differing in styles15. The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called____.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites16. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementaries?A. single/marriesB. lend/borrowC. hot/coldD. old/youngDACBB _BBBB BACBA AII. Answer the questions with “Yes”or “No” .1.Is reference tied to a particular time and place? Y2.Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world. ?N3.Can different expressions have the same referent? Y4.Can reference be applied to words such as “and” ,”very” in English? NIII.State the following sentences “True” or “False”.1. Sense is regarded as a kind of intra-linguistic relationship. T2. In most cases, “sense” and “meaning” are different terms for the same thing. T3. Every word has its own sense. F4. A word may have several different senses and several words may have the samesense. T5. Extension, like denotation, is a kind of relation between elements and theobjective world. T6. Extension can only be applied to the things at present. F7. The relation between extension and intension is the same as that betweendenotation and sense. T8. People of different cultures may choose different prototype for the same predicate,e.g. …bus?. T9. All the words in a language can be used to refer , but only some have sense. F10. Two synonymous words must be identical in sense in every dimension. F11. There are very few perfect synonyms in a language. T12. Entailment is more inclusive than paraphrase. T13. Almost every word in a dictionary is polysemic. T14. Dry and wet are a pair of gradable antonyms. T15. Innocent and guilt are a pair of relative antonyms. F Complementary16. The relationship between the Argument and Predicate is Subject to predicate.F17. The meaning of each expression can be defined in terms of its semanticcomponents so as to contrast with the meaning of all the expressions in the same language. T18. The proposition of a sentence may be more simply stated as a verb and a selection of case ---categories. T19. According to case grammar, the part of proposition in a sentence is a tensed set of relationships between a verb and a noun phrase ( or noun phrases).4. Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher?s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme” “Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。
语言学-期末复习资料-整理版
语言学-期末复习资料-整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言language$Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性￥Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophisticationand it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send."⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal u ser’s knowledge of the rules of his langu age.。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
英语专业语言学期末复习资料Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical development/doc/1618092964.html,ngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework/doc/1618092964.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic units/doc/1618092964.html,bine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially therelationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doe sn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is a unit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “di s-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaning /doc/1618092964.html,pounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loanwords (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct linkbetween a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语):I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing thespeaker’s intention; it i s the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classificati on of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: /doc/1618092964.html,ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation 继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some futurecourse of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to someth ing’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing t he speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__,__adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
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语用学教程一、绪论（填空）1.1938年美国哲学家莫里斯首先提出了“语用学”这个术语，他于《符号理论基础》一书中，提出了符号学包括三个部分：句法学、语义学和语用学。
句法学：研究符号之间的形式关系。
语义学：研究符号及其所指对象的关系。
语用学：研究符号和解释者的关系。
1939年，于《美学和符号理论》一书中，将“解释者”改为“使用者”。
2.1954年，巴尔希勒尔提出语用学的具体研究对象是指引词语（指示词）。
3.1955年，英国哲学家奥斯汀在哈弗大学《论言有所为》系列演讲中提出“言语行为理论”。
4.美国语言哲学家塞尔于1969年出版《言语行为》、1975年出版《间接言语行为》，至此，“言语行为理论”成为语用学研究的重要内容之一。
5.1975年，格赖斯提出了“会话含义理论”以及“合作原则”及其包括的四条准则：量准则、质准则、关系准则和方式准则。
6.1977年，《语用学杂志》在荷兰阿姆斯特丹正式出版发行是语用学成为语言学的一门独立学科的新学科得到承认的标志。
7.80年代，语用学得到进一步完善的具体表现：列文森的《语用学》（堪称第一本比较系统、完整的语用学教科书）和利奇的《语用学原则》（优秀的语用学教材）的出版。
（二者代表了80年代出语用学研究的最高水平）8.1986年，国际语用学学会成立，并把《语用学杂志》和《语用学和其他学科》作为学会的学术刊物。
9.1987年，列文森提出“新格莱斯会话含义理论”。
10.现代语言学的奠基人是索绪尔（区分语言和言语、区分内部要素和外部要素、区分共时状态和历时演变）。
索绪尔的语言和言语理论开创了20世纪的语言学。
结构主义语言学的几个主要学派：哥本哈根学派、布拉格学派、美国描写语言学派、乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论，使语言分析高度形式化。
11.1966年在波兰召开“国际语义学讨论会”。
12.从结构主义到转换生成语法，存在两大明显的缺陷：忽视语言运用研究。
语义研究薄弱。
13.现代汉语最显著的特点是：从以词为中心的语义研究（词学）扩展到句子意义的研究和话语意义和语篇意义的研究。
14.利奇指出：关于语义学和语用学之间的关系的争论可以概括为三种逻辑完全不同的观点：①语用学应该归入语义学。
②语义学应该归入语用学。
③语义学和语用学是互不相同但又互相补充的研究领域。
15.语用学的定义：列文森在《语用学》一书中谈到了了9个定义（见书10-13），语用学的新定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。
16.语用学的研究方法：纯语用学、描写语用学、应用语用学。
17.语用学的研究内容包括六个方面：语境、指示词语、会话含义、预设、言语行为、会话结构。
二、语境（注意掌握：语境的名词解释和国内外的研究成果、一句话在不同语境中的不同含义）1.1923年波兰籍人类语言学家马琳诺夫斯基提出“语境”这一术语，把语境分为文化语境和情景语境。
文化语境：指说话人生活于其中的社会文化背景情景语境：指言语行为发生时的具体情境2.“伦敦学派”的创始人弗斯创立了比较完整的语境理论。
把语境分为上下文语境（由语言因素构成）、情景上下文语境（由非语言因素构成：参与者的有关特征、有关事物、言语行为的效果）3.韩礼德在语境的基础上提出了“语域”（1964）术语，并把“语域”分为三个方面：话语的范围：即言语活动涉及的范围，如：政治、文艺、科技、日常生活等话语的方式：即言语活动的媒介，如：口头方式、书面方式话语的风格：指交际者的地位、身份、关系等。
4.美国社会语言学家海姆斯进一步发展了语境学说，他把语境归纳为八个部分：话语的形式和内容、背景、参与者、目的、音调、媒介、风格和相互作用的规范。
5.英国语言学家莱昂斯于1977年在论述话语的合适性时归纳出构成语境的六个方面的知识：①每个参与者必须知道自己在整个语言活动中所起的作用和所处的地位②每个参与者必须知道语言活动发生的时间和空间。
③每个参与者必须能明辩语言活动情景的正式程度。
④每个参与者必须知道对特定情景来说，什么是合适的交际媒介。
⑤每个参与者必须知道怎样使自己的话语适合语言活动的话题，以及话题对选定方言或选定语言（在双语或多语社会中）的重要性。
⑥每个参与者必须知道怎样使自己的话适合情景所归属的语域。
孔颖达在《春秋大传正义》即“数句”是“一字”的语境。
刘勰《文心雕龙》从字、句、章、篇的互相关系来说明上下文（语境）对话语意义的表达和理解的重要作用。
6.陈望道在1932年出版的《修辞学发凡》提出了“六何”说，即：“何故”、“何事”、“何人”、“何地”、“何时”、“何如”，这六何说构成了语境的基本要素。
7.语境的定义：语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。
这个定义指明：①我们研究的是运用自然语言（而不是人工语言）进行的言语交际；②言语交际有成效地进行（即说话人恰当地表达话语意义和听话人准确地理解话语意义）必须依赖言语环境。
因此，我们认为“语境”是指言语环境，而不是语言环境。
语境包括：①上下文语境（口语的前沿后语、书面语的上下文）②情景语境（客观因素：时间、地点、话题、场合主观因素：交际参与者（身份、职业、思想教养、心态）③民族文化传统语境（历史文化背景、社会规范和习俗、价值观）。
8.研究语境的理论意义和使用价值：①修辞学中，语境起着重要作用②语义学、语篇学、社会语言学、功能语言学、心理语言学等语言学的学科，都重视研究语境。
③语用学，尤其重视语境。
④研究语境对语言教学，如教学法有重要作用。
9.语境的作用：（1）从说话人角度：①根据交际目的，确定说话的大体内容②根据交际场合，确定说话方式③根据交际条件，确定交际渠道（2）从听话人角度：①确定指称对象②消除歧义（3）③充实语义三、指示词语(注意指示词语的名词解释、指示词语的用法、常见指示词语)1.指示词语的语用含义：“dexis”这个术语来源于希腊语，原意为“指点或指明”，指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语。
2.语言哲学家巴尔希勒尔于1954年发表《指示词语》一文认定指示词语是语用学的研究对象，提出指示词语是指“在不知其使用语境时就无法确定其所指语义的指示词或指示句。
”3.现代英语中，离开了语境就无法确定其意义的词语是指：人称代词：I You指示代词：this that 定冠词：the 时间副词：now today yesterday tomorrow 等地点副词：here there等。
4.指示系统一般地说是以说话人为中心的方式组织起来的。
5.指示词语的指示中心一般是：①中心人物是说话人②中心时间是说话人说话的时间③中心地点是说话人说话时所处的地点④语篇中心是一句话中说话人当时正说到的部位⑤社交中心是说话人的相对于说话对象的社交地位6.指示词语的不同用法：（指示用法和非指示用法）指示词语是指主要用作指示的语言成分，但不可忽视指示词大多还有非指示的用法。
（1）菲尔默把指示词语的指示用法分为两种：身势用法和象征用法①身势用法的指示词语只需要知道言语事件的实在的听觉、视觉、触觉才能理解。
如“这是真货，这是假货”必须以看到这货为基础②象征用法的只是词语只需要知道言语事件的基本时间空间参数就可以理解。
如“这座城市真美”，只要你在北京，无论具体哪个位置，都可以知道“这座”指的北京。
（2）指示词语的非指示用法分为照应用法和非照应用法。
①照应用法：一个词语的所指对象跟前面的出现的别的词语的所指是同一对象。
如“约翰走进来，他点起了火”“约翰”与“他”是照应的。
②非照应用法如“我在那一天遇到了这么一个古怪的家伙”，“这么”无照应对象。
注意：一个指示词语可以同时用作指示和照应7.指示词语的分类：依据菲尔默的《指示词语讲义》和列文森《语用学》的归纳指示词语分为以下五类：①人称指示②时间指示③地点指示④语篇指示⑤社交指示（传统分法只有前三者）。
（1）人称指示（指交谈双方用话语传达信息时的相互称呼）人称指示的基本语法区别是第一人称、第二人称和第三人称。
在言语交际中说话人和听话人是不可缺少的，但第三人称可有可无。
如“我们去看电影吧”第一人称的复数形式有包括式和排除式之分，在普通话里，“咱们”是包括式，“我们”多为排除式。
在英语里，let us的缩略let’s只适用于us 作包括式理解。
（2）时间指示（指交谈双方用话语传递信息时提到的时间，在交际中，时间指示是以说话人在说话的那一刻作为参照来计算和理解的。
编码时间（CT）：指说话人将其想要传递的信息进行语言编码的时间接收时间（RT）：指听话人收到说话人所发出的信息的时间注意：英语里，today，tomorrow,yesterday这些指示词有“先用权”，即优先使用这些词之后就不能再用表示历法等绝对时间的词语指同一时间。
如“我星期四（thursday）见你”。
如果是在星期三说的，由于“tomorrow”有先用权，“thursday”就只能指下一个星期四了。
（3）地点指示（是指明言语事件中相对于指示中心的方位，人或物的空间的确定必须以其他的人或物为参照点）英语中，纯地点指示词常见的有：方位副词here(近指，靠近说话人的地方)\there（远指，远离说话人的地方）；指示代词：this、that表示地点指示的词：come、go礼貌的观点转移：即说话人不以自己为参照点，而把参照点转移到听话人所处的方位上去，以示礼貌。
如：I’m going变为I’m coming(4)语篇指示（即用词语指语篇的某一部分，而所用的词语就包含在这语篇的话语中。
）①用时间指示词语，如last,next,preceding,following等指示语篇的一部分②用地点指示词语，特别是指示代词this,that指示语篇的部分③在语篇中用来表示前后话语之间关系的一些词和短语。
（但是）（最后）如:“下一段，我将告诉你”“你一定没听过这个故事”（5）社交指示（社交指示指语言结构中能反映出语言使用者的身份和相处社会地位的那些词语和语法范畴。
）涉及一下三个方面：①言语交际参与者的身份②说话人和听话人之间相对的社会地位③说话人和所谈到的人（第三者）之间相对的社会地位。
四、会话含义（注意：什么是会话含义（名解），会话含义的分类，会话含义怎么推导）1.会话含义是美国语言哲学家格赖斯首先提出来的的，它是语用学的核心内容，在言语交际中起着非常重要的作用。
2.格赖斯于1957年《哲学评论》上发表《意义》一文，正式提出了“非自然意义理论”意义：自然意义、非自然意义非自然意义特征：S发出U，具有非自然意义，当且仅当：（i）S发出U，试图在H那儿引起某种效果Z（ii）通过H认可S的意图而使S的愿望不折不扣地实现。
S代表说话人；H代表听话人；U代表由语言符号构成的话语；Z粗略地代表在听话人那儿产生的信仰或意志力，或做出的反映。