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中英文对照资料INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICSSUMMARYAn analytical method is presented for analysis of slope stability involving cohesive and non-cohesive soils.Earthquake effects are considered in an approximate manner in terms of seismic coe$cient-dependent forces. Two kinds of failure surfaces areconsidered in this study: a planar failure surface, and a circular failure surface. The proposed method can be viewed as an extension of the method of slices, but it provides a more accurate etreatment of the forces because they are represented in an integral form. The factor of safety is obtained by using the minimization technique rather than by a trial and error approach used commonly.The factors of safety obtained by the analytical method are found to be in good agreement with those determined by the local minimum factor-of-safety, Bishop's, and the method of slices. The proposed method is straightforward, easy to use, and lesstime-consuming in locating the most critical slip surface and calculating the minimum factor of safety for a given slope. Copyright ( 1999) John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Key words: analytical method; slope stability; cohesive and non-cohesive soils; dynamic effect; planar failure surface; circular failure surface; minimization technique; factor-of-safety.INTRODUCTIONOne of the earliest analyses which is still used in many applications involving earth pressure was proposed by Coulomb in 1773. His solution approach for earth pressures against retaining walls used plane sliding surfaces, which was extended to analysis ofslopes in 1820 by Francais. By about 1840, experience with cuttings and embankments for railways and canals in England and France began to show that many failure surfaces in clay were not plane, but signi"cantly curved. In 1916, curved failure surfaces were again reported from the failure of quay structures in Sweden. In analyzing these failures, cylindrical surfaces were used and the sliding soil mass was divided into a number of vertical slices. The procedure is still sometimes referred to as the Swedish method of slices. By mid-1950s further attention was given to the methods of analysis using circular and non-circular sliding surfaces . In recent years, numerical methods have also been used in the slope stability analysis with the unprecedented development of computer hardware and software. Optimization techniques were used by Nguyen,10 and Chen and Shao. While finite element analyses have great potential for modelling field conditions realistically, they usually require signi"cant e!ort and cost that may not be justi"ed in some cases.The practice of dividing a sliding mass into a number of slices is still in use, and it forms the basis of many modern analyses.1,9 However, most of these methods use the sums of the terms for all slices which make the calculations involved in slope stability analysis a repetitive and laborious process.Locating the slip surface having the lowest factor of safety is an important part of analyzing a slope stability problem. A number of computer techniques have been developed to automate as much of this process as possible. Most computer programs use systematic changes in the position of the center of the circle and the length of the radius to find the critical circle.Unless there are geological controls that constrain the slip surface to a noncircular shape, it can be assumed with a reasonable certainty that the slip surface is circular.9 Spencer (1969) found that consideration of circular slip surfaces was as critical as logarithmic spiral slip surfaces for all practical purposes. Celestino and Duncan (1981), and Spencer (1981) found that, in analyses where the slip surface was allowed to take any shape, the critical slip surface found by the search was essentially circular. Chen (1970), Baker and Garber (1977), and Chen and Liu maintained that the critical slip surface is actually a log spiral. Chen and Liu12 developed semi-analytical solutions using variational calculus, for slope stability analysis with a logspiral failure surface in the coordinate system. Earthquake e!ects were approximated in terms of inertiaforces(vertical and horizontal) defined by the corresponding seismic coe$cients. Although this is one of the comprehensive and useful methods, use of /-coordinate system makes the solution procedure attainable but very complicated. Also, the solutions are obtained via numerical means at the end. Chen and Liu12 have listed many constraints, stemming from physical considerations that need to be taken into account when using their approach in analyzing a slope stability problem.The circular slip surfaces are employed for analysis of clayey slopes, within the framework of an analytical approach, in this study. The proposed method is morestraightforward and simpler than that developed by Chen and Liu. Earthquake effects are included in the analysis in an approximate manner within the general framework of static loading. It is acknowledged that earthquake effects might be better modeled by including accumulated displacements in the analysis. The planar slip surfaces are employed for analysis of sandy slopes. A closed-form expression for the factor of safety is developed, which is diferent from that developed by Das.STABILITY ANALYSIS CONDITIONS AND SOIL STRENGTHThere are two broad classes of soils. In coarse-grained cohesionless sands andgravels, the shear strength is directly proportional to the stress level:''tan f τσθ= （1）where f τ is the shear stress at failure, /σ the effective normal stress at failure, and /θ the effective angle of shearing resistance of soil.In fine-grained clays and silty clays, the strength depends on changes in pore water pressures or pore water volumes which take place during shearing. Under undrained conditions, the shear strength cu is largely independent of pressure, that isu θ=0. When drainage is permitted, however, both &cohesive' and &frictional' components ''(,)c θ are observed. In this case the shear strength is given by(2)Consideration of the shear strengths of soils under drained and undrained conditions, and of the conditions that will control drainage in the field are important to include in analysis of slopes. Drained conditions are analyzed in terms of effective stresses, using values of ''(,)c θ determined from drained tests, or from undrained tests with porepressure measurement. Performing drained triaxial tests on clays is frequently impracticalbecause the required testing time can be too long. Direct shear tests or CU tests with pore pressure measurement are often used because the testing time is relatively shorter.Stability analysis involves solution of a problem involving force and/or moment equilibrium.The equilibrium problem can be formulated in terms of (1) total unit weights and boundary water pressure; or (2) buoyant unit weights and seepage forces. The first alternative is a better choice, because it is more straightforward. Although it is possible, in principle, to use buoyant unit weights and seepage forces, that procedure is fraught with conceptual diffculties.PLANAR FAILURE SURFACEFailure surfaces in homogeneous or layered non-homogeneous sandy slopes are essentially planar. In some important applications, planar slides may develop. This may happen in slope, where permeable soils such as sandy soil and gravel or some permeable soils with some cohesion yet whose shear strength is principally provided by friction exist. For cohesionless sandy soils, the planar failure surface may happen in slopes where strong planar discontinuities develop, for example in the soil beneath the ground surface in natural hillsides or in man-made cuttings.ααβ图平面破坏Figure 1 shows a typical planar failure slope. From an equilibrium consideration of the slide body ABC by a vertical resolution of forces, the vertical forces across the base of the slide body must equal to weight w. Earthquake effects may be approximated by including a horizontal acceleration kg which produces a horizontal force k= acting through the centroid of the body and neglecting vertical inertia.1 For a slice of unitthickness in the strike direction, the resolved forces of normal and tangential components N and ¹ can be written as(cos sin )N W k αα=- （3）(sin cos )T W k αα=+ （4）where is the inclination of the failure surface and w is given by02(tan tan )(tan )(cot cot )2LW x x dx H x dx H γβαγαγαβ=-+-=-⎰⎰ （5） where γ is the unit weight of soil, H the height of slope, cot ,cot ,L H l H βαβ== is the inclination of the slope. Since the length of the slide surface AB is /sin cH α, the resisting force produced by cohesion is cH /sin a. The friction force produced by N is (cos sin )tan W k ααφ-. The total resisting or anti-sliding force is thus given by(cos sin )tan /sin R W k cH ααφα=-+ （6） For stability, the downslope slide force ¹ must not exceed the resisting force R of the body. The factor of safety, F s , in the slope can be defined in terms of effective force by ratio R /T, that is1tan 2tan tan (sin cos )sin()s k c F k H k αφαγααβα-=+++- （7） It can be observed from equation (7) that F s is a function of a. Thus the minimum value of F s can be found using Powell's minimization technique18 from equation (7). Das reported a similar expression for F s with k =0, developed directly from equation (2) by assuming that /s f d F ττ=, where f τ is the average shear strength of the soil, andd τ the average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface.For cohesionless soils where c =0, the safety factor can be readily written from equation (7) as1tan tan tan s k F k αφα-=+ （8） It is obvious that the minimum value of F s occurs when a=b, and the failurebecomes independent of slope height. For such cases (c=0 and k=0), the factors of safety obtainedfrom the proposed method and from Das are identical.CIRCULAR FAILURE SURFACESlides in medium-stif clays are often deep-seated, and failure takes place alongcurved surfaces which can be closely approximated in two dimensions by circularsurfaces. Figure 2 shows a potential circular sliding surface AB in two dimensions with centre O and radius r . The first step in the analysis is to evaluate the sliding' or disturbing moment M s about the centre of thecircle O . This should include the self-weight w of the sliding mass, and other terms such as crest loadings from stockpiles or railways, and water pressures acting externally to the slope. Earthquake effects is approximated by including a horizontal acceleration kg which produces a horiazontal force k d=acting through the centroid of each slice and neglecting vertical inertia. When the soil above AB is just on the point of sliding, the average shearing resistance which is required along AB for limiting equilibrium is given by equation (2). The slide mass is divided into vertical slices, and a typical slice DEFG is shown. The self-weight of the slice is dW hdx γ=. The method assumes that the resultant forces Xl and Xr on DE and FG , respectively, are equal and opposite, and parallel to the base of the slice EF . It is realized that these assumptions are necessary to keep the analytical solution of the slope stability problem addressed in this paper achievable and some of these assumptions would lead to restrictions in terms ofapplications (e.g.earth pressure on retaining walls). However, analytical solutions have a special usefulness in engineering practice, particularly in terms of obtaining approximate solutions. More rigorous methods, e.g. finite element technique, can then be used topursue a detail solution. Bishop's rigorous method5 introduces a further numericalprocedure to permit specialcation of interslice shear forces Xl and Xr . Since Xl and Xr are internal forces, ()l r X X -∑ must be zero for the whole section. Resolvingprerpendicularly and parallel to EF , one getssin cos T hdx k hdx γαγα=+ （9） cos csin N hdx k hdx γαγα=- （10）22arcsin ,x a r a b rα-==+ （11） The force N can produce a maximum shearing resistance when failure occurs:sec (cos sin )tan R cdx hdx k αγααφ=+- （12） The equations of lines AC , CB , and AB Y are given by y22123tan ,,()y x y h y b r x a β===--- （13） The sums of the disturbing and resisting moments for all slices can be written as013230(sin cos )()(sin cos )()(sin cos )()ls l lL s c M r h k dx r y y k dx r y y k dx r I kI γααγααγααγ=+=-++-+=+⎰⎰⎰ (14) []02300232sec (cos sin )tan sec ()(cos sin )tan ()(cos sin )tan tan ()lr l l lL c s M r c h k dx r c dx r y y k dx r y y k dx r c r I kI αγααφαγααφγααφϕγφ=+-=+--+--=+-⎰⎰⎰⎰ (15)22cot ,()L H l a r b H β==+-- （16）arcsin arcsin l a a r rϕ-=+ （17） 1323022()sin ()sin 1(cot )sec 23L ls L I y y dx y y dx H a b H r ααββ=-+-⎡⎤=+-⎢⎥⎣⎦⎰⎰ （18）13230222222222()cos ()cos tan tan 2()()()623(tan )arcsin (tan )arcsin 221()arcsin()4()()26L ls L I y y dx y y dx b r b r L a r L a r r r L a r a a H a b r r r l a b H r l ab l a H a r r ααββββ=-+-⎡⎤=-+---++⎣⎦-⎛⎫⎛⎫+-+- ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭-⎡⎤--+-+--⎣⎦⎰⎰ （19） The safety factor for this case is usually expressed as the ratio of the maximum available resisting moment to the disturbing moment, that istan ()()c s r s s s c c r I kI M F M I kI ϕγφγ+-==+ (20) When the slope inclination exceeds 543, all failures emerge at the toe of the slope, which is called t oe failure , as shown in Figure 2. However, when the slope height H is relatively large compared with the undrained shear strength or when a hard stratum is under the top of the slope of clayey soil with 03φ<, the slide emerges from the face of the slope, which is called Face failure , as shown in Figure 3. For Face failure , the safety factor F s is the same as ¹oe failure 1s using 0()Hh - instead of H .For flatter slopes, failure is deep-seated and extends to the hard stratum forming the base of the clay layer, which is called Base failure , as shown in Figure 4.1,3 Following the same procedure as that for ¹oe failure , one can get the safety factor for Base failure :()''''tan ()c s s s c c r I kI F I kI ϕγφγ+-=+ （21） where t is given by equation (17), and 's I and 'c I are given by()()()0100'0313230322201sin sin sin cot ()()(2)(33)12223l l ls l l I y y xdx y y xdx y y xdx H H bl H l l l l l a b bH H r r r β=-+-+-=+----+-+⎰⎰⎰ (22) ()()()()()()[]22222203231030c 4612cot arcsin 2tan arcsin 21arcsin 2cot 412cos cos cos 1100a H a l ab l r r r H H a r r a rb r a H b r H r r Hl d y y d y y d y y I x l l x l l x l --+-+⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-+⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛----=⎰-+⎰-+⎰-='βββααα （23）其中，()221230,tan ,,y y x y H y b r x a β====--- （24）()220111cot ,cot ,22l a H l a H l a r b H ββ=-=+=+-- (25) It can be observed from equations (21)~(25) that the factor of safety F s for a given slope is a function of the parameters a and b . Thus, the minimum value of F s can be found using the Powell's minimization technique.For a given single function f which depends on two independent variables, such as the problem under consideration here, minimization techniques are needed to find the value of these variables where f takes on a minimum value, and then to calculate thecorresponding value of f . If one starts at a point P in an N -dimensional space, and proceed from there in some vector direction n, then any function of N variables f (P) can be minimized along the line n by one-dimensional methods. Different methods will difer only by how, at each stage, they choose the next direction n. Powell "rst discovered a direction set method which produces N mutually conjugate directions.Unfortunately, a problem of linear dependence was observed in Powell's algorithm. The modiffed Powell's method avoids a buildup of linear dependence.The closed-form slope stability equation (21) allows the application of anoptimization technique to locate the center of the sliding circle (a , b ). The minimum factor of safety Fs min then obtained by substituting the values of these parameters into equations (22)~(25) and the results into equation (21), for a base failure problem (Figure4). While using the Powell's method, the key is to specify some initial values of a and b . Well-assumed initial values of a and b can result in a quick convergence. If the values of a and b are given inappropriately, it may result in a delayed convergence and certain values would not produce a convergent solution. Generally, a should be assumed within$¸, while b should be equal to or greater than H (Figure 4). Similarly, equations(16)~(20) could be used to compute the F s .min for toe failure (Figure 2) and face failure (Figure 3),except ()0H h - is used instead of H in the case of face failure .Besides the Powell method, other available minimization methods were also tried in this study such as downhill simplex method, conjugate gradient methods, and variable metric methods. These methods need more rigorous or closer initial values of a and b to the target values than the Powell method. A short computer program was developed using the Powell method to locate the center of the sliding circle (a , b ) and to find the minimum value of F s . This approach of slope stability analysis is straightforward and simple.RESULTS AND COMMENTSThe validity of the analytical method presented in the preceding sections was evaluated using two well-established methods of slope stability analysis. The local minimum factor-of-safety (1993) method, with the state of the effective stresses in a slope determined by the finite element method with the Drucker-Prager non-linearstress-strain relationship, and Bishop's (1952) method were used to compare the overall factors of safety with respect to the slip surface determined by the proposed analytical method. Assuming k=0 for comparison with the results obtained from the local minimum factor-of-safety and Bishop's method, the results obtained from each of those three methods are listed in Table I.The cases are chosen from the toe failure in a hypothetical homogeneous dry soil slope having a unit weight of 18.5 kN/m3. Two slope configurations were analysed, one 1 : 1 slope and one 2 : 1 slope. Each slope height H was arbitrarily chosen as 8 m. To evaluate the sensitivity of strength parameters on slope stability, cohesion ranging from 5 to 30 kPa and friction angles ranging from 103 to 203 were used in the analyses (Table I).A number of critical combinations of c and were found to be unstable for the model slopes studied. The factors of safety obtained by the proposed method are in good agreement with those determined by the local minimum factor-of-safety and Bishop's methods, as shown in Table I.To examine the e!ect of dynamic forces, the analytical method is chosen to analyse a toe failure in a homogeneous clayey slope (Figure 2). The height of the slope H is 13.5 m; the slope inclination b is arctan 1/2; the unit weight of the soil c is 17.3 kN/m3; the friction angle is 17.3KN/m; and the cohesion c is 57.5 kPa. Using the conventionalmethod of slices, Liu obtained the minimum safety factormin 2.09sF=Using the proposed method, one can get the minimum value of safety factor from equation (20) asmin 2.08sF=for k=0, which is very close to the value obtained from the slice method.When k"0)1, 0)15, or 0)2, one can getmin 1.55,1.37sF=, and 1)23, respectively,which shows the dynamic e!ect on the slope stability to be significant.CONCLUDING REMARKSAn analytical method is presented for analysis of slope stability involving cohesive and noncohesive soils. Earthquake e!ects are considered in an approximate manner in terms of seismic coe$cient-dependent forces. Two kinds of failure surfaces areconsidered in this study: a planar failure surface, and a circular failure surface. Three failure conditions for circular failure surfacesnamely toe failure, face failure, and base failure are considered for clayey slopes resting on a hard stratum.The proposed method can be viewed as an extension of the method of slices, but it provides a more accurate treatment of the forces because they are represented in an integral form. The factor of safety is obtained by using theminimization technique rather than by a trial and error approach used commonly.The factors of safety obtained from the proposed method are in good agreement with those determined by the local minimum factor-of-safety method (finite elementmethod-based approach), the Bishop method, and the method of slices. A comparison of these methods shows that the proposed analytical approach is more straightforward, less time-consuming, and simple to use. The analytical solutions presented here may be found useful for (a) validating results obtained from other approaches, (b) providing initialestimates for slope stability, and (c) conducting parametric sensitivity analyses for various geometric and soil conditions.REFERENCES1. D. Brunsden and D. B. Prior. Slope Instability, Wiley, New York, 1984.2. B. F. Walker and R. Fell. Soil Slope Instability and Stabilization, Rotterdam, Sydney, 1987.3. C. Y. Liu. Soil Mechanics, China Railway Press, Beijing, P. R. China, 1990.448 SHORT COMMUNICATIONSCopyright ( 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 23, 439}449 (1999)4. L. W. Abramson. Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods, Wiley, New York, 1996.5. A. W. Bishop. &The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of slopes', Geotechnique, 5, 7}17 (1955).6. K. E. Petterson. &The early history of circular sliding surfaces', Geotechnique, 5, 275}296 (1956).7. G. Lefebvre, J. M. Duncan and E. L. Wilson. &Three-dimensional "nite element analysis of dams,' J. Soil Mech. Found,ASCE, 99(7), 495}507 (1973).8. Y. Kohgo and T. Yamashita, &Finite element analysis of "ll type dams*stability during construction by using thee!ective stress concept', Proc. Conf. Numer. Meth. in Geomech., ASCE, Vol. 98(7), 1998, pp. 653}665.9. J. M. Duncan. &State of the art: limit equilibrium and "nite-element analysis of slopes', J. Geotech. Engng. ASCE,122(7), 577}596 (1996).10. V. U. Nguyen. &Determination of critical slope failure surface', J. Geotech. Engng. ASCE, 111(2), 238}250 (1985).11. Z. Chen and C. Shao. &Evaluation of minimum factor of safety in slope stability analysis,' Can. Geotech. J., 20(1),104}119 (1988).12. W. F. Chen and X. L. Liu. ¸imit Analysis in Soil Mechanics, Elsevier, New York, 1990.13. N. M. Newmark. &E!ects of earthquakes on dams and embankments', Geotechnique, 15, 139}160 (1965).14. B. M. Das. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, 1994.15. A. W. Skempton and H. Q. Golder. &Practical examples of the /"0 analysis of stability of clays', Proc. 2nd Int. Conf.SMFE, Rotterdam, Vol. 2, 1948, pp. 63}70.16. L. Bjerrum, and T. C. Kenney. &E!ect of structure on the shear behavior of normally consolidated quick clays', Proc.Geotech. Conf., Oslo, Norway, vol. 2, 1967, pp. 19}27.17. A. W. Skempton, &Long-term stability of clay slopes,' Geotechnique, 14,77}102 (1964).18. D. G. Liu, J. G. Fei, Y. J. Yu and G. Y. Li. FOR¹RAN Programming, National Defense Industry Press, Beijing, P. R.China, 1988.19. W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling, Numerical Recipes: ¹he Art of Scienti,c Computing,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.20. M. G. Anderson and K. S. Richards. Slope Stability: Geotechnical Engineering and Geomorphology, Wiley, New York,1987.21. R. Baker. &Determination of critical slip surface in slope stability computations', Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech.,4, 333}359 (1980).22. A. K. Chugh. &Variable factor of safety in slope stability analysis', Geotechnique, ¸ondon, 36(1), 57}64 (1986).23. B. M. Das. Principles of Soil Dynamics, PWS-Kent Publishing Company, Boston, 1993.24. S. L. Huang and K. Yamasaki. &Slope failure analysis using local minimum factor-of-safety approach', J. Geotech.Engng. ASCE, 119(12), 1974}1987 (1993).25. S. L. Kramer. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cli!s, NJ, 1996.26. D. Leshchinsky and C. Huang. &Generalized three dimensional slope stability analysis', J. Geotech. Engng. ASCE,118(11), 1748}1764 (1992).27. K. S. Li and W. White. &Rapid evaluation of the critical surface in slope stability problems', Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth.Geomech., 11(5), 449}473 (1987).28. D. W. Taylor. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Wiley, Toronto, 1948.29. U. S. Federal Highway Administration, Advanced ¹echnology for Soil Slope Stability, U.S. Dept. of Transportation,Washington, DC, 1994.30. Spencer (1969).31. Celestino and Duncan (1981).32. Spencer (1981).33. Chen (1970).34. Baker and Garber (1977).35. Bishop (1952).简要的分析斜坡稳定性的方法摘要本文给出了解析法对边坡的稳定性分析,包括粘性和混凝土支撑。

建环毕业翻译(中英文对照)

本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译专业名称：建筑环境与设备工程年级班级：xxx学生姓名：xx指导教师：xxxx河南理工大学土木工程学院二○一二年六月十日毕业设计外文翻译英文：How Air Conditioners Work and energy conservationtechnology researchAbstract：An air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It uses the evaporation of a refrigerant, like Freon, to provide cooling. The mechanics of the Freon evaporation cycle are the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner.Keywords：water towers 、weather-resistant、compressor、energy conservation When the temperature outside begins to climb, many people seek the cool comfort of indoor air conditioning. Like water towers and power lines, air conditioners are one of those things that we see every day but seldom pay much attention to. Wouldn't it be nice to know how these indispensable machines work their magic? In this article, we will examine air conditioners -- from small to huge -- so you know more about what you're seeing!The Many Faces of CoolAir conditioners come in various sizes, cooling capacities and prices. One type that we see all the time is the window air conditioner.Window air conditioners are an easy and economical way to cool a small area. Most people who live in suburban areas usually have one of these in their backyard: If you live in an apartment complex, this is probably a familiar sight: Most businesses and office buildings have condensing units on their roofs, and as you fly into any airport you notice that warehouses and malls may have 10 or 20 condensing units hidden on their roofs:And then if you go around back at many hospitals, universities and office complexes, you find large cooling towers that are connected to the air conditioning system:Even though each of these machines has a pretty distinct look, they all work on the same principles. Let's take a closer look.The Basic IdeaAn air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It uses the evaporation of a refrigerant, like Freon, to provide cooling. The mechanics of the Freon evaporation cycle are the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, the term Freon is generically "used for any of various conditioner. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, the term Freon is generically "used for any of various nonflammable fluorocarbons used as refrigerants and as propellants for aerosols."This is how the evaporation cycle in an air conditioner works (See How Refrigerators Work for complete details on this cycle):1.The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot,high-pressure Freon gas (red in the diagram above).2.This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid.3.The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, low-pressure Freon gas (light blue in the diagram above).4.This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside the building.Mixed in with the Freon is a small amount of a light weight oil. This oil lubricates the compressor.Window UnitsA window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. Youclose the window down on the unit, plug the unit in and turn it on to get cool air. If you take the cover off of an unplugged window unit, you will find that it contains:A compressorAn expansion valveA hot coil (on the outside)A chilled coil (on the inside)A control unitThe fans blow air over the coils to improve their ability to dissipate heat (to the outside air) and cold (to the room being cooled).BTU and EERMost air conditioners have their capacity rated in British thermal units (BTU). Generally speaking, a BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (0.45 kg) of water 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.56 degrees Celsius). Specifically, 1 BTU equals 1,055 joules. In heating and cooling terms, 1 "ton" equals 12,000 BTU.A typical window air conditioner might be rated at 10,000 BTU. For comparison, a typical 2,000-square-foot (185.8 m2) house might have a 5-ton (60,000-BTU) air conditioning system, implying that you might need perhaps 30 BTU per square foot. (Keep in mind that these are rough estimates. To size an air conditioner for your specific needs, contact an HV AC contractor.)The energy efficiency rating (EER) of an air conditioner is its BTU rating over its wattage. For example, if a 10,000-BTU air conditioner consumes 1,200 watts, its EER is 8.3 (10,000 BTU/1,200 watts). Obviously, you would like the EER to be as high as possible, but normally a higher EER is accompanied by a higher price.Is the higher EER is worth it?Let's say that you have a choice between two 10,000-BTU units. One has an EER of 8.3 and consumes 1,200 watts, and the other has an EER of 10 and consumes 1,000 watts. Let's also say that the price difference is $100. To understand what thepayback period is on the more expensive unit, you need to know:1.Approximately how many hours per year you will be operating the unit2.How much a kilowatt-hour (kWh) costs in your areaLet's say that you plan to use the air conditioner in the summer (four months a year) and it will be operating about six hours a day. Let's also imagine that the cost in your area is $0.10/kWh. The difference in energy consumption between the two units is 200 watts, which means that every five hours the less expensive unit will consume 1 additional kWh (and therefore $0.10 more) than the more expensive unit.Assuming that there are 30 days in a month, you find that during the summer you are operating the air conditioner:Since the more expensive unit costs $100 more that means that it will take about seven years for the more expensive unit to break even.See this page for a great explanation of seasonal energy efficiency rating (SEER).Split-system UnitsA split-system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system。

环境工程专业英语翻译(中英对照)

Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes:这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：●Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able toquantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollution problems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of the complexinteractions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of current technology，butwhich are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。

建环专业作文英文

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文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!I really like my major, building environment. It's so interesting. There are all kinds of knowledge and skills to learn.Building environment is very important. It affects our living quality and comfort. We need to design good systems to make sure everything works well.In this major, we have many practical courses. That helps us understand how things really work in the real world.Sometimes it can be a bit challenging, but it's also very rewarding when you solve a difficult problem.The teachers in this major are really great. They are so knowledgeable and helpful.We also have a lot of opportunities to do projects andgain hands-on experience. It's exciting to see what we can achieve.。

建筑环境与设备工程毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

建筑环境与设备工程毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献篇一：建筑环境与设备工程中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Ground Source Heat PumpAt present,energy is the most important element for the development of states’economy.Because of the good energy-saving effect,using regenerate resource of energy,and no pollution,the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION is used more and more popular now.In the system of the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION,the terminal devices what include the fan,the deep well pump,the circulate pump are the biggest energy-consumed part except the inner device as well as the compressor motor, etc.So it is very important and significant to make the terminal devices running in the mostenergy-saving condition.In this paper,the author founded on the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION in Guangxi University,based on the actual project condition, made the redesign through the way of frequency conversiontechnology for the old system of GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION.At first, the equipments’ running control system were improved following the energy-saving principle of fan and pump,choused Mitsubishi FR series frequency transducer with vector-controlfunction,Mitsubishi FX2N series PLC and other auxiliary parts to make up of the auto-control system for the GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP AIR-CONDITION,and then did the emulating analysis for the vector-control mode in the frequency conversion process.In the next based the auto-control system,made the PLC control system designing.This system monitor the temperature and flux in accurate and real time,then input feedback to the plc,finally the terminal device running status will correspond to the customer’s demanded-load,it can wellmeet the goal for saving energy and prolong the life of the motor and other device.At the same time,designed the PLC control process,according to this transformation of the specific programme,programmed for the PLC by using the FX-GP/WIN-C programme software.Researched and analyses the PIDalgorithm and its improved algorithm for the PID Operational module in the PLC.At last,through detailed analysis and accounted for energy-saving effect and the cost of thesystem-reforming,validated the profitability of this redesigned-project,and showed its feasibility and worthBe using renewable geothermal energy in shallow ground layer, a ground source heat pump (GSHP) technology is known as one of air conditioning techniques which have the greatest developmental. The GSHP has great potentials in energy reduction and in reducing CO2emissions to conventional HVAC systems. In China, energy shortage and environmental issues pose a seriouschallenge accompanied by rapid economic growth. GSHP has been spotlighted as both energy efficiency and environmental benefits. Generally, the initial investment for a GCHP system is higher than that of a conventional system. GCHP energy savings will offset the higher installing cost in future. However, there are many aspects affecting the actual amount of energy saved, such as climate, building load, ground heat exchanger, heat pump, control, etc. Recently, a lot of research on the energy performance of GCHP has been carried out. However, most of these previous research projects evaluated the performance of GCHP system based on a laboratory scale or a small capacity system. There is little data documenting the long-term performance of a large-sized GCHP. Evalution and research on real world installed GCHP will provide a more accurate understanding of the current technology’s performance.The paper presented that the energy performance evaluation of two types of GSHPs based on actual operational data. The two types of GSHPs were ground-coupled heat pump system (GCHPs) and groundwater heat pump system (GWHPs) which were,respectively, installed in two apartment buildings of Wuhan, China. In one year, we monitored various operating parameters, including the outdoor temperature, the flow rate, electrical consumption, and the water temperature. The coefficient of performance (COP) values of system and chiller were determined based on a series of measurements. During residential GCHP system operation, the heat injection rate into soil is larger than the heatextraction rate out of soil. The COP of chillers of the GCHPs decreased significantly during the heating season due to the lowering of ground soil temperature. The system power consumption exhibited a strong linear relationship with outdoor temperature in both seasons and this suggests that normalizing power consumption against degree-days is a highly practical index in energy analysis in resident buildings, especially in winter.Some research topics were studied on the two actual cases. An exergy analysis of a ground water heat pump system on the actual operation was conduced. The energy efficiency and exergy loss and efficiency in each of the components of the system are detemined forthe average measured parameters obtained from the monitored results of the hottest month and the coldest month. Inefficient facts are found out and increased energy efficiencies of two proposed improvement measures were estimated. Lower approachtemperature is effective energy saving. In addition to the energy analysis, a full exergy analysis helps to identify the components where inefficiencies occur. An economic analysis model forGWHP was established to calculate energy consumption and operating cost based on a baseline condition. Plate heat exchanger flow rate and groundwater flow rate were optimization parameters according to different water price of the groundwater:GWHP survey data shows the impact of water price on groundwater flow rate in design. The long-term energy performances of theGWHPs and the GCHPs were investigated and compared with conventional HVAC systems and other GSHPs on literature data. A performances model was established base on the two cases to constrast the predictedperformance with the actual performance.Based on superposition theorem of geothermal heat exchangers (GHE), a inverse model for GHE, G-functions interpolationapproach was proposed. Linear interpolation method was adopted to fit G-functions. The method presented here uses the Nelder and Mead simplex algorithm as part of a parameter estimation algorithm to estimate G-function. For verification of G-functions interpolation approach, anumerical experimentation had been conducted where synthetic load on GHE was established. The simulation results with error and no error, were inversely modeled by G-functions interpolation approach and DST calibrated approach. The actual dataset of a small sized and a large sized GSHPs were also used in inverse modeling to verify the results from the G-functions interpolation approach. The small sized GSHPs was from literature. The large sized vertical GSHPs was the monitored case in the paper. A detailed DST model of a GHE has been calibrated to monitored data. The secondyear predicted temperatures calculated by the two models were compared with the measured. The results show the two approaches are reliable and have good performance of error tolerance. The error of GHE water temperature calculated by G-functions interpolation approach was less than DST calibrated approaches. The data error inversely modeled was mainly from recorded day data. As a extension study of the G-functions interpolation model, degree-day G-functions approach was proposed. The model was based on degree-day prediction load and can be applied on the residential buildings. The standard deviation of GHE water temperature by degree-day G-functions approach was larger than DST calibrated approaches. The result shows the appropriateness of degree-day G-functions interpolation approach for the quantitative modeling of GHE.This paper shows that the research on actual performance according measured data and presents two inverse models:G-functions interpolation model, degree-day G-functions model approach, which provides new methods for GHE inverse modelingWith the sustainable development theory being put forward in recent years, people pay more and more attention to energy efficiency and environmental protection. The Ground Source Heat Pump(GSHP) air-conditioning system has been a kind of new technology to save energy and protect environment. This paper gives an overview of technology economy analysis on GSHPAir-conditioning System and optimization design of its ground heat exchanger, which provide helpful suggestion to engineers.First, this paper gives an overview of the history of GSHP system in China and foreign countries. Based on the work principle of the GSHP system, thecharacteristics of three circulations have been proposed, which are the use of renewable energy saving and environmental friendly, etc. hi terms of technology economy, the GSHPair-conditioning system was compared with the air source heat pump system, the water source heat pump system and the traditional central air-conditioningsystem. Main indexes are given to evaluate the technology economy of the GSHP air-conditioning system.A practical project was used as an example for the analysis.Ground-loop heat exchanger is an important part of the GSHP air-conditioning system and deferent from other traditional air-conditioning systems. This paper gave detailed designing method of Ground-loop heat exchanger, including load calculation, pipe layout, choice of tubes and its material, antifreeze method, calculation of pressure drop, etc. Taken the GSHP air-conditioning system in the report room of Shandong Institute of Architecture and Engineering as an example, its design was analyzed and the optimization design of ground-loop heat exchanger was proposed.The people attention to energy efficiency and environmental protection,which decide thesustainable development of the country.The Ground Source Heat Pump(GSHP)air-conditioning system has been a kind of new technology to save energy and protect environment.This paper gives an overview of technologyeconomy analysis on GSHP Air-condition System and optimization design of its ground heat exchanger,which provide helpful suggestion toengineersFirst,this paper gives an overview of GSHP system in China and foreign countries. Based on the work principle of the GSHP system,the characteristics of three circulations have been proposed,which are the use of renewable energy saving and environmental friendly,etc.In teams of technology ,the GSHP air-conditioning system was compared with the air source heat pump system,the water source heat pump system and the traditional central air-conditioning system.Main indexes are given to evaluate the technology economy of GSHP air-conditoning篇二：建筑施工毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献建筑施工毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing ForewordConcrete is formed by a sand and gravel aggregate,cement,water and other materials but mixed heterogeneous brittle materials.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, impermeable and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete besubjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Component all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. materialcreation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and impermeable ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.Thereinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Shrinkage crack and preventionShrinkage crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation Shrinkage, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Shrinkage crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface Shrinkage transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relativehumidity is more low, cement syrup body Shrinkage more big, Shrinkage crack be more easy creation.Shrinkage crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute.Shrinkage crackusually the impermeability of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete Shrinkage be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of Shrinkage be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, Shrinkage more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use waterquantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and brushing protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.Plastic shrinkage cracking and preventionPlastic shrinkage is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Plastic shrinkage crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends of the thin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almosthaving no strength or strength before the final setting very small, perhaps concrete just eventually final setting but strength very hour, be subjected toheat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Plastic shrinkage of the main factors of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use dry compression value smaller higher silicate of the earlier period strength or common the portland cement.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually beforethe final setting surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink tosink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack widthunder the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in bigsurface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge or cooling dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under constructionperiod.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind篇三：建筑与环境设备工程外文翻译毕业论文（设计）题系部名称：专业班级：学生姓名：学指导教师：教师职称：外文翻译目：浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗号：XX11014233 讲师 1浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗摘要：研究建筑环境，了解暖通空调负荷产生的原因及影响因素，可以更加合理地提出解决问题的方法。

建筑环境与设备工程专业英语段落翻译知识分享

建筑环境与设备工程专业英语段落翻译2. Conduction（导热）The best heat-insulating solids own their insulating properties to the air or to other gases contained in cells within the material.（最好的隔热材料在空气和材料细胞中拥有自己的绝热性能。

） These cells cause the heat to flow through the solid material through a long tortuous passage. （这些细胞使热量需要通过一个漫长曲折的通道才能流过这个坚实的固体。

） In addition, the available cross-sectional area of the solid material is much less than the projected area. （另外，见识的固体材料可用的横截面面积比投影面你少得多。

） Experimental evidence shows that many small unicellular pockets of gas are much more effective than a series of connected cells having the same total volume in giving insulating value to a substance. （试验表明，一个物体在给定的总量上具有相同的绝热值上，许多小口袋气体单细胞比的一系列连通细胞更加有效）There may be considerable variation in the thermal conductivity of any given insulating material because the conductivity depends on its density, the size and number of its air cells, and its absorbed moisture.（在任何给定的绝热材料的导热系数方面有很大的差异，这是因为导热系数取决于它的密度，空气细胞的大小和数量，和它吸收的水蒸气。

环境工程专业英语文献中英双语版

环境⼯程专业英语⽂献中英双语版Treatment of geothermal waters for production ofindustrial, agricultural or drinking waterDarrell L. Gallup ?Chevron Corporation, Energy Technology Company, 3901 Briarpark Dr., Houston, Texas 77042, USAReceived 14 March 2007; accepted 16 July 2007Available online 12 September 2007AbstractA conceptual study has been carried out to convert geothermal water and condensate into a valuable industrial, agricultural or drinking water resource. Laboratory and field pilot test studies were used for the conceptual designs and preliminary cost estimates, referred to treatment facilities handling 750 kg/s of geothermal water and 350 kg/s of steam condensate. The experiments demonstrated that industrial, agricultural and drinking water standards could probably be met by adopting certain operating conditions. Six different treatments were examined. Unit processes for geothermal water/condensate treatment include desilication of the waters to produce marketable minerals, removal of dissolved solids by reverse osmosis or evaporation, removal of arsenic by oxidation/precipitation, and removal of boron by various methods including ion exchange. The total project cost estimates, with an accuracy of approximately ±25%, ranged from US$ 10 to 78 million in capital cost, with an operation and maintenance (or product) cost ranging from US$ 0.15 to 2.73m?3 of treated water.2007 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords:Geothermal water treatment; Water resources; Desilication; Arsenic; Boron1. IntroductionWith the world entering an age of water shortages and arid farming land, it is increasingly important that we find ways of recycling wastewater. The oil, gas and geothermal industries, for example, extract massive amounts of brine and water from the subsurface, most of which are injected back into underground formations. Holistic approaches to water management are being adopted ever more frequently, and produced water is now being considered as a potential resource. In the oil and gas arena, attempts have been made to convert produced water for drinking supply or other reuses (Doran et al., 1998). Turning oilfield-produced water into a valuable resource entails an understanding of the environmental and economic implications, and of the techniques required to remove dissolved organic and inorganic components from the waters. Treatments of geothermal water and condensate for beneficial use, on the other hand, involve the removal of inorganic components only. We have explored the technical and economic feasibility of reusingwaters and steam condensates from existing and future geothermal power plants. Produced geothermal fluids, especially in arid climates, should be viewed as valuable resources for industry and agriculture, as well as for drinking water supplies. This paper presents the results of laboratory and field pilot studies designed to convert geothermal-produced fluids into beneficially usable water. The preliminary economics of several water treatment strategies are also provided.2. Design layoutThe layout for the treatment strategies (units of operation) have been designed specifically for a nominal 50Mwe geothermal power plant located in an arid climate of the western hemisphere, hereafter referred to as the test plant. The average concentration of constituents in the produced water is shown in Table 1. The amount of spent water from the test flash plant is ～750 kg/s. The potential amount of steam condensate that could be produced at the plant is ～350 kg/s. Table1includes the compositionof the steam condensate derived from well tests. The six treatment cases considered in the study are given in Table 2, together with product flows and unit operations of treatment. Fig. 1 provides simplified schematic layouts of the unit operations for each case.3. Evaluation of treatment optionsIn this section the various operations considered for each case are described.3.1. Arsenic removalT he techniques considered viable for removing traces of arsenic (As) from condensate or from water are ozone oxidation followed by iron co-precipitation or catalyzed photo-oxidation processes (Khoe et al., 1997). Other processes for extracting As from geothermal waters (e.g. Rothbaum and Anderton, 1975; Umeno and Iwanaga, 1998; Pascua et al., 2007) have not been considered in the present study. In the case of the test plant, ozone (O3) would be generated on-site using parasitic power, air and corona-discharge ultra-violet (UV) lamps, and iron in the form of ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3] or ferric chloride (FeCl3) that would be delivered to the geothermal plant. The photo-oxidation processes consist of treating the condensate or water with Fe2+ in the form of ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) or ferrous chloride (FeCl2), or with SO2 photo absorbers. The latter is generated from the oxidation of H2S in turbine vent gas (Kitz and Gallup,1997).The photo-oxidation process consists of sparging air through the photo- adsorber-treated fluid, and then irradiating it with UV lamps or exposing it to sunlight to oxidize As3+ to As5+. In the Fe photo-oxidation mode, the Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+, which not only catalyzes the oxidation reaction, but also co-precipitates the As. In the SO2 photo-oxidation mode,after oxidizing the As, FeCl3 or Fe2(SO4)3 is added to the water to precipitate the As5+ as a scorodite-like mineralTable 1Approximate geothermal water and steam condensate compositions assumed in the studya Total dissolved solids.Table 2Summary of the six cases of geothermal fluid treatment to produce marketable watera On treatment of water, clays are produced at a rate of 7.4 ton/h.(FeAsO4·2H2O). In the laboratory and field pilot tests, the photo-absorber and UV dosages were varied to decrease the As concentration in geothermal fluids to below the detection limit of 2 ppb (Simmons et al., 2002). Residual As in the precipitate may be slurry-injected into a water disposal well or fixed/stabilized for land disposal to meet United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Toxicity Characterization Leach Procedure (TCLP) limits using special cement formulations (Allen, 1996).3.2. Ion exchangeStrong-base anion exchange resins have been shown to remove traces of As in geothermal fluids provided that the amorphous silica is decreased below its saturation point or the water stabilized against silica scaling by acidification. The ion exchange alternative to As removal by oxidation/precipitation has proven successful in reducing the concentrations of this element to below the limits set for drinking water standards. As part of the present study, laboratory and field columnar tests were successfully conducted with geothermal hot spring water containing 30 ppm As. Pre-oxidation of As3+ is required to achieveacceptable As removal by ion exchange. In these columnar tests, NaOCl and H2O2 were used to pre-treat the hot spring water to oxidize As3+ to As5+. Chloride-rich water, which had been treated with lime (CaOH2) and filtered to reduce amorphous silica to well below its saturation point, successfully regenerated the resin. In the field, and for simplicity of operation, we concluded that ozone/Fe co-precipitation or catalyzed photo-oxidation would be preferred for water treatment over ion exchange as this would eliminate the need to purchase and transport additional chemicals. On the other hand, ion exchange is an attractive option for extracting As from condensate.Special ion-exchange resins have proven successful in removing boron (B) from geothermal fluids (Recepoglu and Beker, 1991; Gallup, 1995). Hot spring water from the geothermal field, containing 25 ppm B, had its B content decreased to <1 ppm in a laboratory columnar test. The resin was regenerated with sulfuric acid (H2SO4). No deterioration in resin performance was observed up to 10 loading and regenerationcycles.Fig. 1. Flow chart of the basic unit operations involved in treatment cases 1–6.3.3. pH adjustmentThe majority of the cases considered in this study require adjustment to pH. Adding soda ash (Na2CO3) can increase thebuffering capacity of the water and condensate. Soda ash or lime treatment can also be used to enhance precipitation of certain species. Purchased H2SO4, on-site generated sulfurous acid (H2SO3) or on-site generated hydrochloric acid (HCl) can be used to acidify waters to meet reuse requirements or to inhibit silica scaling (Hirowatari, 1996; Kitz and Gallup, 1997; Gallup, 2002). A number of geothermal power plants around the world utilize water acidification to inhibit silica scaling. Unocal Corporation commenced this practice of pH adjustment of hot and cold geothermal fluids in commercial operations in the early 1980s (Jost and Gallup, 1985; Gallup et al., 1993; Gallup, 1996). In water acidification the pH is reduced slightly so as to slow down the silica polymerization reaction kinetics without significantly increasing corrosion rates.3.4. Cooling pondsIn this water processing option, the water is cooled in open, lined ponds prior to injection or treatment for beneficial use. The flashed water is allowed to flow into the pond where it “ages” for up to 3 days; this is a sufficient length of time to achieve amorphous silica saturation at ambient temperature, which is assumed to be below 20 ?C most of the year. Adjustment of the water pH to 8.0±0.5 with soda ash or lime enhances water desilication, resulting in undersaturation with respect to amorphous silica (Gallup et al., 2003). At 15 ?C, the solubility of amorphous silica in the water in our test field is predicted to be about 90 ppm (Fournier and Marshall, 1983). In a large bottle, field water wasadjusted from pH 7.2 to 8.1 with soda ash and allowed to cool to 15 ?C over a period of 90 min. The resultant dissolved silica [Si(OH)4] concentration in the supernatant fluid was 54 ppm (undersaturated by about 40%).3.5. FiltrationSand and plate/frame filters were adopted in this study to polish water and dewater sludges, respectively. This does not mean that other filters could not be used in the water treatment project. At the Salton Sea (California, USA) geothermal field, for example, flocculated secondary clarifiers and pressure or vacuum filters have been adopted with success for many years as alternatives to media and plate/frame filters, respectively (Featherstone et al., 1989).3.6. Multi-stage vacuum-assisted evaporatorIn this unit of operation, cool, ponded water is combined with cooled and re-circulated water (from the evaporator heat rejection stages), and pumped to the heat recovery portion of the evaporator system. The cool water provides the thermal sink for the vapors from the final stages of the evaporator concentrate. The inlet water and concentrate flow countercurrent in the evaporator. After flowing through the heat recovery stages, the water temperature has increased somewhat. Most of this heated water is sent to a separate cooling pond before returning to the heat recovery stages. A portion of the heated water continues on through the heat recovery stages; the water also functions as the heat sink for this portion of the process.After the heat recovery stages, the water is heated with steam and returned to the heat recovery stages for flashing. The water proceeds through the heat recovery and rejection stages until it is fully concentrated. The concentrate is sent to an injection well, while the distillate is collected and re-routed for pH adjustment, as required, before passing to other treatments discussed here. The evaporator has not yet been tested at the field; the present discussion is provided for conceptualization only.3.7. Reverse osmosisThe reverse osmosis (RO) process removes dissolved salts through fine filtration at the molecular level of water. The RO membrane allows water to pass through but blocks 98% of the salts. The typical RO operating pressure is 2760–3100 kPa, which is achieved by gravity flow from the power plant to the RO unit located 300m downhill. The RO feed is pre-treated with a 2 _m cartridge filter. The rejected fluid is injected into a disposal well, while the permeate can be sent to other treatment units for polishing.The RO unit has not yet been tested at the field; the present discussion is again provided for conceptualization only. However, RO has been successfully tested at the Mammoth Lakes, California, USA, field to recover useable silica (Bourcier et al., 2006).3.8. Desilication and production of claysSilica can be eliminated from the water by holding the latter in cooling ponds for up to 3 days. Soda ash or lime can be added to the water to enhance silica precipitation. Laboratory and field jar test experiments showed that desilication of the water can also be achieved by treating with various metal cations at elevated pH to precipitate metal silicates. Below ～90 ?Cand at elevated pH (typically 9–10) treatments with caustic soda (NaOH), magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], lime, strontium hydroxide [Sr(OH)2], barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2], ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3], birnessite [(Na,Ca)0.5(Mn4+,Mn3+)2O4·1.5H2O], copper hydroxide, [Cu(OH)2] and zinc hydroxide [Zn(OH)2] precipitated only amorphous or poorly crystalline metal-rich silicates of little commercial value. Treatment of water with alkaline-earth metals below ～90 ?C, except magnesium, tended to co-precipitate metal carbonates. Laboratory reactions conducted at ～130 ?C demonstrated that certain metal ions may react with the silica in the water to precipitate crystalline compounds of commercial value. For example, kerolite1 clay was precipitated upon treating synthetic and field waters with magnesium at 130 ?C, whereas, under similar conditions, sodalite (Na4Al3 Si3O12Cl) and Zeolite P2 were precipitated upon treatment with aluminum hydroxide or sodium aluminate(Gallup et al., 2003; Gallup and Glanzman, 2004). Treatment of waters with a combination of magnesium and iron precipitated hectorite (i.e. a lithium-rich clay mineral of the montmorillonite group).The desilication process designed for the field consists of a crystallizer-clarifier similar to those used at the Salton Sea field (Newell et al., 1989). For kerolite production, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is added at slightly above stoichiometric proportions (3Mg:4Si) and the pH is increased to ～10.0 with caustic soda or lime. The crystallizer and clarifier include sludge recirculation to maximize the “seed crystal” effect, thus providing a high surface area for precipitation. After precipitation, the water is clarified, possibly treated further to meet industrial water specifications, cooled to pipeline specifications, and finally sent to a pipeline for transport to the industrial site. The kerolite sludge is dewatered using a filter, as discussed earlier. The dewatered sludge can be dried in a steam-heated kiln or in an arid, but cool environment at the power plant. Dried kerolite is transported off-site for commercial refining and use. In zeolite manufacture, sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) is used both as the Al and base source. Hectorite or saponite (i.e. a magnesium-rich clay mineral of the montmorillonite group) are made1 Kerolite is a disordered form of talc.2 Zeolite P refers to various forms of gismodine.Table 3Quality of the water end-product estimated from actual testing and from vendor treatment specifications for the six treatment cases described in Table 2a TDS: total dissolved solids.in a similar fashion by treating water with Mg2+ and Fe2+ salts and a base (Gallup et al., 2003). Adding a little brucite[Mg(OH)2] or MgCl2 will also produce a nearly pure silica by-product for industrial uses (Lin et al., 2001). Desilication of water with precipitation of valuable minerals is a preferred option as opposed to simply allowing the silica to deposit in cooling ponds as it adds value to the geothermal power project by simultaneously controlling scale deposition and producing marketable products. Once the water is treated for desilication, any metals of commercial value can be extracted by means of well-documented processes (Maimoni, 1982; Featherstone, 1988; Duyvesteyn, 1992; Featherstone and Furmanski, 2004). This approach is particularly important if ion exchange or solvent extraction techniques have been used to concentrate and recover lithium, base and precious metals.4. Quality of the water end-productTable 3 gives details on the estimated quality of the water produced after each of the six treatment cases (see Table 2 for initial concentrations). The water qualities meet or exceed perceived drinking, agriculture and industrial standards at the location of the test plant.5. Preliminary cost estimatesTable 4 is a summary of the estimated capital and operating (product water) costs, based on construction of the geothermal power plant for the six treatment processes. Local market prices for chemicals such as H2SO4, CaO, flocculents, NaCl,Na2CO3, FeSO4, MgCl2, NaAlO2, etc., were used in the calculations. The product cost does not include a productstorage reservoir at the end of the pipeline where the treated water can be made available for industrial, agricultural or drinking uses. The anticipated selling price for finished minerals, such as kerolite, saponite, sepiolite (a magnesium-rich clay mineral), etc. was set at US$ 0.45 kg ?1. For comparison, the cost of injecting all of the waste geothermal fluids back into the field (using wells with gravity feed) is ～US$ 10,000,000. The latter is the estimated capital cost of drilling sufficient injection wells for water disposal, but does not include poten- Table 4Preliminary cost estimates (US$) for the six treatment cases described in Table 2a Water treatment cost offset by 7.5 ton/h of clay sales.tially high maintenance costs for acidification treatment and/or for re-drilling these injection wells.6. ConclusionsA preliminary study has been made of combining water treatment/reuse and electricity generation in a geothermal power plant located in an arid region of the western hemisphere. It has been assumed that good-quality water is scarce in the area and that there is a local demand for potable, agricultural and industrial water resources. Geothermal water and steam condensate require treatment prior to reuse. A variety of treatment scenarios have been considered to achieve water quality ranging from potable to industrial standards. Some proof-of-concept testing in the laboratory and the field has beenconducted to ensure that certain qualities can be attained. Preliminary cost estimates have been made for the treatment schemes considered in the study. Promising processes have been developed to produce marketable water and silicate minerals. Desilication and removal of arsenic and boron from the water have also proved useful with a view to subsequent extraction of lithium, base and precious metals.AcknowledgmentsThe authorwould like to thank Chevron Corporation management for permission to publish this paper. CH2MHILL, Irvine, CA, provided many of the process ideas and cost estimates included here. The author appreciates the many useful comments and suggestions provided by the editors and by Mr. Paul Hirtz in his review of the manuscript.ReferencesAllen, W.C., 1996. Superplasticizer-cement composition for waste disposal. US Patent 5,551,976.Bourcier, W., Ralph, W., Johnson, M., Bruton, C., Gutierrez, P., 2006. Silica extraction at Mammoth Lakes, California. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report UCRL-PROC-224426. Livermore,CA, USA, 6 pp.Doran, G.F.,Williams, K.L., Drago, J.A., Huang, S.S., Leong, L.Y.C., 1998. Pilot study results to convert oil field produced water to drinking water or reuse. Paper presented at 1998 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 27–30 September. New Orleans, LA, USA, SPE Paper 49124, 15 pp.Duyvesteyn, W.P.C., 1992. Recovery of base metals from geothermal waters. Geothermics 21, 773–799. Featherstone, J.L., 1988. Process for removing silica from silica-rich geothermal water. US Patent 4,765,913. Featherstone, J.L., Furmanski, G., 2004. Process for producing electrolytic manganese dioxide from geothermal brine.US Patent 6,682,644.Featherstone, J.L., Spang, T., Newell, D.G., Gallup, D.L., 1989. Process and apparatus for reducing the concentration of suspended solids in clarified geothermal water. US Patent 4,874,529. Fournier, R.O., Marshall, W.L., 1983. Calculation of amorphous silica solubilities at 25? to 300 ?C and apparent cationhydration numbers in aqueous salt solutions using the concept of effective density of water. Geochim. Cosmochim.Acta 47, 587–596.Gallup, D.L., 1995. Agricultural uses of excess steam condensate—Salton Sea geothermal field. Geotherm. Sci. Technol. 4, 175–187.Gallup, D.L., 1996. Water pH modification scale control technology. Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Trans. 20, 749–755. Gallup, D.L., 2002. Method for simultaneously abating H2S and producing acid for water treatment. US Patent 6,375,907. Gallup, D.L., Barnes, M.L., Cope, D., Kolimlim, Q.S., Leong, J.K., 1993. Water heat exchanger treatment method. USPatent 5,190,664.Gallup, D., Sugiaman, F., Capuno, V., Manceau, A., 2003. Laboratory investigation of silica removal from geothermal waters to control silica scaling and produce usable silicates. Appl. Geochem. 18, 1597–1612.Gallup, D.L., Glanzman, R.K., 2004. Method for synthesizing crystalline magnesium silicates from geothermal water.US Patent 6,761,865.Hirowatari, K., 1996. Scale prevention method bywater acidification with biochemical reactors. Geothermics 25, 259–270. Jost, J.W., Gallup, D.L. 1985. Inhibiting scale precipitation from high temperature water. US Patent 4,500,434.Khoe, G.H., Emett, M.T., Robins, R.G., 1997. Photoassisted oxidation of species in solution. US Patent No. 5,688,378.Kitz, K.R., Gallup, D.L., 1997. pH modification of geothermal water with sulfur-containing acid. US Patent 5,656,172.Lin, M.S., Premuzic, E.T., Zhou,W.M., Johnson, S.D., 2001. Mineral recovery: a promising geothermal power productionco-product. Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Trans. 25, 497–500.Maimoni, A., 1982. Mineral recovery from Salton Sea geothermal waters: a literature review and proposed cementation process. Geothermics 11, 239–258.Newell, D.G., Whitescarver, O.D., Messer, P.H., 1989. Salton Sea Unit 3;47.5MWe geothermal power plant. Geotherm.Resour. Counc. Bull. 18 (5), 3–5.Pascua, C.S., Minato, M., Yokoyama, S., Sato, T., 2007. Uptake of dissolved arsenic during the retrieval of silica fromspent geothermal brine. Geothermics 36, 230–242.Recepoglu, O., Beker, U., 1991. A preliminary study of boron removal from Kizildere/Turkey geothermal waste water. Geothermics 20, 83–89.Rothbaum, H.P., Anderton, B.H., 1975. Removal of silica and arsenic from geothermal discharge waters by precipitationof useful calcium silicates. Geothermics 2, 1417–1425.Simmons, M., Gallup, D., Harden, D., 2002. Photo-oxidation, removal and stabilization of arsenic residuals in drinking water, wastewater and process water systems. Trends Geochem. 2, 73–84. Umeno, J., Iwanaga, T., 1998. A study on the abatement technology of the harmful chemical components in geothermalhot water. In: Proceedings of the 20th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, pp. 209–213.处理地热废⽔来⽣产⼯业⽤⽔、农业⽤⽔或⽣活饮⽤⽔达雷尔L.盖洛普能源技术公司，雪佛龙公司Briarpark博⼠，美国德克萨斯州休斯顿摘要：⼀个概念的研究已经进⾏了转换成有价值的⼯业、农业和饮⽤⽔资源地热⽔和凝析油。

公路工程建设中英文对照外文翻译文献

公路工程建设中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory andPrinciples1 . ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry. The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however, and the one that will be considered here.Asphalt products are used to produce flexible pavements for highways and airports. The term “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength. This distinction is important because it provides they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexible pavement structures.The flexible pavement classification may be further broken down into high and low types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product isused. The low types of pavement are made with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country. Descriptive terminology has been developed in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names. However, the general process followed in construction is similar for most low-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or allowed to mix, forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some selected penetration grade.Fig. ·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway. Shoulder striping is used as a safely feature.Fig. ·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation.2 . Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grade of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size. The three groups are coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and mineral filler. These will be discussed in detail in later chapter.Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphalt mixture, and mix proportioning or design is the process of ensuring that no function is neglected. Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be considered so that design objectives can be established.A successful flexible pavement must have several particular properties. First, it must be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under load. Deformation of an asphalt pavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable. Plastic deformation of a pavement failure and which is to be avoided if possible. Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a loss of resiliency and usually a degree of roughness. This deformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure. The desirable type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexible pavements and is necessary to their long life.The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade. Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility. A durable pavement that does not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed. It must be remembered that flexible pavements transmit loads to the subgrade without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential.Rapidly moving vehicles depend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety. The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result. The design procedure should be used to select the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provides a skid resistant roadway.Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available. Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments along with a so-called design method.The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy. Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been recorded. If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well.With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements. The functions of the aggregates is to carry the load imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interlocking between the individual pieces of aggregates. The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to the surface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates. Surfac e texture varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surface texture is desired, this may not be available in some localities. Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well graded”. This means that the fine aggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates. In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability. When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work. When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage.The asphalt cement in the flexible pavement is used to bind the aggregate particles together and to waterproof the pavements. Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement. A chief objective of all the design methods which have been developed is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particular combination of aggregates.3 . Mix design principlesCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have been developed. Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, some consideration of these principles is necessary.Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids. Considering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space. The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely. When the asphalt cement is added, a portion of these aggregate voids is filled and a final air-void volume is retained. The retention of this air-void volume is very important to thecharacteristics of the mixture. The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the compacted mixture.An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particle friction and interlock. If the particles are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is destroyed. This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt should be added than the aggregate voids can readily hold. However ,asphalt cement is susceptible to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use. If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overflow in a condition known as bleeding. The loss of asphalt cement through bleeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway hazardous.Fig. ·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate frameworkbound together by asphalt cement.The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established. In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent should not be exceed. An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes. Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hardens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency.The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the degree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content. For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mixwill have a large voids volume and a lower density and a greater strength will result. In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of blows and the energy per blow. In the field, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the degree of compaction being obtained. Traffic further compact the pavement, and allowance must be made for this in the design. A systematic checking of the pavement over an extended period is needed to given factual information for a particular mix. A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however.Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem. It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy. As has been mentioned, the various design procedures are intended to provide a means for selecting the asphalt content . These tests will be considered in detail in a future chapter ,but the relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here.Fig.4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content.If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controlled, then the strength varies in a predictable manner. The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions. The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actualtesting.Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variable are controlled. It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions.As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content. However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content will decrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically. With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume.In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix design. The proper design based on these principles will result in sound pavements. If these principles are overlooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of the recognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too ‘rich’; raveling, cracking,having low durability when the mix is too‘lean’.It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a stability and does not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength. No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure. This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of flexible pavement work.[1] International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, 2014, V ol.7 (2), pp.83-92[2] Neville Adam .Concrete Technology-An Essential Element of Structural Design[M].Concrete International，1998.[3] Hewlett Peter C，et al. Lea，s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete[M]. 4thed.Butter-worth-Heinemann，London，1998.[4] M Karasahin . Anisotropic Characteristics of Granular Material . Proceedings of the Fifith Inter-national Symposium on Unbound Aggregates in Roads，2000:139-142 .[5]Sean Davit .Irish Experience in the Use of Unbound Aggregates in Roads1970-2000 .Un-bound Aggregates in Roads Construction，2000.[6]Moore W M，Milberger L J .Evaluation of the TTI Gyratory Compactor .Texas Transportation Institute Report No .99-3 .译文：沥青混合料的应用、理论和原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。

环境工程英文文献附带带翻译

Environmental problems caused by Istanbul subwayexcavation and suggestions for remediationIbrahim OcakAbstract:Many environmental problems caused by subway excavations have inevitably become an important point in city life. These problems can be categorized as transporting and stocking of excavated material, trafﬁc jams, noise, vibrations, piles of dust mud and lack of supplies. Although these problems cause many difﬁculties, the most pressing for a big city like Istanbul is excavation, since other li sted difﬁculties result from it. Moreover, these problems are environmentally and regionally restricted to the period over which construction projects are underway and disappear when construction is ﬁnished. Currently, in Istanbul, there are nine subway construction projects in operation, covering approximately 73 km in length; over 200 km to be constructed in the near future. The amount of material excavated from ongoing construction projects covers approximately 12 million m3. In this study, problems—primarily, the problem with excavation waste (EW)—caused by subway excavation are analyzed and suggestions for remediation are offered.Keywords: Environmental problems Subway excavation Waste managementIntroductionNowadays, cities are spreading over larger areas with increasing demand on extending transport facilities. Thus, all over the world, especially in cities where the population exceeds 300,000–400,000 people, railway-based means of transportation is being accepted as the ultimate solution. Therefore, large investments in subway and light rail construction are required. The construction of stated systems requires surface excavations, cut and cover tunnel excavations, bored tunnel excavations, redirection of infrastructures and tunnel construction projects. These elements disturb the environment and affect everyday life of citizens in terms of running water, natural gas, sewer systems and telephone lines.One reason why metro excavations affect the environment is the huge amount of excavated material produced. Moreover, a large amount of this excavated material is composed of muddy and bentonite material. Storing excavated material then becomes crucial. A considerable amount of pressure has been placed on ofﬁcials to store and recycle any kind of excavated material. Waste management has become a branch of study by itself. Many studies have been carried out on the destruction, recycling and storing of solid, (Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler 2005; Huang et al. 2006; Khan et al. 1987; Boadi and Kuitunen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007; Yang and Innes 2007), organic (Edwards et al. 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al. 2006), plastic (Idris et al. 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007; Ali et al. 2004; Nishino et al. 2003; Vasile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003; Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000), toxic (Rodgers et al. 1996; Bell and Wilson 1988; Chen et al. 1997; Sullivan and Yelton 1988), oily(Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003), farming(Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001) and radioactive materials(Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker et al. 2001; Adamov et al. 1992; Krinitsyn et al. 2003).Today, traditional materials, including sand, stone, gravel, cement, brick and tiles are being used as major building components in the construction sector. All of these materials have been produced from existing natural resources and may have intrinsic distinctions that damage the environment due to their continuous exploitation. In addition, the cost of construction materials is incrementally increasing. In Turkey, the prices of construction materials have increased over the last few years. Therefore, it is very important to use excavation and demolition wastes (DW) in construction operations to limit the environmental impact and excessive increase of raw material prices. Recycling ratios for excavation waste (EW) and DW of some countries are in shown Table 1 (Hendriks and Pietersen 2000). The recycling ratio for Turkey is 10%. Every year, 14 million tons of waste materials are generated in Istanbul. These waste materials consist of 7.6 million tons EW, 1.6 million tons organic materials and 2.7 million tons DW (IMM 2007). Approximately, 3.7 million tons of municipal wastes are produced in Istanbul every year. However, the recycling rate is approximately equal to only 7%. This rate will increase to 27%, when the construction of the plant is completed. Medical wastes are another problem, with over 9,000 tons dumped every year. Medical wastes are disposed by burning. Distributions of municipal wastes are given in Fig. 1Country Concentration of CWin total waste (in%)CW and DW recycled (in%)Japan36 65Australia44 51Germany19 50Finland14 40United Kingdom over 50 40USA29 25France25 25Spain70 17Italy30 10Brazil15 8Table 1 C omparison of a few countries’ construction waste concentrationFig. 1 Current status of municipal waste distribution in IstanbulIn this study, environmental problems in Istanbul, such as EW resulting from tunnelling operations, DW resulting from building demolition and home wastes, are evaluated. Resources of EW, material properties and alternatives of possible usage are also evaluated.Railway system studiesThree preliminary studies concerning transportation in Istanbul were conducted in 1985, 1987 and 1997. A fourth study is currently being conducted. The Istanbul Transportation Main Plan states that railway systems must constitute the main facet of Istanbul’s transportation net-work (IMM 2005). In addition to existing lines, within the scope of the Marmaray Project, 36 km of metro, 96 km of light rail, and 7 km of tram, with a total of 205 km of new railway lines, must be constructed. Consequently, the total length of railway line will exceed 250 km.Environmental problems caused by subway excavationsTransporting and storing excavated materialAlmost all land in Istanbul is inhabited. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to store and recycle excavated material obtained either from metro excavations or other construction activities, causing minimal damage and disturbance to the city. The collection, temporary storage, recycling, reuse, transportation and destruction of excavated material and construction waste are controlled by environmental law number 2872. According to this law, it is essential that:1. Waste must be reduced at its source.2. Management must take necessary precautions to reduce the harmful effects of waste.3. Excavated material must be recycled and reused, especially within the construction infrastructure.4. Excavated material and construction waste must not be mixed.5. Waste must be separated from its source and subjected to “selective destruction” in order to form a sound system for recycling and destruction.6. Producers of excavated material or construction waste must provide required funds to destroy waste.According to environmental laws, municipalities are responsible for ﬁnding areas within their province limits to excavate and operate these systems. Both the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Waste Recycling Company are the foundations that actively carryout all operations regarding excavated material.Since dumping areas have limited space, they are quickly ﬁlled, without a ny available plausible solution for remediation. In addition, existing dumping areas are far away from metro excavation areas. This means that loaded trucks are competing with city trafﬁc, causing trafﬁc congestion with their low speed and pollutants dropping off their wheels or bodies. Furthermore, this results in a loss of money and labour.The approximate amount of excavated material from ongoing railway excavation will be equal to 12 million m3. All tunnels have been excavated with new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM), earth pressure balance method (EPBM), tunnel boring machine (TBM), and cut and cover method.Existing dumping areas in Istanbul are listed in Table 2. It can be seen that existing dumping areas can only accommodate material excavated from the metro construction. Another important matter according to Table 2 is that 93% of existing dumping areas are on the European side of Istanbul, with 88% of them in Kemerburgaz. Thus, all excavated material on the Anatolian side must cross over European site every day for a distance of approximately 150 km. Every day, on average, 3,000 trucks carry various types of excavated material to Kemerburgaz from other parts of Istanbul. This leads to a waste of time and increased environmental pollution.Name of firm Dumping Capacity (m3)%Total of European side13,984,158 93.3 Total of Anatolian side (six companies)Various 1,011,486 6.7Table 2 Existing dumping areas in IstanbulAnother problem related to excavation is that the materials, obtained from EPBM machines and muddy areas, cannot be directly sent to dumping facilities. They have to be kept in suitable places, so that water can be drained off from the materialand then sent to proper facilities. However, this causes muddy material to drop from trucks, causing increased litter in cities.Trafﬁc jamSince most of the railway constructions are carried out in the most densely populated areas, city trafﬁc must be cl osed and redirected during the construction. In most cases, an entire area must be closed for trafﬁc. For example, Uskudar square is now closed due to the Marmaray project and most bus stops and piers have been moved to other locations.With cut and cover constructions, the case becomes even more complicated. In this case, an entire route is closed to trafﬁc because cut and cover tunnels are constructed across streets. In order to ensure that machine operation and construction can continue uninterrupted and to minimize the risk of accidents to the people living around the construction zone, streets are either totally closed to trafﬁc or trafﬁc is redirected. This causes long-term difficulties. For example, shop owners on closed streets have difﬁculties re aching their shops, stocking and transporting their goods and retaining customers.Noise and vibrationFor metro excavations, a lot of different machines are used. These machines seriously disturb the environment with their noise and vibrations. In some regions, excavation may be as close as 5–6 m away from inhabited apartment blocks. In such cases, people are disturbed as excavation may take a signiﬁcant p eriod of time to be completed.Drilling–blasting may be needed in conventional methods for drilling through hard rock. In this case, no matter how controlled the blasting is, people who are living in the area experience both noise and vibrations. Some become scared, thinking that an earthquake is happening. In blasting areas, the intensity of vibrations is measured. In order to keep them within accepted limits, delayed capsules are used.In order to minimize vibration and noise caused by machines and to reduce the effects of blasting, working areas are surrounded by fences. Super ﬁcial blasting shaft rims are covered with a large canvas and fences are covered with wet broadcloths. However, these precautions can only reduce negative effects; they cannot totally eliminate them.The formation of dust and mudDepending on the season, both dust and mud disturb the environment. During removal of excavated material, especially muddy material, trucks may pollute the environment despite all precautions taken. Mud that forms around the excavation area may slide down the slope and cover the ground. In this case although roads are frequently cleaned, the environment is still disturbed. Trucks, which travel from dumping areas to areas that are mud dy cannot enter trafﬁc until their wheels and bodies are washed. However, this cannot prevent the truck wheel from dropping mud on the roads while on move.Interrupted utilitiesInterrupted utilities are also one of the most crucial problems facing citizens during excavation projects due to the fact that telephone, natural gas, electricity, water, and infrastructure lines must be cut off and moved to other areas. During the transfer of these lines, services may remain unavailable for some time. Some institutions will not allow others to do this and carry out operations themselves. With so many providers conducting individual moves, services may be interrupted for an extended term of time.Damage to neighbouring buildingsMetro excavations cause deformations around the excavation area. These deformations are continuously checked and efforts are made to keep them under control. However, some deformations may become extensive; including cracks or even collapses of neighbouring buildings. Every metro tunnel excavation in Istanbul causes problems as mentioned earlier. These kinds of problems are more frequent in shallow tunnels. In such cases, although people’s financial losses are compen sated, their overall livelihood and way of life is compromised. For example, in a landslip during the ﬁrst stage of the Istanbul Metro excavation, ﬁve people died. Obviously, no amount of money can compensate the death of a person.Suggestions for remedying environmental problemsEnvironmental problems that arise during tunnel excavations include trafﬁc jams, noise, vibrations, dust, mud and deformation of surrounding buildings. Some possible solutions are recommended as listed below:• In big cities, railway systems are crucial to city transportation. However, a tram should not be considered as a viable railway system due to its low transportation capacity (approximately 1/3 of the metro). At the same time, a tram uses the same route as wheeled transportation devices. Therefore, trams occupy the same space as regular trafﬁc a nd do not offer substantial advantages.• The most crucial problem facing metro excavations is not providing railway lines in a timely manner. Proof of this exists in big cities, including London, Paris, Moscow or Berlin, where metro lines of over 500 km exist. However, in Istanbul, there are only 8 km of metro line. Had the metro been built earlier when the city was not overcrowded, many problems facing the city would not currently exist. Now, ofﬁcials must do their best to reduce troubles that future generations are likely to face.• Any kind of railway construction carried out above the ground causes serious problems to people living in the area. In addition, these kinds of construction cause both noise and litter. All railway lines are constructed completely underground in many parts of the world. This has two advantages; ﬁrst, since excavation is carried out underground, it causes minimal interruption in utilities and provides a more comfortable area to work. Thus, the environment is exposed to very little damage because all operations are carried out underground.• Before beginning metro excavations, the route must be carefully examined for weaknesses in infrastructures and existing historical buildings. Otherwise, these elements cause problems, including interruptions in excavation when work must stop until the environment is stabilized. An example of this is that during the second stage of the Taksim–Yenikapi route of the Istanbul Metro, the construction of the Halic Bridge could not be started due to historical ramparts.• A lack of coordination among related institutions providing utility services is a major problem. Therefore, founding of an institution that strictly deals with relocating natural gas lines, telephone lines, sewer systems, and electricity will deﬁnitely accelerate the transfer of energy lines and avert accidents and inconveniences caused by this lack of coordination.•In order to increase beneﬁts of railway systems both in constr uction and operational stages, projects must be continuously revised from time to time. This is the main problem facing Istanbul metro excavations. It has taken 110 years to restart metro projects in Istanbul, with the last project, the opening of the Karakoy tunnel, established in 1876 (Ocak 2004).From this time onward, initiated projects must have been stable and continuous. In 1935, 314,000 passengers were travelling daily. In the 1950s, the total length of tram lines reached 130 km (Kayserilioglu 2001). However, as the trolleybus was introduced in 1961, all tram lines on the European side, and in 1966, all lines on the Anatolian side were removed in order to make way for private vehicles (Kayserilioglu 2001).Results and discussionTBM and classic tunnel construction methods are widely used in Istanbul for different purposes, like metro, sewerage and water tunnels. Waste from rock is rarely used as construct ion material as the suitability of the material for this purpose is not well examined. However, it is believed that the muck may be used for some applications. If this suitability is realized, cost savings may be signiﬁcant for tunnel construction, where the use of aggregate is a common requirement. A review of standard construction aggregate speciﬁcations indicates th at hard rock TBM waste would be suitable for several construction applications, including pavement and structural concrete (Gertsch et al. 2000). Size distributions of waste materials produced by tunnel boring machines are less (up to 125mm) than the waste materials produced by using classical construction methods. Muck size distribution is uniform, generally larger (up to 30–40 cm) and can be changed to meet a wide range of classical construction methods, making the reuse of waste more common. The waste product is used as construction materials. Fifty -seven percent of EW generated during tunnel excavations result from classical tunnel construction, 33.5% from TBM, while the remaining percentage stems from EPBM and slurry TBM. Different from TBM waste materials generated by EPB and slurry, TBM include mud and chemical materials.The annual quantity of EW generated in Istanbul is approximately 7.6 million tons. 13.8% of this total is clay and ﬁll. The rest is composed of rock. Rock material can be properly used in roadway structures, ﬁllings, road slopes, for erosion controland as a sub-base material, as long as it conforms to local standards (TS706, TS1114). Sand and clay have properties appropriate for use as raw materials for industrial use, depending on local standards. More studies should be completed to determine other potential uses for this material. Only 10% of rock material generated during tunnel excavation can be evaluated. A large percentage of soil material, nearly 70,000 m3, can be recycled.Generally, for any subway construction project, plans for recycling waste materials should be implemented prior to work commencement. These plans should identify which types of waste will be generated and the methods that will be used to handle, recycle and dispose these materials. Additionally, areas for temporary accumulation or storage should be clearly designated. A waste management plan directs construction activities towards an environmentally friendly process by reducing the amount of used and unused waste materials. Environmental andecon omic advantages occurring when waste materials are diverted from landﬁlls include the following (Batayneh et al. 2007):1. The conservation of raw materials2. A reduction in the cost of waste disposal3. An efﬁcient use of materials.EW materials mu st be kept clean and separate in order for them to be efﬁciently used or recycled. Storage methods should be investigated to prevent material from being lost due to mishandling. In addition, orders for materials should be placed just before work commences. To complete a waste management plan, an estimation of the amount and type of usable and unusable EW materials expected to be generated should be developed. Listing all expected quantities of each type of waste will give an indication of what type of man agement activities are appropriate for each speciﬁc waste material. At each stage of excavation, speciﬁc ways to reduce, reuse or recycle produced EW should be implement ed. The ﬂow chart in Fig. 2 includes suggestions for an EW management plan.This paper focuses on EW produced by metro tunnel excavation through hard rock and soil. TBM and classical tunnelling wastes can be successfully used in many construction and speciality applications, including aggregates, erosion control, roadway structures, ﬁll, sub-base material and road slopes. In order to minimize negative effects caused by excavated material both on the environment and on people, it must be reduced at its source. Including forcible decrees through the acceptance of environmental laws would also be useful. Soil and clay material, excavated through the use of EPBM machines, must be reused. It is possible to separate clay and sand, making its reuse possible and minimizing harmful environmental effect.Waste and recycling management plans should be developed for any construction project prior to commencement in order to sustain environmental, economic, and social development principles. Waste management is a critical issue facing the construction industry in Istanbul as the industry is one of the biggest generators of pollution. During different excavation projects, construction, demolitions and domestic activities, Istanbul produces about 14 million tons of solid waste each year, posing major environmental and ecological problems, including the need for a large area of land to be used as storage and disposal facilities. This wasteconsists of EW (7.6 million tons), DW (2.7 million tons) and municipal waste (3.7 million tons). The recycling rate of municipal waste is only 7%. The recycling rate of EW and DW is below 10% (IMM 2007).Fig. 2 Flow chart for EW management伊斯坦布尔地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议摘要：许多地铁开挖引起的环境问题不可避免地成为城市生活的重要部分。

建筑环境与能源应用工程文献英文

建筑环境与能源应用工程文献英文Building Environment and Energy Application Engineering LiteratureBuilding environment and energy application engineering is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on creating comfortable and sustainable indoor environments while minimizing energy consumption. As such, it is of critical importance in today's world, where environmental concerns are at the forefront of public consciousness. In this article, we will explore the literature that guides this crucial field.Step 1: The Basics of Building Environment and Energy Application EngineeringAt its core, building environment and energy application engineering involves understanding the principles of heat transfer, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics to optimize the performance of the built environment. These principles are explored in depth in seminal works like “The HVAC Handbook” by Robert Rosaler and “Energy Management Handbook” by Wayne C. Turner, which provide guidance on how to design and operate air conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems.Step 2: Sustainable Building DesignSustainable building design is a crucial component of building environment and energy application engineering. Understanding how to design buildings that minimize their carbon footprint is essential. One influential work in this area is “The Green Building Revolution” by Jerry Yudelson, which explores the principles behind sustainable building design and offers practical advice on how to integrate theseprinciples into the design process.Step 3: Energy Modeling and AnalysisEnergy modeling and analysis is another key aspect of building environment and energy application engineering. Detailed modeling of building systems allows designers to optimize energy performance and identify opportunities for energy savings. One influential work in this area is “ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals” by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, which provides a comprehensive overview of energy modeling techniques.Step 4: Energy Efficient Operation and MaintenanceFinally, energy efficient operation and maintenance are essential to the ongoing sustainability of building environments. Best practices in this area are explored in works like “Energy Efficiency for Building Operato rs and Managers” by Barry J. Abramson, which provides practical guidance on optimizing the operation of building systems to minimize energy consumption and extend the life of equipment.In conclusion, building environment and energy application engineering literature is diverse and multifaceted. From the basic principles of heat transfer to the design of sustainable buildings and the optimization of building systems, this literature serves as a critical guide to ensuring the comfort and energy efficiency of the built environment.。

建筑环境与设备工程毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

外文翻译中文空调工作过程和节能技术的研究摘要：一台空调基本上是没有被隔离的箱子的一个冰箱。它象氟里昂一样利用冷媒的蒸发提供冷却。在一台空调里氟里昂蒸发循环的过程和冰箱里的相同。关键词：水塔、改变气候、压缩机、节能当外面的温度开始上升时，很多人寻找室内的空调的极好的安慰。象水塔和电源线一样，空调是我们每天看见但是很少注意的那些东西之一。它将不是很高兴的知道这些不可缺少的机器怎样运转他们的魔术吗？在这篇文章里，我们将检查空调 – 从微观到宏观 – 以使你对你所看见的知道得更多！低温的各个方面。空调的定型是各种尺寸，冷却能力和价格。我们经常看见的一种类型是窗式空气调节器。窗式空气调节器是冷却一个小的区域的一种容易和节约的方法。居住在郊区的地区的大多数人通常在他们的后院有这些中之一：如果你住在一座公寓大厦里，这或许是一个熟悉的情景：大多数商业和办公楼在他们的屋顶上有冷凝装置，并且当你飞到上空时，仓库和商业区可能让人把10 或者20 套冷凝装置隐藏在他们的屋顶上：当你徘徊在很多医院，大学和办公室联合企业的周围时，你会找到连接空气调节系统的大的冷却塔：即使这些机器中的每个都有一个相当清楚的外表，他们全部以相同的原理工作。让我们近距离地看一下。基本的想法，一台空调基本上是没有被隔离的箱子的一个冰箱。它象氟里昂一样利用冷媒的蒸发提供冷却。在一台空调里氟里昂蒸发循环的过程和冰箱里的相同。根据在线梅里厄姆织工字典，氟里昂一般“用于任何。各种各样的调节器” 根据在线梅里厄姆织工字典，氟里昂一般quot用于作为致冷剂和作为气溶胶推进者使用的任何各种各样的不易燃的碳氟化合物。” 这就是在一台空调里的蒸发循环是怎么样工作看出冰箱怎样为关于这个系列的完整的细节工作： 1. 压缩机压缩低温的氟里昂气体，产生高温，高压氟里昂气体。 2. 这种高温气体通过一套线圈，因此它能使它的热消散，

介绍建环专业的英语作文

介绍建环专业的英语作文Environmental Engineering: Shaping a Sustainable Future.Environmental engineering, often referred to as "Eco-Engineering" or "Environmental Science and Engineering," is an interdisciplinary field that combines principles of engineering, environmental science, and ecology to address the challenges of environmental pollution and degradation. This field aims to develop sustainable solutions for environmental problems, ensuring a balance between human needs and the protection of the natural environment.The foundation of environmental engineering lies in the recognition that human activities, such asindustrialization, urbanization, and agriculture, have a significant impact on the environment. This impact is often manifested in the form of air pollution, water pollution, soil degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Environmental engineers are trained to understand these interconnected issues and design effective systems tomitigate their effects.One of the key areas of focus for environmental engineers is water and wastewater treatment. They design and implement water treatment facilities that remove harmful contaminants from drinking water, ensuring its safety for human consumption. Similarly, they also develop wastewater treatment plants that process and recycle used water, reducing its environmental impact.Air pollution control is another crucial aspect of environmental engineering. Engineers in this field study the sources of air pollution, such as industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust, and design strategies to reduce these emissions. They may also work on developing more efficient and environmentally friendly energy sources, such as solar or wind power, to replace fossil fuels.Solid waste management is another area where environmental engineers play a crucial role. They are involved in the design and operation of waste disposal facilities, including landfills, incinerators, andrecycling centers. Their goal is to minimize the environmental impact of solid waste by promoting waste reduction, reuse, and recycling.Environmental engineers also work on sustainable development projects, such as green building design and construction. They aim to integrate environmental considerations into the planning and execution of building projects, ensuring that they are energy-efficient,resource-efficient, and environmentally friendly.In addition to their work in water, air, and solid waste management, environmental engineers are also involved in the restoration and preservation of natural ecosystems. They may work on projects such as wetland restoration, soil erosion control, and the protection of biodiversity.The field of environmental engineering is constantly evolving, driven by the need to address new environmental challenges and the quest for more sustainable solutions. As global environmental issues become increasingly urgent, the role of environmental engineers in shaping a sustainablefuture has become increasingly important.In conclusion, environmental engineering is a crucial discipline that combines engineering principles with environmental science to address the pressing issues of environmental pollution and degradation. By developing sustainable solutions for water and wastewater treatment, air pollution control, solid waste management, and ecosystem restoration, environmental engineers are playing a vital role in ensuring a healthy and sustainable environment for future generations.。

建环专业英语课后翻译（汉译英）

10.翻译：翻译：1. V apor compression compression refrigeration refrigeration refrigeration system system system is is is composed composed composed by by by compressor compressor ，condenser ，expansion expansion valve valve valve and and evaporator ，connected with pipe line to form an enclosed system. Refrigerant changes heat with substance to be be cooled cooled cooled in in in evaporator. evaporator. Refrigerator Refrigerator absorbs absorbs absorbs heat heat heat from from from substance substance substance to to to be be be cooled cooled cooled and and and evaporated. evaporated. evaporated. The The compressor draws the low pressure vapor in its suction side and then compressed it to high pressure before discharge. 2. During During the the the cycle, cycle, cycle, compressor, compressor, compressor, which which which is is is heart heart heart of of of the the the system, system, system, plays plays plays a a a part part part in in in compressing compressing compressing and and and transporting transporting refrigerant vapor and causing low pressure in evaporator and high pressure in condenser. Flow control valve throttles throttles refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant flow flow flow to to to reduce reduce reduce its its its pressure pressure pressure and and and regulates regulates regulates refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant flow flow flow rate rate rate of of of entering entering entering evaporator. evaporator. Evaporator, which is an equipment of refrigerating effect output, refrigerant absorbs heat form substance to be cooled to realize refrigerating. Condenser, which is an equipment of heat output, coolant in it takes away heat from refrigerant and heat from the work consumed by compressor. 3. In liquid evaporating refrigerating systems, refrigerant is required to evaporate at low temperature. It absorbs heat heat from from from objects objects objects to to to be be be cooled. cooled. cooled. Then Then Then condenses condenses condenses at at at higher higher higher temperature temperature temperature and and and discharges discharges discharges heat heat heat to to to environment environment meanwhile. Therefore, only those evaporate and condense within range of working temperature can be used as refrigerants. Most refrigerants are in gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. 4. Mixed Mixed refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant is is is composed composed composed by by by two two two kinds kinds kinds or or or more more more pure pure pure refrigerants. refrigerants. refrigerants. Due Due Due to to to limitation limitation limitation to to to type type type and and performance of pure refrigerants, mixture of refrigerant offers more freedom to modulate performance and amplify choice of refrigerant. 9翻译翻译1. 1. Boiler Boiler Boiler is is is a a a kind kind kind of of of heat heat heat exchange exchange exchange device device device which which which turns turns turns chemical chemical chemical energy energy energy and and and excess excess excess heat heat heat from from from industrial industrial production process or other heat source into steam or hot water with certain temperature and pressure. 2. 2. According According According to to to heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer features features features of of of boiler, boiler, boiler, industrial industrial industrial boiler boiler boiler heat heat heat surface surface surface can can can be be be divided divided divided into into into radiant radiant radiant heat heat surface and convection heat surface. Radiant heat surface is that portion of surface of being located in combustion chamber and receive radiant heat. Manly means water cooled wall. Convection heat surface, located in boiler flue, is that portion of surface swashed directly by high temperature flue gas to transfer heat by convection. 3. 3. Boiler Boiler Boiler heat heat heat efficiency efficiency efficiency is is is an an an important important important technique technique technique index index index of of of boiler. boiler. boiler. Boiler Boiler Boiler heat heat heat efficiency efficiency efficiency means means means when when when boiler boiler operating with rating load, how many percent of the heat from fully burning of fuel sent into boiler per hour to produce steam or hot water. 4. Boiler has broad applications and various types. Some common criteria used in classifying them are: structure of boiler, application of boiler, fuel or energy used by boiler, type of combusting, ventilation mode, circulation mode and arrangement of boiler drum 8 翻译翻译1. 1. HV HV AC AC means means means to to to realize realize realize regulating regulating regulating and and and controlling controlling controlling of of of temperature, temperature, temperature, humidity, humidity, humidity, cleanliness cleanliness cleanliness and and and air air air velocity velocity velocity for for certain certain room room room or or or space, space, space, providing providing providing adequate adequate adequate fresh fresh fresh air air air meantime. meantime. meantime. HV HV AC AC is is is called called called Air Air Air conditioning conditioning conditioning for for for short. short. short. Air Air conditioning can realize overall controlling to heat and humidity environment and air quality in buildings, or to say it contains partial function of heating and ventilation. 2. 2. All All All -air -air -air system system system is is a a system system system that that that cooling cooling cooling or or or heating heating heating load load load in in in room room room is is is undertaken completely undertaken completely by by air. air. air. An An all-air system supplies sensible heat cooling capacity and latent heat cooling capacity by delivering cold air into room. Processes Processes of of of cooling cooling cooling down down down and and and dehumidification dehumidification dehumidification of of of air air air are are are accomplished accomplished accomplished by by by air air air handling handling handling unit unit unit which which which locates locates completely completely in in in air air air conditioning conditioning conditioning machine machine machine room. room. room. Supplemental Supplemental Supplemental cooling cooling cooling in in in room room room is is is no no no more more more required, required, required, yet yet yet heat heat heat of of supply air can be achieved either in air conditioning machine room or in individual room. Air treatment for all-air system is mainly centralized in air conditioning machine room, so it is commonly called central air conditioning system. 3. Air -water system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken by both air and water. Besides supplying treated fresh air to room, terminal unit with circulation media of water installed in room heats and cools indoor air. 7 翻译翻译1. Ventilation is main approach to ensure indoor air quality. That is, displacing indoor air of higher contaminant concentration concentration with with with outdoor outdoor outdoor air air air of of of much much much lower lower lower contaminant contaminant contaminant concentration. concentration. concentration. V V entilation rate rate needed needed needed should should should be be determined determined by by by principle principle principle of of of diluting diluting diluting indoor indoor indoor contaminant contaminant contaminant to to to reach reach reach concentration concentration concentration specified specified specified by by by standard. standard. standard. Main Main contaminant contaminant source source source is is is people people people in in in people people people occupied occupied occupied buildings. buildings. buildings. So So So the the the requisite requisite requisite ventilation ventilation ventilation rate rate rate ––fresh fresh air air air rate rate rate is is ascertained by people. That is, fresh air rate is ascertained by diluting carbon dioxide released by people. In order to to take take take into into into account account account diluting diluting diluting other other other contaminant contaminant contaminant and and and odor odor odor aroused aroused aroused by by by people people people’’s s activity activity activity at at at the the the same same same time, time, time, many many countries control carbon dioxide at 0.1%, while suggestion value of WHO is 0.25%. 2. Air condition buildings are commonly well airtight. If no reasonable exists, indoor air quality in it is not better than than common common common building building building with with with well well well ventilating. ventilating. ventilating. V entilation V entilation issues issues issues are are are accomplished accomplished accomplished by by by air air air conditioning conditioning conditioning system system except special treatment for hazardous gases released by technique process in air conditioning buildings. Special fresh air system is installed in air-water system to supply fresh air to individual room to fulfill task of ventilation and improve air quality. Outdoor fresh air should be introduced into all-air system and mixed with return air, and then the mixture is delivered to room to dilute indoor contaminant after been treated. 3. Local air exhaust is a kind of local ventilation which removes contaminant directly from contaminant source. When When contaminant contaminant contaminant occurs occurs occurs centrally centrally centrally in in in somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, local local local air air air exhaust exhaust exhaust is is the the most most most effective effective effective way way way to to to treat treat treat harm harm harm of of contaminant to environment. If overall ventilation is adopted in such situation, contaminant may spread in rooms. When contaminant occurs in large amount, ventilation volume needed to dilute it can be too much to realize in practice. Local air exhaust system consists of exhaust hood 、fan 、air cleaner 、air ducts 、exhaust outlet. 4. 4. Nature Nature Nature ventilation ventilation ventilation caused caused caused by by by heat heat heat pressure pressure pressure or or or wind wind wind pressure pressure pressure is is is widely widely widely used used used ventilation. ventilation. ventilation. Common Common Common residential residential building, office building, industrial workshop depend on nature ventilation to ensure indoor air quality. Otherwise, natural ventilation is a kind of ventilation which is difficult to be controlled effectively. Only by understanding its basic principle and taking certain measure can we get nature ventilation going on according to out preset mode. 5. Ventilation rate is always self-balanced practically when a room is ventilated. Air balance we referred to here means designing balance in the light of willing of designer or occupier. If balance designed has not performed, ventilation requirements may not be satisfied when system practically operates in balanced state. For example, a set of local exhaust system is installed to eliminate contaminant emitted by contaminant source in room. But the system doesn ’t work well when operating and ventilation rate does n’n’t reach the need. The problem lies in that the t reach the need. The problem lies in that the room is in basement and has good air permeability performance. Meanwhile, absence of air intake system and passage gives rise to higher negative pressure and reduces ventilation rate of air exhaust system. 6 翻译翻译1. nature gas is generally divided into four kinds: gas exploited from gas well of gas field is called pure natural gas or gas of gas well; gas exploited accompanying with petroleum is called petroleum gas or petroleum accompanied gas; gas which has light fraction of petroleum is called condensate gas of gas field; gas drawn from coal bed of coal well is called coal mine well gas. 2. Density variation should be taken into account when computing gas flow in pipes. Density of gas reduces with declining of pressure along the pipe line. Only in low pressure pipes the change in density of gas can be omitted. 3. 3. For For For the the the sake sake sake of of of making making making distribution distribution distribution system system system with with with very very very high high high economical economical economical index, index, index, optimal optimal optimal gas gas gas pipeline pipeline pipeline route route route is is selected and number of gas pressure regulating room and distribution center is determined besides correct choice of of pipe pipe pipe diameter. diameter. diameter. There There There are are are generally generally generally many many many kinds kinds kinds of of of design design design schemes schemes schemes to to to be be be encountered encountered encountered during during during the the the process process process of of designing, therefore an optimal scheme should be picked out from them. 5 翻译翻译1. 1. Heating Heating Heating by by by convection convection convection which which which is is is major major major type type type of of of heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer is is is called called called convection convection convection heating. heating. Heat Heat emitting emitting equipment in the system is radiator, so this kind of system is also called radiator heating system. It supplies heat to room room by by by heat heat heat convection. convection. convection. Radiant Radiant Radiant heating heating heating is is a a kind kind kind of heating of heating type type mainly mainly mainly by by by radiant radiant heat heat transfer. transfer. transfer. Main Main Main heat heat emitting equipment of radiant heating system is metal radiant panel or part of ceiling 、floor 、wall of building as radiant surface. 2. C irculating system can be divided into gravity circulating system and forced circulating system according to circulating power. System System circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. System circulating by mechanical force is called gravity circulating system. The force of gravity heating system depends on change of water temperature of the loop 3. 3. There There There are are are many many many factors factors factors influence influence influence heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer coefficient coefficient coefficient of of of radiator: radiator: radiator: manufacture manufacture manufacture condition condition condition of of of radiator radiator (material, geometric dimension, structure form, spray coating of surface etc.) and application condition of radiator (media, temperature, flow rate, indoor air temperature and velocity, fitting type and combined piece etc.). They all synthetically influence heat emitting performance of radiator. 4 翻译翻译1．Main issue of fluid dynamics is space distribution of velocity and pressure, velocity is more important between the two, inertia force and viscous force have close relationship with velocity. In the two forces, inertia force occurs with with velocity velocity velocity variation variation variation of of of mass mass mass point point point itself itself itself while while while viscous viscous viscous force force force is is is caused caused caused by by by velocity velocity velocity difference difference difference between between between flow flow layers and mass points. 2. Law of variation of viscosity coefficient with temperature is different between water and air. Viscosity of water reduces with increasing of temperature while increases for air. This is because viscosity is result of attractive force between articles and irregular thermal motion to arouse momentum exchange of articles. When temperature rises, attractive attractive force force force between between between articles articles articles decreases decreases decreases and and and momentum momentum momentum increases. increases. increases. Conversely, Conversely, Conversely, when when when temperature temperature temperature decreases, decreases, attractive force between articles increases and momentum decreases. 3. Heat transfer caused by density difference and gravity is called natural convection. Heat transfer coefficient of natural convection is generally lower than that of forced convection, therefore, when computing total heat gain or heat loss, the main point is radiant heat should not be ignored. Radiant heat transfer and natural convection may have have the the the same same same order order order of of of magnitude magnitude magnitude even even even under under under indoor indoor indoor temperature temperature temperature conditions, conditions, conditions, because because because indoor indoor indoor wall wall wall temperature temperature affects comfortable sensation of human body. 3 翻译翻译1. Heat conduction is thought as heat transfers from high temperature zone to low temperature zone in object by gradually energy exchange with particles of substance. During the conduction, there is no specific displacement of articles. But for mental, motion of free electrons is greatly helpful to heat conduction. 2. Fluid directly connected with the surface is heated and becomes less-dense by heat conduction and moves upwards due to density difference with adjacent fluid. This motion is hindered by viscosity of fluid. The heat transmission is affected by the following factors ：（1）gravity caused by heat expansion ；（2）viscosity （3）heat diffusion This heat transmission is regard as depending on acceleration of gravity 、coefficient of thermal expansion 、coefficient of motion viscosity and coefficient of thermal conductivity. 3. As for surface with different geometric shape, radiant characteristic and direction, when heat transfer rate is evaluated, assumptions are: (1) all surfaces are gray or black; (2) radiation or reflective diffuse reflection; (3) the whole surface parameters are homogeneous . (4) emissivity is equal to absorptivity and has no relationship with temperature of project source. (5) objects between two radiant surfaces neither emit nor absorb radiation. These assumptions assumptions are are are used used used due due due to to to providing providing providing simplification simplification simplification to to large large content, content, content, although although although the the the results results results are are are only only only thought thought thought as as approximate. 2 翻译翻译1. Energy transfers between system and environment under temperature difference is called heat. Heat transfer of system and environment stops when system and environment are in thermal equilibrium. Once heat enters system through boundary, it turns into a part of system storage energy, that is, internal energy. It is obvious that heat is process factor relevant to process, while internal energy is state factor depending on thermodynamic state. 2. T he Carnot cycle and Carnot theorem have important theoretical and impractical meaning in the research of thermodynamics. It provides upper limits on efficiency of heat engine and theoretically proposes the approach to increase efficiency. The efficiency of other impractical cycle is always less than the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating between the same two reservoirs. 3. The meaning of the increase of entropy principle：(1) estimate the direction of a process by the increase of entropy principle of an isolated system；（2）the increase of entropy principle can serve as judgment of system equilibrium-when entropy of an isolated system reaches maximum value，system is under equilibrium state. （3）the increase of entropy principle has close relationship with the irreversibility of a process. The more irreversible，the more increase of entropy. So it is used to evaluate perfect of thermodynamical performance of a process 。

2016年建环专业英语文献翻译

英语文献翻译专业：12级建环1班学号：221 姓名：董化栋指导老师：李建强CHAPTER 24MECHANICAL DEHUMIDIFIERS AND RELATED COMPONENTSMechanical Dehumidifiers..................................................................................... 24.1 Installation and Service Considerations ................................................................ 24.7Wraparound Heat Exchangers ............................................................................... 24.7 第24章机械除湿机和相关组件机械除湿机安装和服务注意事项环绕式热交换器Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.THE correct moisture level in the air is important for health and comfort. Controlling humidity and condensation is important to prevent moisture damage and mold or mildew development, thus protecting buildings and occupants, and preserving building con-tents. This chapter covers mechanical dehumidification using a cooling process only, including basic dehumidifier models (with moisture removal capacity of less than 1.4 kg/h) used for home basements and small storage areas, as well as larger sizes required for commercial applications. Other methods of dehumidification are covered in Chapter 23.Commercial applications for mechanical dehumidifiers include the following:Indoor swimming poolsMakeup air treatmentIce rinksDry storageSchoolsHospitalsOffice buildingsMuseums, libraries, and archivesRestaurantsHotels and motelsAssisted living facilitiesSupermarketsManufacturing plants and processesIn addition, an air-to-air heat exchanger (such as a heat pipe, coil runaround loop, fixed-plate heat exchanger, or rotary heat exchanger) may be used to enhance moisture removal by a mechan-ical dehumidifier or air conditioner. The section on Wraparound Heat Exchangers discusses how dehumidification processes can be improved by using such a device. Other uses of air-to-air heat exchangers are covered in Chapter 25.空气中正确的湿度对健康和舒适度而言是很重要的。

建环专业英语课后翻译(汉译英)

10.翻译：1.Vapor compression refrigeration system is composed by compressor，condenser，expansion valve andevaporator，connected with pipe line to form an enclosed system. Refrigerant changes heat with substance to be cooled in evaporator. Refrigerator absorbs heat from substance to be cooled and evaporated. The compressor draws the low pressure vapor in its suction side and then compressed it to high pressure before discharge.2.During the cycle, compressor, which is heart of the system, plays a part in compressing and transportingrefrigerant vapor and causing low pressure in evaporator and high pressure in condenser. Flow control valve throttles refrigerant flow to reduce its pressure and regulates refrigerant flow rate of entering evaporator.Evaporator, which is an equipment of refrigerating effect output, refrigerant absorbs heat form substance to be cooled to realize refrigerating. Condenser, which is an equipment of heat output, coolant in it takes away heat from refrigerant and heat from the work consumed by compressor.3.In liquid evaporating refrigerating systems, refrigerant is required to evaporate at low temperature. It absorbsheat from objects to be cooled. Then condenses at higher temperature and discharges heat to environment meanwhile. Therefore, only those evaporate and condense within range of working temperature can be used as refrigerants. Most refrigerants are in gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure.4.Mixed refrigerant is composed by two kinds or more pure refrigerants. Due to limitation to type andperformance of pure refrigerants, mixture of refrigerant offers more freedom to modulate performance and amplify choice of refrigerant.9翻译1. Boiler is a kind of heat exchange device which turns chemical energy and excess heat from industrial production process or other heat source into steam or hot water with certain temperature and pressure.2. According to heat transfer features of boiler, industrial boiler heat surface can be divided into radiant heat surface and convection heat surface. Radiant heat surface is that portion of surface of being located in combustion chamber and receive radiant heat. Manly means water cooled wall. Convection heat surface, located in boiler flue, is that portion of surface swashed directly by high temperature flue gas to transfer heat by convection.3. Boiler heat efficiency is an important technique index of boiler. Boiler heat efficiency means when boiler operating with rating load, how many percent of the heat from fully burning of fuel sent into boiler per hour to produce steam or hot water.4. Boiler has broad applications and various types. Some common criteria used in classifying them are: structure of boiler, application of boiler, fuel or energy used by boiler, type of combusting, ventilation mode, circulation mode and arrangement of boiler drum8 翻译1. HV AC means to realize regulating and controlling of temperature, humidity, cleanliness and air velocity for certain room or space, providing adequate fresh air meantime. HV AC is called Air conditioning for short. Air conditioning can realize overall controlling to heat and humidity environment and air quality in buildings, or to say it contains partial function of heating and ventilation.2. All -air system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken completely by air. An all-air system supplies sensible heat cooling capacity and latent heat cooling capacity by delivering cold air into room. Processes of cooling down and dehumidification of air are accomplished by air handling unit which locates completely in air conditioning machine room. Supplemental cooling in room is no more required, yet heat of supply air can be achieved either in air conditioning machine room or in individual room. Air treatment for all-air system is mainly centralized in air conditioning machine room, so it is commonly called central air conditioning system.3. Air -water system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken by both air and water. Besides supplying treated fresh air to room, terminal unit with circulation media of water installed in room heats and cools indoor air.7 翻译1. Ventilation is main approach to ensure indoor air quality. That is, displacing indoor air of higher contaminant concentration with outdoor air of much lower contaminant concentration. Ventilation rate needed should be determined by principle of diluting indoor contaminant to reach concentration specified by standard. Main contaminant source is people in people occupied buildings. So the requisite ventilation rate –fresh air rate is ascertained by people. That is, fresh air rate is ascertained by diluting carbon dioxide released by people. In order to take into account diluting other contaminant and odor aroused by people’s activity at the same time, many countries control carbon dioxide at 0.1%, while suggestion value of WHO is 0.25%.2. Air condition buildings are commonly well airtight. If no reasonable exists, indoor air quality in it is not better than common building with well ventilating. Ventilation issues are accomplished by air conditioning system except special treatment for hazardous gases released by technique process in air conditioning buildings. Special fresh air system is installed in air-water system to supply fresh air to individual room to fulfill task of ventilation and improve air quality. Outdoor fresh air should be introduced into all-air system and mixed with return air, and then the mixture is delivered to room to dilute indoor contaminant after been treated.3. Local air exhaust is a kind of local ventilation which removes contaminant directly from contaminant source. When contaminant occurs centrally in somewhere, local air exhaust is the most effective way to treat harm of contaminant to environment. If overall ventilation is adopted in such situation, contaminant may spread in rooms. When contaminant occurs in large amount, ventilation volume needed to dilute it can be too much to realize in practice. Local air exhaust system consists of exhaust hood、fan、air cleaner、air ducts、exhaust outlet.4. Nature ventilation caused by heat pressure or wind pressure is widely used ventilation. Common residential building, office building, industrial workshop depend on nature ventilation to ensure indoor air quality. Otherwise,natural ventilation is a kind of ventilation which is difficult to be controlled effectively. Only by understanding its basic principle and taking certain measure can we get nature ventilation going on according to out preset mode.5. Ventilation rate is always self-balanced practically when a room is ventilated. Air balance we referred to here means designing balance in the light of willing of designer or occupier. If balance designed has not performed, ventilation requirements may not be satisfied when system practically operates in balanced state. For example, a set of local exhaust system is installed to eliminate contaminant emitted by contaminant source in room. But the system doesn’t work well when operating and ventilation rate does n’t reach the need. The problem lies in that the room is in basement and has good air permeability performance. Meanwhile, absence of air intake system and passage gives rise to higher negative pressure and reduces ventilation rate of air exhaust system.6 翻译1. nature gas is generally divided into four kinds: gas exploited from gas well of gas field is called pure natural gas or gas of gas well; gas exploited accompanying with petroleum is called petroleum gas or petroleum accompanied gas; gas which has light fraction of petroleum is called condensate gas of gas field; gas drawn from coal bed of coal well is called coal mine well gas.2. Density variation should be taken into account when computing gas flow in pipes. Density of gas reduces with declining of pressure along the pipe line. Only in low pressure pipes the change in density of gas can be omitted.3. For the sake of making distribution system with very high economical index, optimal gas pipeline route is selected and number of gas pressure regulating room and distribution center is determined besides correct choice of pipe diameter. There are generally many kinds of design schemes to be encountered during the process of designing, therefore an optimal scheme should be picked out from them.5 翻译1. Heating by convection which is major type of heat transfer is called convection heating. Heat emitting equipment in the system is radiator, so this kind of system is also called radiator heating system. It supplies heat to room by heat convection. Radiant heating is a kind of heating type mainly by radiant heat transfer. Main heat emitting equipment of radiant heating system is metal radiant panel or part of ceiling、floor、wall of building as radiant surface.2. C irculating system can be divided into gravity circulating system and forced circulating system according to circulating power. System circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. System circulating by mechanical force is called gravity circulating system. The force of gravity heating system depends on change of water temperature of the loop3. There are many factors influence heat transfer coefficient of radiator: manufacture condition of radiator (material, geometric dimension, structure form, spray coating of surface etc.) and application condition of radiator (media, temperature, flow rate, indoor air temperature and velocity, fitting type and combined piece etc.). They all synthetically influence heat emitting performance of radiator.4翻译1．Main issue of fluid dynamics is space distribution of velocity and pressure, velocity is more important between the two, inertia force and viscous force have close relationship with velocity. In the two forces, inertia force occurs with velocity variation of mass point itself while viscous force is caused by velocity difference between flow layers and mass points.2. Law of variation of viscosity coefficient with temperature is different between water and air. Viscosity of water reduces with increasing of temperature while increases for air. This is because viscosity is result of attractive force between articles and irregular thermal motion to arouse momentum exchange of articles. When temperature rises, attractive force between articles decreases and momentum increases. Conversely, when temperature decreases, attractive force between articles increases and momentum decreases.3. Heat transfer caused by density difference and gravity is called natural convection. Heat transfer coefficient of natural convection is generally lower than that of forced convection, therefore, when computing total heat gain or heat loss, the main point is radiant heat should not be ignored. Radiant heat transfer and natural convection may have the same order of magnitude even under indoor temperature conditions, because indoor wall temperature affects comfortable sensation of human body.3翻译1. Heat conduction is thought as heat transfers from high temperature zone to low temperature zone in object by gradually energy exchange with particles of substance. During the conduction, there is no specific displacement of articles. But for mental, motion of free electrons is greatly helpful to heat conduction.2. Fluid directly connected with the surface is heated and becomes less-dense by heat conduction and moves upwards due to density difference with adjacent fluid. This motion is hindered by viscosity of fluid. The heat transmission is affected by the following factors：（1）gravity caused by heat expansion；（2）viscosity （3）heat diffusionThis heat transmission is regard as depending on acceleration of gravity、coefficient of thermal expansion、coefficient of motion viscosity and coefficient of thermal conductivity.3. As for surface with different geometric shape, radiant characteristic and direction, when heat transfer rate is evaluated, assumptions are: (1) all surfaces are gray or black; (2) radiation or reflective diffuse reflection; (3) the whole surface parameters are homogeneous. (4) emissivity is equal to absorptivity and has no relationship with temperature of project source. (5) objects between two radiant surfaces neither emit nor absorb radiation. These assumptions are used due to providing simplification to large content, although the results are only thought as approximate.2 翻译1. Energy transfers between system and environment under temperature difference is called heat. Heat transfer of system and environment stops when system and environment are in thermal equilibrium. Once heat enters system through boundary, it turns into a part of system storage energy, that is, internal energy. It is obvious that heat is process factor relevant to process, while internal energy is state factor depending on thermodynamic state.2. T he Carnot cycle and Carnot theorem have important theoretical and impractical meaning in the research of thermodynamics. It provides upper limits on efficiency of heat engine and theoretically proposes the approach to increase efficiency. The efficiency of other impractical cycle is always less than the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating between the same two reservoirs.3. The meaning of the increase of entropy principle：(1) estimate the direction of a process by the increase of entropy principle of an isolated system；（2）the increase of entropy principle can serve as judgment of system equilibrium-when entropy of an isolated system reaches maximum value，system is under equilibrium state. （3）the increase of entropy principle has close relationship with the irreversibility of a process. The more irreversible，the more increase of entropy. So it is used to evaluate perfect of thermodynamical performance of a process。

环境设计英文参考文献(精选文献)

伴随人类社会不断的进步,人与自然,建筑与环境之间的关系密不可分.从当代人们所生活的环境中,我们可以看出环境艺术也在经历着自身的发展,而人们只有从尊重自然环境,尊重人类自身,才能够真正将环境艺术更好地融入建筑设计中去。

下面是环境设计英文参考文献的分享，供大家参考阅读。

环境设计英文参考文献一： [1]Jianlong Ma,Xiaofeng Lu,Honglin Zhai,Qiang Li,Li Qiao,Yong Guo. Rational design of a near-infrared fluorescence probe forhighly selective sensing butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and its bioimaging applications in living cell[J]. Talanta,2020,219. [2]Takada Sae,Ober Allison J,Currier Judith S,Goldstein NoahJ,Horwich Tamara B,Mittman Brian S,Shu Suzanne B,Tseng Chi-Hong,Vijayan Tara,Wali Soma,Cunningham William E,Ladapo Joseph A. Reducing cardiovascular risk among people living with HIV: Rationale and design of the INcreasing Statin Prescribing in HIV Behavioral Economics REsearch (INSPIRE) randomized controlled trial.[J]. Progress in cardiovascular diseases,2020,63(2). [3]Duvall Samuel W,Childers W Seth. Design of a Histidine Kinase FRET Sensor to Detect Complex Signal Integration within Living Bacteria.[J]. ACS sensors,2020. [4]Eisapour Mazhar,Cao Shi,Boger Jennifer. Participatory design and evaluation of virtual reality games to promote engagement in physical activity for people living with dementia.[J]. Journal of rehabilitation and assistive technologies engineering,2020,7. [5]Laura Fiorini,Kasia Tabeau,Grazia D’Onofrio,LuigiCoviello,Marleen De Mul,Daniele Sancarlo,IsabelleFabbricotti,Filippo Cavallo. Co-creation of an assistive robot for independent living: lessons learned on robot design[J].International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM),2020,14(2). [6]. CarexTech Inc.; CarexTech's Smile Platform, Designed to Connect Families and Senior Living Communities, Sees Usage Spike Over 300 Percent in Wake of COVID-19 Pandemic[J]. Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA,2020. [7]Mazhar Eisapour,Shi Cao,Jennifer Boger. Participatory design and evaluation of virtual reality games to promote engagement in physical activity for people living with dementia[J]. Journal of Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies Engineering,2020,7. [8]OZ Architecture. OZ Architecture releases insight report on future of senior living design[J]. Building Design &Construction,2020. [9]Gang Zhao,Chunxue Yi,Gang Wei,Rongliang Wu,Zhengye Gu,Shanyi Guang,Hongyao Xu. Molecular design strategies of multifunctional probe for simultaneous monitoring of Cu 2+ , Al 3+ , Ca 2+ and endogenous l -phenylalanine (LPA) recognition in living cells and zebrafishes[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials,2020,389. [10]. Veterinary Medicine; Data on Veterinary Medicine Detailed by Researchers at Hubei University of Education (Impact of Chimpanzee Living Habits On the Design of Zoo Ecological Environment Transformation)[J]. Ecology, Environment & Conservation,2020. [11]Weichao Cai,Xianhui Wang. Design of Health Care for Elderly Living Alone Based on ZigBee[J]. Journal of Physics: Conference Series,2020,1550(4). [12]Pandya. Older Adults Who Meditate Regularly Perform Better on Neuropsychological Functioning and Visual Working Memory Tests: A Three-month Waitlist Control Design Study with a Cohort of Seniorsin Assisted Living Facilities[J]. Experimental AgingResearch,2020,46(3). [13]Pandya Samta P. Older Adults Who Meditate Regularly Perform Better on Neuropsychological Functioning and Visual Working Memory Tests: A Three-month Waitlist Control Design Study with a Cohort of Seniors in Assisted Living Facilities.[J]. Experimental aging research,2020,46(3). [14]Bogza Laura-Mihaela,Patry-Lebeau Cassandra,FarmanovaElina,Witteman Holly O,Elliott Jacobi,Stolee Paul,HudonCarol,Giguere Anik Mc. User-Centered Design and Evaluation of a Web-Based Decision Aid for Older Adults Living With Mild Cognitive Impairment and Their Health Care Providers: A Mixed MethodsStudy.[J]. Journal of medical Internet research,2020. [15]Zhao Gang,Yi Chunxue,Wei Gang,Wu Rongliang,Gu Zhengye,Guang Shanyi,Xu Hongyao. Molecular design strategies of multifunctional probe for simultaneous monitoring of Cu2+,Al3+, Ca2+ and endogenous l-phenylalanine (LPA) recognition in living cells and zebrafishes.[J]. Journal of hazardous materials,2020,389. [16]Laurie Gries,Blake Watson,Jason P. Kalin,Jaqui Pratt,Desiree Dighton. (Re)designing Innovation Alley: fostering civic living and learning through visual rhetoric and urban design[J]. Review of Communication,2020,20(2). [17]Donna Boss. Refreshing Drab Design at a Senior LivingFacility[J]. Foodservice Equipment & Supplies,2020,73(4). [18]Ding Haiyuan,Peng Longpeng,Yuan Gangqiang,Zhou Liyi. Design, synthesis and bioimaging application of a novel two-photon xanthene fluorescence probe for ratiometric visualization of endogenous peroxynitrite in living cells and zebrafish[J]. Dyes andPigments,2020,176. [19]Sae Takada,Allison J. Ober,Judith S. Currier,Noah J. Goldstein,Tamara B. Horwich,Brian S. Mittman,Suzanne B. Shu,Chi-Hong Tseng,Tara Vijayan,Soma Wali,William E. Cunningham,Joseph A. Ladapo. Reducing cardiovascular risk among people living with HIV: Rationale and design of the INcreasing Statin Prescribing in HIV Behavioral Economics REsearch (INSPIRE) randomized controlled trial[J]. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases,2020,63(2). [20]Ray Sarkar Arpita,Sanyal Goutam,Majumder Somajyoti. Participatory design for selection of icons to represent daily activities of living for a vision-based rehabilitation-cum-assistance system for locked-in patients.[J]. Disability and rehabilitation. Assistive technology,2020,15(3). [21]Arpita Ray Sarkar,Goutam Sanyal,Somajyoti Majumder. Participatory design for selection of icons to represent daily activities of living for a vision-based rehabilitation-cum-assistance system for locked-in patients[J]. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology,2020,15(3). [22]Haiyuan Ding,Longpeng Peng,Gangqiang Yuan,Liyi Zhou. Design, synthesis and bioimaging application of a novel two-photon xanthene fluorescence probe for ratiometric visualization of endogenous peroxynitrite in living cells and zebrafish[J]. Dyes andPigments,2020,176. [23]Amal Said Taha,Rawia Ali Ibrahim. Effect of a Design Discharge Planning Program for Stroke Patients on Their Quality of Life and Activity of Daily Living[J]. International Journal of Studies in Nursing,2020,5(1). [24]Melania Reggente,Sara Politi,Alessandra Antonucci,Emanuela Tamburri,Ardemis A. Boghossian. Design of Optimized PEDOT‐Based Electrodes for Enhancing Performance of Living Photovoltaics Based on Phototropic Bacteria[J]. Advanced MaterialsTechnologies,2020,5(3). [25]Kjersti Benedicte Blom,Kaja Knudsen Bergo,Emil Knut Stenersen Espe,Vigdis Rosseland,Ole J?rgen Gr?tta,Geir Mj?en,Anders?sberg,Stein Bergan,Helga Sanner,Tone Kristin Bergersen,ReidarBj?rnerheim,Morten Skauby,Ingebj?rg Seljeflot,B?rd Waldum-Grevbo,Dag Olav Dahle,Ivar Sjaastad,Jon Arne Birkeland. 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建环专业介绍英文作文

建环专业介绍英文作文英文：As a student majoring in Environmental Engineering, I have learned a lot about the importance of protecting our environment. One of the key ways to do so is by studying the field of Building and Environment, also known as Building Services Engineering or Building Engineering. This field focuses on designing and constructing buildings that are energy-efficient, sustainable, and environmentally friendly.Building and Environment is a multidisciplinary field that combines elements of engineering, architecture, and environmental science. As a Building and Environment major, I have taken courses in HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems, lighting design, renewable energy, and indoor air quality. Through these courses, I have learned how to design buildings that use less energy, reduce carbon emissions, and provide a healthy andcomfortable indoor environment.One of the most interesting aspects of Building and Environment is the use of technology. For example, we use computer simulations to model the performance of buildings and predict how they will perform under different conditions. We also use sensors and data analytics to monitor and optimize building performance in real-time. These tools allow us to design buildings that are not only energy-efficient but also comfortable and convenient for occupants.In addition to the technical skills, Building and Environment also requires creativity and problem-solving skills. For example, when designing a building, we need to consider factors such as the local climate, the building's orientation, and the materials used. We also need to balance the needs of different stakeholders, such as building owners, occupants, and the environment.Overall, Building and Environment is a challenging and rewarding field that offers many opportunities forinnovation and impact. I am excited to continue learningand growing in this field, and I hope to use my skills to contribute to a more sustainable and livable world.中文：作为一名环境工程专业的学生，我学到了很多关于保护环境的重要性。

建环专业作文英文

建环专业作文英文英文：As a student majoring in Environmental Engineering, I have learned a lot about the importance of building a sustainable environment. The field of building and environmental engineering is crucial in ensuring that our buildings are not only aesthetically pleasing but also environmentally friendly.One of the key challenges in building and environmental engineering is finding ways to reduce the carbon footprint of buildings. This can be achieved through the use of renewable energy sources such as solar panels, wind turbines, and geothermal systems. For example, my team and I worked on a project to design a net-zero energy building that was powered entirely by renewable energy sources. This project involved a lot of research and calculations to ensure that the building was energy-efficient and sustainable.Another important aspect of building and environmental engineering is ensuring that buildings are safe and healthy for occupants. This involves designing buildings that have good indoor air quality, proper ventilation, and adequate lighting. For example, we learned about the importance of designing buildings with natural lighting, which not only reduces energy consumption but also improves the health and well-being of occupants.中文：作为一名环境工程专业的学生，我学到了很多关于建立可持续环境的重要性。

建环专业英语

建筑环境与设备工程专业英语翻译A thermodynamic system is a region in space or a quantity of matter bounded by a closed surface. The surroundings include everything external to the system, and the system is separated from the surroundings by the system boundaries. These boundaries can be movable or fixed, real or imaginary.一个热力学系统是一个在空间或有事项的数量由一个封闭的表面范围内的区域。

周围环境包括一切外部系统，系统是从周围环境隔开的系统边界。

这些边界可以是动产或固定的，真实的或想象。

The concepts that operate in any thermodynamic system are entropy and energy. Entropy measures the molecular disorder of a system. The more mixed a system, the greater its entropy; conversely, an orderly or unmixed configuration is one of low entropy. Energy has the capacity for producing an effect and can be categorized into either stored or transient forms as described in the following sections.熵和能量的概念，在任何热力学系统操作。

建环专业英文作文

建环专业英文作文I chose to study environmental engineering because I have always been passionate about finding solutions to environmental issues. I believe that through this field, I can contribute to creating a more sustainable and healthier environment for future generations.In my opinion, environmental engineering is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field that requires a combination of technical knowledge and creative problem-solving skills. I am excited about the prospect of working on projects that aim to improve air and water quality, develop renewable energy sources, and mitigate the impact of climate change.One of the main challenges in environmental engineering is the need to balance economic development with environmental protection. It's a delicate balance, but I believe that with the right technologies and policies, we can achieve sustainable development that benefits both people and the planet.I am particularly interested in exploring the potential of green technologies and innovative solutions to address environmental challenges. I am eager to learn about new developments in areas such as waste management, pollution control, and sustainable infrastructure.I am also aware of the global nature of environmental issues, and I am excited about the opportunity to work on international projects and collaborate with professionals from diverse backgrounds. I believe that by working together, we can find effective and holistic solutions to environmental problems.。

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网络化控制系统中故障隔离的传感器调度策略文章信息：文章历史：2013年11月23日完稿2014年7月3日修订2014年7月被接受2014年8月8日网上发布本文由A.B. Rad推荐出版关键字：网络控制系统，故障隔离，传感器调度，改进的卡尔曼滤波摘要：最近一个传感器调度和故障隔离的联合设计框架被提出了。

首先,故障隔离滤波器的合成和通信序列的可隔离性是被给出的，该过滤器可以被视为一种特殊结构的传统的卡尔曼滤波器。

几种传感器调度策略被提出以确保残余所生成的噪音达到最小化，一个数值例子说明了该方法的有效性。

1.介绍网络化控制系统（简称NCSs）是一种通过封闭的通信网络反馈控制系统中的控制回路。

网络化控制系统是一个多学科领域，它结合了计算机网络、信号处理、通信、机械、信息技术和控制理论于一体。

数据网络技术被广泛应用于工业和军事控制应用程序，这些应用程序包括汽车、航空、制造业等等。

近几年对网络化控制系统的研究受到广泛关注主要是因为通过传感器、执行器和控制器通信使用共享实时网络带来的几个优势。

实际上,与传统的点对点控制系统相比,网络化控制系统的优点是更少的布线,降低安装成本,以及在诊断和维护方面更大的灵活性。

另一方面,由于越来越复杂的动力系统,以及需要可靠性、安全性和高效的操作,在现代控制理论和实践中基于模型的故障诊断和隔离(简称FDI)已成为一个重要的主题。

（引用见【3,6,7,21,34】）由于网络诱导效果,传统的点对点系统的理论应该被重新评估。

与传统的外国直接投资系统相比,诊断通过网络可以减少系统布线,使系统容易监督,维护和提高系统敏捷性等。

然而,当传感器信息和控制信息通过网络传播时新的约束也会出现。

这些限制包括量化信号通过网络传输中的错误,由于网络的不可靠性而产生的丢包,变量通信延迟、无线的高能耗、由于有限的带宽和由多个节点共享网络时只允许一个节点的传输数据包传播而产生介质访问的约束。

几个网络诱导约束被认为是基于模型的故障诊断和隔离的文学,主要是诱导延迟效应、丢包和采样的影响。

（延迟问题的例子见于【10,17,31,32】）在文献【19】中，事实上作者依靠强大的FD系统设计是不可能完全脱钩断层影响未知输入的。

[2]中提出了一种自适应卡尔曼滤波网络诱导延迟的影响降到最低的残余信号。

网络化系统中对延迟输入和测量的故障诊断参考【14】。

在文献【32,36】中，网络化控制系统中故障诊断系统丢包是由模仿网络化控制系统的马尔可夫跳线性系统（简称MJLS）设计而成的。

在文献【23】中，故障诊断与多个网络诱导约束的问题一直被视为一个被广泛接受的最优的故障检测性能方法对研究采样周期的影响。

（例如【9,17,29】）值得注意的是,以作者所知,网络系统的故障隔离问题现在尚未全面调查。

在本文中,我们将在多个通讯条件下解决故障检测和隔离这一问题。

更具体地说,我们将考虑介质访问限制。

这个网络约束传播媒介时面临只能提供有限数量的同步介质访问渠道用户【30】。

因此,只有数量有限的传感器和/或执行器被允许在每个即时与控制器通信。

因此在存在限制交流访问时,只有对指定一个有意义的模块进行故障检测和隔离与通信政策表明时代植物传感器被授予的介质访问[20]。

这种通信政策是在文献中被称为通信序列，通信序列指定哪些传感器能够在每个时间发送信息同步检测过滤器。

因此,本文自然会考虑合作设计的问题,也就是说,故障检测和隔离滤波器的设计结合传感器调度序列。

关于传感器调度设计,大多数现有的技术重点有限阶段的传感器调度问题。

在这种情况下,一个非常简单的解决调度问题的方法是枚举所有可能的有限阶段时间表的价格指数快速增长的复杂性随着地平线长度增加。

这一理论将可能被应用在包括建筑物监测、移动传感器轨迹规划和无人驾驶系统故障检测和隔离方面。

另一个可能的应用方向是增加在水下航行器监测传感器调度算法允许声纳设备的管理以避免干扰现象。

在文献中提出了一些方法来减少这种方法的复杂性。

可以看到(15、16、27)和引用。

在本文中,我们将考虑一个可是调度问题。

根据作者所说,这个问题何时起作用已经在【39】中给出了一个确定的框架。

我们的贡献在于调查的随机框架合作设计问题。

更准确地说,结合卡尔曼式故障隔离滤波器，一个周期和随机传感器调度算法被提出了,以确保故障可隔离性对财产和噪声影响最小化。

剩下的文章组成如下:第二部分给出了问题公式化。

在第三节,我们给出我们的主要结论。

传感器调度问题是在第四节讨论并给出数值例子来说明拟议的合作设计方法的有效性。

丢包稳定性的问题是在第5节讨论。

最后,第六节我们提供了一些结论和未来的研究方向。

2.问题公式化我们考虑网络化控制系统见图1。

当一个组件和/或执行机构故障发生在系统,系统的动态模型可以表示为是状态向量，是控制输出量，是断层分布矩阵，是故障向量，是测量信号向量。

我们假设每个组件的输出向量yi 代表传感器，初始状态向量x，过程噪声wk 和测量噪声vk相互无关，分别以高斯随机过程排列，其中和W是对称的正定矩阵。

我们将考虑通信媒介连接传感器和剩余发电机输出通道，此时在任何时候,只有m传感器中的b可以访问这些渠道与剩余发电机而其他人必须等待。

然后,我们有可能的配置。

让我们来介绍一下应用程序：决定在每个样本的时间相应的传感器组索引。

我们称之为应用传感器的开关模式。

在图一中，信号中的是由以下公式而来的：。

开关矩阵用于选择的子集的措施将被发送到控制器在每个时间点k，每一行只有一个非零元素(= 1)对应于所选择的传感器。

这个子集被切换成模式的值。

考虑到波动的影响有限,植物模型所描述的扩展如下：公式中且。

为了故障检测与隔离,我们使用一种修改版的卡尔曼滤波器预测[13]。

公式如下：其中和分别表示状态和输出估计向量。

这种预测滤波器会生成残差检测和隔离故障的分析。

值得注意的是,在调度合作设计背景下,滤波器增益和切换模式是两个设计参数。

这些参数将被设计为了保证故障财产可解决和减少噪音对状态估计误差的影响。

3.滤波器的设计在本节中,我们会展示如何设计获得的故障隔离器过滤器。

但在那之前让给接下来的论文的一些有用的定义。

定义1：如果，那么随机线性系统(1)的故障检测能力指数为。

定义2：时间的变异检测能力与扩展系统矩阵的关系公式如下：其中让s成为错误检测能力指标中的最大值，而。

我们定义，，其中是检测能力指数和的分布矩阵，同样我们可以把拓展系统写成通过公式（4）考虑现在的过滤器。

误差估计和输出值动力学公式如下根据叠加原理,断层发生即时添加剂的影响r(当k>r+s时)，输公式如下出值qk当在非故障情况下的输出值。

在【13】相同的情况下，我们可以提供以下结果。

命题1（在断层可隔离条件下）：在这种条件下排列，代数约束的解决方法如下：能用公式参数化成为，其中是通过降低增益来确定的。

是的广义逆矩阵，是一个任意的矩阵选择这样矩阵是一个完整的行。

在这种情况下，q的值由以下公式给出：k备注1：在上面给出的结果中要注意的是,矩阵取决于交换模式。

切换模式不满足命题1的秩条件必须被排除在外。

因此,我们定义一组容许切换模式如下：其中包含指标对应的传感器配置(由相应的矩阵)满足下列条件:排列对于一个给定的切换模式，故障隔离滤波器设计选择的自由参数,以便跟踪极小的协方差矩阵。

参数的合成是由下列命题。

命题2（故障隔离滤波器的设计）为给定的切换模式,下一个方程提出了故障隔离滤波器：其中他的过滤器具有以下特性：从错误中脱离满足关系：每个组件的输出只有一个残余值是敏感的错误,因此残余向量评价支持故障隔离。

我们正式统一所有主要结果的命题形式。

协方差矩阵的时间演化的黎卡提微分递归(13)取决于初始协方差p0和μk切换模式。

因此,除了可解决条件(见命题1),调度策略可以优化协方差矩阵生成演化[38]。

这一点在下一节将进一步细说。

4.无限的地平线调度问题解决在于选择在每个时间点,b传感器应该传输测量最小化估计误差协方差的函数。

简介中已经说明,无限的地平线调度问题比有限阶段更具挑战性。

在本节中,我们描述两个可是调度技术:即周期和随机调度技术。

4.1.定期调度在本节中,我们提出一种新的调度策略相关的长期调度的视野。

这种技术由产生周期性切换模式以至于使，其中T是选择阶段。

这是模拟定期选择一组传感器传输测量每个样品的步骤。

设计的目标是获得最佳稳定状态下的鲁棒性估计误差协方差最小。

在周期性调度黎卡提微分递归(13)可以改写如下:定义矩阵和，那么上述周期黎卡提微分的最优滤波递归相似周期系统由以下格式给出：干扰其中分别是状态、控制和测量向量。

初始状态x0,和测量噪声是不相关的周期性高斯随机分布,其中，。

其中是周期性的正定矩阵。

状态转移矩阵公式如下：根据[1],这个周期系统可以利用提升技术转换到下一个线性时不变模型其中，τ是0 到T-1之间的一个整数.我们定义了向量,其中β能替代u，y，v或者w，公式如下：矩阵如下给出：其中同时Eτ，Fτ的定义方式分别和Bτ和Dτ相同，注意,噪音和干扰过程与[4]相关,然后黎卡提微分的递归系统公式如下：其中命题3（收敛条件）如果在单位圆内（Aτ，Cτ)可探测且稳定化,那么黎卡提微分递归(22)收敛于一个独特的正定解。

备注2.定期切换模式不满足的秩条件命题1和收敛条件命题3必须被排除在外。

因此,我们定义一组容许周期性切换模式如下::(22)满足命题3} （23）鉴于容许的周期性调度我们可以写成：现在,我们可以用周期调度问题,稳态性能的优化给出了的函数如下：使此时蛮搜索算法的优化问题可以解决一个合理数量的容许周期性切换模式。

4.2.随机调度在这一节中描述的技术灵感来自[8]和基于随机的想法让传感器开关根据一些优化(在某种意义上稍后将呈现)概率分布。

出了其他优势,随机传感器选择策略相比其他调度策略的优点是容易实现和计算处理。

测量调度是随机的,因此使用切换模式也是随机的,它的目的是获得最佳的预期稳态性能。

事实上,需要注意,由于切换模式的随机性质,误差协方差矩阵也是随机的。

这就是为什么我们的感兴趣期望值和评估K趋近于无穷大。

现在我们将描述调度过程中我们使用FDI或调度合作设计设置。

首先,记得黎卡提微分递归(13)对应是由随机切换模式，公式如下：在每个时间点k,随机切换模式在中选择对应一致的传感器组索引的概率为：i=1，...,σ。

我们看的期望值误差协方差我们假设概率往往渐近常数πi，描述演化的动力学方程给出了：根据[8]指出,评估上面的期望是棘手的。

一个看起来在这一项的上界是相反的。

最优随机调度问题是新配方的最小化的上界。

类似参数在[8],一个例子可以显示如下：预期的误差协方差的上界是由一下方程递归:初始条件如果存在矩阵，并且有这样一个正定矩阵X：其中然后上界收敛的极限是Δk，是独特的半正定解的方程我们现在正在制定FDI/调度合作设计:使满足公式（30）和故障诊断和隔离滤波器获得器公式如下：这个优化问题可以解决基于梯度的方法或通过探索搜索空间合理数量的传感器配置σ。

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