丁往道《英语写作手册(中文版)》复习笔记(论文)【圣才出品】
英语写作串讲笔记
自考“英语写作”串讲笔记（1）一、《英语写作》课程简介《英语写作》是英语专业本科段一门重要的实践课程，是英语专科阶段英语写作基础的继续。
我认为《英语写作》和《英语写作阶段的》是英语写作的两个层次，即遣词造句和布局谋篇两个层次。
前者更多地注重语言形式，以句子、段落为写作核心，后者注重整篇文章的结构合理，脉络清晰，强调整体感。
因此《英语写作》学习要特别注意英语篇章结构的把握。
《英语写作》重点教授的是如何用英语写好记叙文、描写文、说明文以及议论文等，而其中又以说明文和议论文为中心。
《英语写作》考核重点《英语写作》的考核目标和出题原则在《考试大纲》中有明确的阐述。
根据历年考题看，考核重点有以下三点：1. 应考生能写出内容充实，具有一定广度和深度的说明文和议论文；2. 要熟练掌握提纲及提要；3. 写作速度每小时250-300词。
《英语写作》备考方法1. 注重过程，勤写多改2. 布局谋篇，分析范文3. 广泛阅读，多想善思《英语写作》不同于其它像《英语词汇学》、《欧洲文化入门》等知识性课程，它是实践性的，技能性的课程。
对于英语写作的学习不能像学习知识性课程那样，只记忆知识脉络，就可以了，它需要考生功在平时，勤写多改，锻炼自己英语基本能力；英语写作有自己的规律性。
在有限的时间那，要从一些散乱的、突发的、只言片语的想法发展到一篇结构合理，逻辑清晰的文章谈何容易？因此，考生在平时就要注重写作过程的练习，自觉遵从写作的流程。
英语写作是要遵循一定的过程的。
并不是信手拈来，或是急就章。
一般来讲，一篇英语文章的完成，要经过构思，整理，撰写大纲，一稿，二稿，终稿。
学生要遵循英语写作流程，才会有长远的进步。
只有把握住了写作流程，才会高屋建瓴，从总体上布局谋篇，而不是―只见树木，不见树林‖。
一些考生写作不打草稿，随性而致，势必会影响作文的质量，这是不可取的。
《英语写作》重视整篇文章的撰写，注意布局谋篇，因此考生要仔细阅读教材相关章节，详细分析范文，把理论和实践相结合，将理论深化，内化为自己的写作指南。
杨士焯《英汉翻译教程(第2版)》笔记和课后习题详解(翻译的文采篇)
第4章翻译的文采篇4.1 复习笔记一、各家观点1. 傅雷：“神似”。
“理想的译文仿佛是原作者的中文写作”。
2. 思果：“翻译为重写”。
不会写中文而要把外文译成中文，等于没有米还要煮饭。
上述两种观点说明了翻译和写作的密切关系和重要性。
3. 鸠摩罗什：注重译文语言的精美，“天见人，人见天”在言过质，采用了僧睿的译文“人天交接，两得相见。
”4. 严复：“信、达、雅”。
他的译文“言之无文，行之不远”，被认为“足与周秦诸子相上下”。
5. 林纾：译笔精湛，颇具马、班、韩、柳的神韵和传统文学的风采。
深厚的古文素养，无与伦比的写作才华，写就了中国翻译史上精彩的译文。
6. 许渊冲：翻译的“优势论”“竞赛论”。
强调如何把译文写得更好，甚至可以超越原文。
7. 辜正坤：强调英译汉中注重译文文采的必要性和重要性。
二、如何达到译文的文采性1. 对原文深刻的洞察理解，要体现原文的风格。
要准确、流畅地表达原文作者的思想，使读者发生兴趣，能够理解和接受。
2. 文采来自译者较高的艺术修养，即译者的文才、才华。
(1) 译者掌握各种表达方式、表现技巧的能力；(2) 译者遣词造句、修辞达意的能力；(3) 文采：译文的语言经过修饰，能切当地、艺术地表达思想感情，富有美感；(4) 文采的主要特点：艺术表达力强，具有审美效应，是增强译文感染力的重要因素。
3. 积累语言材料(1) 语言材料主要指词汇。
词汇丰富是语言丰富的一个重要标志。
有了丰富的词汇，遣词造句才能得心应手，左右逢源；提笔行文，才会随意生姿。
(2) 向优秀作品学习语言。
现代的、古代的、中国的、外国的经典作品。
精美的成语、典故、警句、妙语，都能丰富我们的语言材料，增添我们写作、翻译的文采。
4. 要善于锤炼语言(1) 分寸感：译者的语言灵敏度强，能够精细入微地辨别词义，恰如其分地运用语言。
(2) 准确：准确是文采的前提，是掌握分寸感的具体表现。
①语言准确，首先用词要求准确。
准确地区分词语的感情色彩，选用词语要褒贬恰当。
杨士焯《英汉翻译教程(第2版)》笔记和课后习题详解(翻译写作篇)
第8章翻译写作篇8.1 复习笔记一、汉语的表达优势和行文特点1. 精炼简约汉语文章的这一特点，与汉语词汇的特点有关。
(1) 词本身没有形态变化，即它没有性、数、格、时态这些形式上的变化。
如“你去”“我去”“今天去”“明天去”，都是一个“去”，词的语音和书写都没有发生变化。
(2) 语词具有一定的伸缩性。
许多单音节和双音节的词一经重叠，即表示另外的意思，词性也可能发生变化。
如“人——人人”“说——说说”“高兴——高高兴兴——高兴高兴”等。
(3) 许多双音节词还可以在特定的语境下节缩，并不影响原来意思的表达。
如“无（执）照经营”“毫不利（自）己，专门利（他）人”“供（应）需（求）见面”等。
(4) 大量的成语、典故、俗语、谚语、格言等，以极少的文字包容了大量的信息。
如“负荆请罪”“叶公好龙”等。
2. 富于意象所谓意象，即感情与形象的有机结合。
如“木欣欣以向荣，风飘飘而吹衣”能构成鲜明的意象美。
汉字独特的形声构成，是汉语富于意象的重要因素。
3. 中文思维导致汉语文本独特的语言结构和形式要素。
中文思维有“象性原则”“并置原则”“对偶原则”“殿后原则”“铺排原则”“凝练原则”和“协律原则”。
从翻译的角度看，直接对译文写作有影响的有：(1) 并置原则汉语写作中常有“叠言”“叠句”“叠章”的语言形式。
作者通过“并置”的语句，创造意象纷呈、语义丰满、语势张扬的叙述话语。
如，“诚信是……；诚信是……”，不仅有声有色地强化了文意，同时还把文意展示为一个细腻、立体的意脉网络，见出才华和文采。
(2) 对偶原则强调词性、词义的相反相成。
在写作上，最典型的就是骈体文和近体诗的写作，它们都要求对仗，并形成了严格的规范。
这种对偶句式积淀在民族文化心理结构中，在写作中我们有了上句，往往下意识地就生带出下一句来。
翻译到顺手处，译者自然也会写出这种句式。
(3) 凝练原则中国人讲究“炼字”“炼句”“炼篇”和“炼意”，讲究“推敲”，林语堂认为，汉语的单音节性“造就了极为凝练的风格”。
丁往道《英语写作手册(中文版)》考研真题详解(命题作文)【圣才出品】
◆命题作文<社会热点类>题1 [四川师范大学2015研]In September 2014, the Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba’s flotation in the US has caused a stir in the work. Undoubtedly, Ma Yun becomes the center of attention in public again. What do you know about Ma Yun and what inspiration you’ve gained from his life ex perience and success? Write an essay of about 400 words on the topic. You should supply an appropriate title for your essay.【参考范文】The Unstoppable Power of PersistenceIn last September, Alibaba, a counterpart to eBay or Amazon in China, floated on the stock market with a value of £140 billion approximately. With such a record-breaking IPO, Ma Yun, the founder of this prosperous company, has become the centre of public discussion again. From my perspective, it is his persistence in chasing his dreams that impresses me most.Throughout his life, Ma Yun himself admitted that he had experienced rejections for many times, including less good performance in entry exams for colleges in China, setbacks in finding a job and so on. However, being clearly aware of his strengths and weaknesses, he chose to sharpen his proficiency in English. Inspite of the limited resources and less ideal environment for learning English, he managed to practice his oral English as well as broaden his horizons by giving foreign tourists free guide every morning in his hometown Hangzhou. And this experience lasting for nine years proved to be conducive to both the improvement in his languages abilities and the formation of a brand new world view.While working as a translator for a US trading company, Ma Yun decided to start his own online business in China, aiming to build a large Internet market to connect consumers and companies from different regions or countries. And that is how Alibaba began. At the beginning, there were only fifteen employees in 1999. But by now, this Chinese e-commerce giant has, according to Ma Yun, directly or indirectly created 40 million jobs in China. And its founder plans to expand market abroad. Nevertheless, the transformation from a startup to a listed company with the largest initial public offering in history, did not proceed smoothly. If he had not manages to attracted investment in 2000, Alibaba could have failed like many other Internet companies did at that time. What’s more, rumors or doubts have never completely disappeared, whether it was at the early stage or at the prosperous period of Alibaba. As for Ma Yun, scarcely does he allow these noises to overwhelm his inner voices. It’s his persistence and commitment that make his dreams come true in the end.To sum up, just as the old saying goes, constant dropping wears the stone. As long as we pursuit our dreams like what Ma Yun does, nothing could stop us from realizing them, since persistence not only gives us the hope to hold on to ourdreams, but also enables us to fight against obstacles all along.【范文点评】题目要求围绕阿里巴巴在美国成功上市这一事件，谈谈作为中国互联网巨头传奇人物马云，他的经历给了你怎样的启发，撰写一篇约400词左右的文章。
北外教授丁往道告诉你英语写作最重要
北外教授丁往道告诉你英语写作最重要注重写的练习。
强调听和说，听说领先，是对的；经常阅读，大量阅读，也是必要的。
但对于排在“四会”末尾的“写”，千万不要认为它可有可无。
“写”在学英语的过程中有其特别重要和不可替代的作用。
只要是写一篇短文，就得思考内容和观点，组织材料，安排层次，斟酌词句，这是极好的锻炼。
而且写对语言的正确性和表达的准确性的要求比口语要高些，因为可以考虑和修改。
这对提高语言质量十分有益。
要关心中国文化。
中国人都应关心中国文化，主修英语或别的外语的朋友们更要注意对中国文化的学习和钻研，因为在外语上用很多时间，可能会忽略中国文化的学习，结果是对所学语言国家的情况和文化特点知道得多，而对中国的文化特点知道得反而少。
中国文化源远流长，有很多宝贵的成份，我们应该珍视这份遗产，努力予以发扬光大。
中考书面表达专题指导：说明文说明文是中考写作题中常见的形式。
主要目的在于对所写事物进行解释，回答"为什么"或"怎么样"。
在初中阶段说明文主要的是让学生将活动、人物或地点进行清楚的描述，考察学生的观察能力和将表格或所给提示词转化为完整文字信息的能力。
说明文具有直观，具体等特点；它要求语言简明扼要，通俗易懂，说明过程讲究条理性和层次性。
常见的说明文考题有以下两种形式：1. 通过图表式形式，将所要说明的人物或事物的信息特点表达出来，如介绍一个新的同学或朋友，介绍如何使用某一具体的器材等。
2. 以提纲式呈现写作材料，主要是根据汉语提示来完成写作。
怎样写出一篇合要求的说明文？一审。
要做到文章切题、要点齐全，审题至关重要。
同学们在下笔之前就要将所给的材料看清楚，看准材料所要表达的内容或情景，写出符合要求的文章，如果提示语较多，就要严格按照要求来写。
二定。
一定要点：根据所给材料要点，定出中心句。
要特别注意首尾句，注意适当发挥，避免逐字逐句翻译。
二定方法：常用的说明方法有举例法、过程分析法、分类法、因果分析法、比较法、细节法等。
杨士焯《英汉翻译教程》复习笔记(翻译写作篇)【圣才出品】
第8章翻译写作篇8.1 复习笔记一、汉语的表达优势和行文特点1.精炼简约汉语文章的这一特点，与汉语词汇的特点有关。
(1)词本身没有形态变化，即它没有性、数、格、时态这些形式上的变化。
如“你去”、“我去”、“今天去”、“明天去”，都是一个“去”，词的语音和书写都没有发生变化。
(2)语词具有一定的伸缩性。
许多单音节和双音节的词一经重叠，即表示另外的意思，词性也可能发生变化。
如“人——人人”、“说——说说”、“高兴——高高兴兴——高兴高兴”等。
(3)许多双音节词还可以在特定的语境下节缩，并不影响原来意思的表达。
如“无（执）照经营”、“毫不利（自）己，专门利（他）人”；“供（应）需（求）见面”等。
(4)大量的成语、典故、俗语、谚语、格言等，以极少的文字包容了大量的信息。
如“负荆请罪”、“叶公好龙”等。
2.富于意象所谓意象，即感情与形象的有机结合。
如“木欣欣以向荣，风飘飘而吹衣”、都能构成鲜明的意象美。
汉字独特的形声构成，是汉语富于意象的重要因素。
3.中文思维导致汉语文本独特的语言结构和形式要素。
中文思维有“象性原则”、“并置原则”、“对偶原则”、“殿后原则”，“铺排原则”、“凝练原则”和“协律原则”。
从翻译的角度看，直接对译文写作有影响的有：(1)并置原则汉语写作中常有“叠言”、“叠句”、“叠章”的语言形式。
作者通过“并置”的语句，创造意象纷呈、语义丰满、语势张扬的叙述话语。
如，“诚信是…；诚信是…”，不仅有声有色地强化了文意，同时还把文意展示为一个细腻、立体的意脉网络，见出才华和文采。
(2)对偶原则强调词性、词义的相反相成。
在写作上，最典型的就是骈体文和近体诗的写作，它们都要求对仗，并形成了严格的规范。
这种对偶句式积淀在民族文化心理结构中，在写作中我们有了上句，往往下意识地就生带出下一句来。
翻译到顺手处，译者自然也会写出这种句式。
(3)凝练原则中国人讲究“炼字”、“炼句”、“炼篇”、“炼意”，讲究“推敲”，林语堂认为，汉语的单音节性“造就了极为凝练的风格”。
英语写作复习提纲
Academic writing for PhD students1. introduction⑴考试格式：先给一个文本，写出move1、move2、move3的句号，然后再写一下各个句子的作用，如move1-a等，见P61例如：XXXXXXXXMove 1: {a}:1、2、3；{b}: 4、5Move 2:{a}:6、7Move 3: {a}:8、9Function: move 1-a :by showing that the general research area is important.move 1-b: ………………………………⑵复习资料：Writing introduction section:Move 1 establishing a research territory 确立研究范围A: by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional 可选，即可有可无)B: by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area. (obligatory, 必选)：文献综述。
Move 2: establishing a niche：说明该研究的必要性A: by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory, 必选)Move 3: occupy the nicheA: by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research.（必选）:has two main variants:●Purposive(P): the author or authors indicate their main purpose or purposes. ●Descriptive(D): the author or authors describe the main feature of theirresearch.●Other elements: ①secondary aims of features; ②the contribution andvalue of your research; ③principle finding（原则，主义等发现）; ④an outline of the structure of your paper.B: by announcing principal finding（可选）C: by indicating the structure of the RP（可选）2、改错题（见书P14、15、16、17等处）⑴effective sentence structure: P14-16Unity：一致、同一，例如先后语句的主语、时态等的统一Coherence：条理性、连贯性Conciseness：简明扼要，即不要过于啰嗦Emphasis：强调，重点Variety：变化, variety is the foundation of sentence style. Apart from variety in sentence length, other variations are variety in sentence beginning, in grammatical structure (simple, complex, compound-complex ), in rhetorical（修辞学）structure (loose松散的，periodic周期性, balanced 平衡的), in the elements (words, phrases, clauses从句), and in sentence rhythms（节奏，韵律）.⑵correct use of numbers（数字的正确使用）: P17-19①普通规则如果数据放在句首，一定要用单词，不能用数字：注意如果数字不能用少于四个单词表示，则不应放在句首（最重要的规则，必须遵守）在写作中，非特殊数据应根据以下两个规则写为单词：●数据小于100时，则写为单词●数据如果能用一或二个单词表示，则写为单词当数据出现在时间单位前，则应根据上面的规则来确定使用数字或单词：注意在技术写作中，不同过程的时间应用精确的数字来表示。
英语写作教学之刍议
372018年34期总第422期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS英语写作教学之刍议文/伍永花【摘要】传统的英语写作教学采取语法翻译法教学，学生根据教师讲解的语法规则通过翻译母语句子进行机械的模仿练习。
英语写作教学应当了解学生写作思维过程特点，对比分析中英两种语言的特点，写出合乎语法且地道的英文习作。
【关键词】语法翻译法；写作过程；对比分析【作者简介】伍永花，中国传媒大学南广学院国际传播学院。
英语写作能力是检验英语专业学生基本功的一个重要指标。
然而现在，诸多英语写作教学仍然使用传统的语法翻译法，通常是学生把写好的作文上交，老师批改其中错误的句子，学生学着模仿正确的句子。
写作教学变成了机械的语法课教学，老师教着费时费力，学生学着枯燥无味。
一、语法翻译法语法翻译法教学(the grammar-translation method)最早由德国学者Johann Valentin Meidinger和Johann Christian Fick 倡导并提出的，是20世纪60年代与直接法(the direct method)和听说法(the audiolingual approach)并列的三个传统的外语教学法之一，也是外语教学中历史最长与使用最广泛的方法之。
“国内早期的大学英语教学主要采用此方法，教材编写都是以语法为纲要，教学也以翻译和讲解语法为主。
语法翻译法在ESL教学中占据了很长时间的主导地位。
”其主要教学方法是分析句子成分，词汇变化，重点突出句子中含有的语法规则；在教学中，教师用母语授课，学生根据教师讲解的语法规则通过翻译母语句子进行机械的模仿练习和背诵。
用语法翻译法进行英语写作教学有其优点所在。
然而，这种教学方法下也有其不可避免的缺点。
比如，有人认为语法翻译法是以心理学上的机械主义为理论基础，因此，其教学特点是学生死记语法，对英语语言本身不甚理解，只知其然而不知其所以然。
其根本原因是忽视了对学生写作思维过程的分析和英汉两种语言的对比分析。
丁往道《英语写作手册(中文版)》复习笔记(造句)【圣才出品】
第三章造句Ⅰ. 完整句和不完整句1. 完整句（1）完整句的语法结构必须完整，即一个完整句必修至少有一个主语和一个谓语动词；如果该谓语动词是及物动词，还得有一个宾语；若是个系动词，则必须有一个表语或补语：He came.She wrote a letter.Dr. Smith is a professor.（2）一个完整的句子以大写字母开始，以句号结束。
2. 不完整句有时为取得特殊效果可用到不完整的句子。
如：It is hard to hear a new voice, as hard as it is to listen to an unknown language...Why? Out of fear. The world fears a new experience more than it fears anything. Because a new experience displaces so many old experiences. And it is like trying to use muscles stiff for ages. It hurts horribly.—D. H. Lawrence He was, I think, very handsome. I gather this from photographs and from my own memories of him, dressed in his Sunday best and on his way to preach a sermon somewhere, when I was little. Handsome, proud, and ingrown, “like atoe-nail,” somebody said.—James Baldwin 在上面第一篇中有三个不完整的句子(“why?”“Out of fear.”以及“Because a new experience...”)，在第二篇中有一个(“Handsome，proud”)。
北外丁往道《英语写作手册》教案
延安大学西安创新学院外语系课程教案课程名称：英语写作主导教材：《英语写作教程》所属教研室：大学英语第二教研室课程讲授人：李蓉适用年级：英语专业14级授课时间：第2周—第18周2015—2016学年第一学期课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案延安大学西安创新学院外语系课程教案课程教案课程教案课程教案1.1 Common features of good writing1. To express a clear point means to convey the writer's main idea or--in the case of descriptivewriting--the significance of the object, place or person described; in other words, an attentive reader should be able to grasp the writer's purpose.2. To be tightly structured, writing should contain logical or associative connections and transitions which clearly express the relationship of the ideas described.3. To be grammatically and syntactically correct, writing should adhere to the rules of Standard American English, including proper punctuation and spelling. If writers choose to use unconventional syntax, they should be able to justify their choices.1.2Cultural differences in writing1. Different ways of thinking2. Different ways of analysis3. Concrete thinking and abstract thinking4. Different valuesValues on space-timeValues on human behaviorsValues on social relationships1.3English writing VS. Chinese writing1.Chinese writers tend to be ―indirect‖, while Anglo-Americans are found to be more ―direct‖.2.English and Chinese writing differ in sentences and word variety.3.English is found to use more connectives than Chinese, both between clauses or sentences andbetween paragraphs.1.4Strategies in learning English writing1. From the beginning, you have to learn how to write an English essay.2. English writing tends to be more ―rigid‖ than Chinese writing.3. Remember that reading helps to learn how to write.4. Writing is also learned through writing.1.5 Homework1. Go over the following paragraphs, one in English and the other in Chinese, and decide which sentence in each paragraph express the author’s main idea. Write your answers on the space provided.2. What do you think translation form a preconceived Chinese version needs to be avoided when we are writing in English? Discuss with your partners and then list at least three reasons on the space provided.课程教案Part T wo Diction2.1Levels of words ----Three levels⑪Formal words: Also learned words, literary words or ―big‖ words, containing three or more than three syllables, seldom used in daily conversation, e.g. enough-sufficient; deal with-handle.⑫common words: Most of the words people use every day and appear in any types of writing, e.g. question, brother.⑬informal words: Mainly used in informal or colloquial words, short and seldom appear in formal writing, such as guy-man, puppy, daddy, slang.2.2 General and specific wordsComparatively speaking, some words are more general or more specific in meaning than other words. P rofessionals, for instance, is more general than scientists, doctors, teachers, lawyers, journalists, etc, all of which are more specific. But scientists may be called a general word then compared with physicists or chemists, which, in turn, is more general than biochemists.Specific words help to make the writing clear, vivid, exact, colorful and attractive; they can make the readers see, hear or feel what the writer wants to describe; they can provide more details and information, the writing will be effective and impressive. More examples:A good man----kind, honest, generous, warm-hearted, brave, selfless, etc.Good food----delicious, tasty, nourishing, wholesome, fresh, rich, etc.House----mansion, villa, cottage, cabin, hut, shed(棚屋，小屋)，etc.Laugh----smile, grin, giggle, chuckle(嗤的一声笑，低声笑)，etc.2.3 Rules to choose words in writing an essay (or a formal writing)⑪Sentences tend to be longer and more complex. E.g. see text book P30⑫Limit your use of subjective pronouns, often using ―it‖ or passive voice. E.g. see P31⑬A void using informal or colloquial words. E.g. take in—deceive; go back—return; a lot—several/many/much/a large amount/number of; let—allow/permit; fellow—person; kind of—somewhat; like—as if/appear.⑭A void using general words, using more specific words. E.g. good, bad great, interesting, very, really, too, etc, are general. (informal) Mary is an interesting person.----Mary is humorous and intelligent.(formal)⑮A void contractions(缩写)and abbreviations(缩略词): don’t—do not; we’ll—we will; can’t—can not; TV—television；i.e.—that is; ad—advertisement.⑯Do not start a sentence with a coordinating conjunctions, but a subordinating conjunction can serve the purpose.E.g. He is usually easy-going. But—however before his first cup of tea, he is a bear.2.4 Figures of speech1. Simile: a comparison between two distinctly different things and the compassion is indicated by the word ―as‖ or ―like‖.E.g. My love is lie a red rose.The old man’s hair is as white as snow.2. Metaphor: also a comparison of similarities between two different things, but the comparison is implied, not expressed by ―as‖ or ―like‖.E.g. My love is a red rose. He is the soul of the team.The life of poor people was carved so sharply in his heart that he could never forget it.3.Personification: to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities.E.g. this time fate was smiling to him. Dust came silently.4. Metonymy(借喻): using the name of one thing to refer to another thing which is closely related.E.g. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.His purse would not allow him to buy that car.5.Irony(反语): the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant, to achieve a special effect.E.g. Y ou come so early, I have waited for more than an hour!6. Overstatement and understatement(含蓄表达、保守说法、低调)：to exaggerate and play down respectivelyE.g. She is dying to know what job has been given her.It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.7. Alliteration(头韵): the appearance of the same initial sound in two or more words.E.g. He is as proud as a peacock.We are fighting for our health and home.2.5 Homework1.In each sentence, choose the more precise of the two in italics;2.Identify the sentences as formal, less formal and informal; the figure of speech used in each of the following sentences.4. Preview Chapter Three.课程教案Part Three Sentences3.1Error-free sentences1.subject-verb agreementRule: the subject and verb of each clause must agree in number. If you have a singular subject, you need a singular verb; if you have plural subject, you need a plural verb.E.g. The family are watching TV together.An average family today is a great deal smaller than it used to be.Either you nor I am responsible for the mistake.There is a sofa and two chairs in the room.One-third of the people/water were over 50/was polluted.2.Word orderRule: the subject precedes the verb which is followed by other elements, such as object, complements, and adverbials: basic pattern of an English sentence: subject+verb+objectE.g. I like reading novels.When two or more than two complements or adverbials, the following guidance should be followed:⑪ Two when-adverbials—P60 1⑫ Two time-adverbials of different types –P60 2⑬ Place-adverbials of several types—P60 3⑭A process-adverbial, a time-adverbial and a place-adverbial used together—P60 43.Shift in tenseRule: the tense of your verb tells when events are taking place—whether in the past, the present or future. When staring writing an essay, establish a ―base tense‖, and shift away form it only of good reasons.E.g. Exercises see P 654. Shift in personRule: establish a steady, reliable point of view and keep the point of view consistent in all the sentences, which can make the writing clear and help the readers know whom you are talking to.E.g. See P66 example⑪ First person singular⑫ First person plural⑬ Second person singular or plural⑭ Third person singular and pluralExercise: Write a paragraph to describe precisely how the following things are done.①How to make jiao-zi.②How o bowwow a book form the library.5. Balance and parallelismRule: using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase or clause level, adding power to your writing.E.g. Two examples see P683.2 T ypes of sentences (or variety in sentences)1. According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.E.g. Making sentences by the students2. According to their structure, sentences are simple, compound, complex and compound-complex.⑴S imple sentence: containing only one subject part(主语部分) and one predicate part.E.g. See P 83⑵Compound sentence: being made up of two or more simple sentences. These simple sentences are related in meaning, and are usually linked by one of the connectives (for, and, but, or, so, nor, and yet) or by a semicolon (;).E.g. Examples see P 84⑶complex sentences: definition see P84E.g. Examples see P84⑷compound- complex(并列复杂句): being made up of two or more simple sentences and one or more subordinate clauses.E.g. Examples: see P843. According to their length, sentences are short sentences and long sentences⑴short sentence: with fewer than 15 words;⑵long sentence: with longer than 20 words.Rule: short sentences are powerful, working well at the beginning of a paragraph to get attention or at the end to summarize; long sentences are used in the body of a paragraph to express detailed information or complex ideas. Remember too many are bad for your writing, no matter short or long sentences.E.g. See example on P109⑶Ways to expand simple sentences①Tightening: cutting extra words, not contributing to your message.E.g. See P111②coordination: combining two or more independent main clauses into a compound sentence by using the connectives BOYFANS(but, or, yet , for ,and, nor ,so)E.g. See P113③subordination: combining two or more independent main clauses into a complex sentence or a compound-complex sentence by using the connectives BE WISE AT W AR(because, even though, when/where/why/who, if, since, even if; although, though, while, as, whereas)E.g. Tom was absent half of the classes last semester. His mother was seriously ill. He passed the final examination with high scores.4. From the rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose sentences（松散句）, periodic sentences(重尾句/调尾句) and balanced sentences.⑴Loose sentences: sentences that have the main point at the beginning are called as loose sentences, and the elements following the main point/clause are closers(can be words, phrases or clauses). This kind of sentences is clear and easy.E.g.Y ou will do better in the exam if you work hard nest term.I have to go to the library to read a new magazine today.⑵Periodic sentences: having the main point at the end of the sentences, and the elements before the main point/clause are openers(can be words, phrases or clauses).E.g. If you go to visit your grandma, do not forget to bring her this basket of apples.Following his advice, I passed the test.More examples see P141⑬Balanced sentences: in balanced sentences, words, phrases or clauses balance each other because of their likeness in structure, meaning or length. This kind of sentences emphasizes the correspondences or contrasts between the elements.E.g. See P 142Notes:1. Choose the content and examples with √ to teach in class;2. Choose some of the exercises to finish as there are many of them in books.课程教案Part Four Paragraphs4.1Effective paragraph1.UnityIf all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. Thecentral theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence.2.CoherenceThe sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural, so readers can easily follow the writer’s thought and understand what he is talking about.3. TransitionsProper transitions can make the paragraph smooth and clear. (give students extra handouts) e.g. (three topic sentences to illustrate the above three points, ask students to write a paragraph based on one of them and choose one paragraph of students to explain in class)1. Once people were very afraid of ghosts.2. It is generally believed that being honest is not only beneficial to ourselves but also to others and the whole society.3. The students’ use of computers has grown rapidly in recent years.4.2 Ways of developing paragraphs4.2.1 Planning a paragraph1. Think of the topic or main idea or theme: a topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way that idea the paragraph is going to deal with.（《写作教程》P136）;2. Express it in a complete sentence (topic sentences);3. Think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea;4. Arrange them in logical orderE.g. example see <英语写作教程>P158 √4.2.2 Development by exampleSome topics need to be supported by examples which can make our writing clear and persuasive. Examples can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event, or a behavior. It may come from our general knowledge, from reading or from person experience.Transitions: such as, take…for example, a leading example is, more transitions see handout.E.g. example see P 160 √Exercise: theme/central idea1. this term several useful and interesting courses have been offered.2. a classmate who is hard working3. TV has negative effects on children4.2.3 Development by comparison and contrastComparison and contrast are formal ways to organize our thoughts. Comparison explains seminaries and contrast explains differences, both of which can help us evaluate subjects to understand their advantages and disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses.There two basic types of organizing a comparison and contrast paragragh: the point-by point method and the block method. 解释见P165及P166 表格Transitions: likewise, in opposition to, differ from, more see handoutsE.g. example see P166 high school life and college lifeExercise:1. I prefer South Korean love stories on TV to the Chinese ones (or vice versa)2. Riding a bicycle is preferable to driving a car.3. Raising plants involves nearly as much care and knowledge as raising children.4.2.4 Development by cause-and-effectCause-and-effect paragraphs investigate why things are as they are, or why things happened, or the effects of an event or a situation. Generally, in a paragraph, it is better to deal with either causes or effects. Rather, it is a problem of the focus of your paragraph(虽然cause和effect同时出现，但必须有所侧重, 如earthquake 侧重描述后果,而环境污染侧重原因披露). Transitions:seeing that, thanks to, for that reason, more see handoutsE.g. see two examples on P167-168Exercise:1. the improvement of transportation in…2. college students doing part-time jobs3. The rate of teenage nearsightness is much higher in china than inmost other countries.4.2.5 Development by classificationA classification paragraph explains a subject by dividing into separated types or groups, i.e. categories. Y ou may break down your topic into different categories, but you should identify the basis for the classification, that is, to remember to group items into categories according to some consistent principle.Transitions: divide into, primary, secondary, more see handout.E.g. see example on P 164Exercise:1.the movies you have seen2.your clothes3.High school teachers tend to sort their students in to the following categories: pleasant highachievers, unpleasant high achievers, the average, pleasant underachievers, and unpleasant underachievers.4.3Homework1.In the following paragraphs, identify the topic sentence, emit the irrelevant sentences andpoint the transitions. (handbook P113)2. Write different types paragraphs on the basis of the materials provided in class.课程教案Chapter Five Passage writing----CET 4 5.1出题方式1. 提纲式文字命题2. 提纲式图表命题3. 情景式命题5.2高分作文1. 主题突出，内容切题、统一、充实2.表达清楚，文字连贯3. 句式多变，逻辑严密4.语言规范、准确，格式、标点规范5.字数130-1506.检查拼写、语法是否正确，句子是否完整5.3 写作类型一. 现象解释型：要求考生从试题的提示性文字或图表入手，描述其所反映出的现象，对该现象进行解释说明，分析其原因并加以评论。
丁往道《英语写作手册(中文版)》复习笔记(措辞)【圣才出品】
第二章措辞Ⅰ. 词的类型据语体风格，常用的词（规范英语词汇）可分为三类：正式的、一般的、非正式的。
1. 正式词汇（又称作学术性的词、文雅的词或“大”词）（1）适用文体正式文体，如学术性或理论性著作、政治和法律文件，以及正式的演讲或报告。
（2）特点多有三个以上的音节，多数源于希腊或拉丁文。
下面这段文章中包含一些体现正式文体的词汇：There is nothing new in the recognition, within a given language, of a distinction between common usage and uses of the language for more restricted purposes and often enough, perhaps characteristically, more elevated purposes. The monolithic nature of English is not questioned when literary essayists like Emerson contrast poetry and common speech. The latter is recognized in America to be the proper subject for the investigation of linguists who, however, now show some incipient inclination to investigate poetry, too, and other noncasual utterances in a given language.—C. F. Voegelin 正式的或学术性的词汇有：recognition, characteristically, elevated, monolithic,investigation, incipient, inclination, noncasual, utterances等。
高考英语写作特训-课堂笔记整理
高考英语写作特训（第二轮复习）2011. 1课堂笔记一、 感受好作文1. 字好：同一个字母在不同的单词当中出现，长的一样就行。
2. 字多：1）100-120字150-180字2）北京卷：不少于60字 150-180字不少于50字 120-150字3. 分段：前面空5个字符，即两个半汉字的长度。
4. 无错：1）高级错误（尽量避免）2）低级错误 宏观角度 文体（框—应用文，内容—其他文体）逻辑（连接词）名词微观角度 动词 主谓一致（从句和插入语）时态二、 课程安排1. 段落 – 按题型分析作文结构2. 句 1）非主题句和词3. 词 2）主题句和词三、 段落1. 看图作文1.1 多图作文冠词 单复数1.1.1四段式1,2,3,4三段式1，2+3，41.1.2第一句话——本段的中心思想1.1.3其他内容——细节（在我们的作文当中，图当中的任何一个元素都不是为了让图画美观而存在的。
）1.1.4结尾的作用——有结尾加分，没有结尾不扣分（结尾<细节）举例：2010北京卷情景作文审题：日记——1）第一句话无自我介绍2）一般过去时3）加入感想和心情1.2 双图作文结构：1）2）1.3 单图作文1.3.1 题型：北京卷开放作文1.3.2 段落：1）描图：2）就图论图3）回归现实4）回归高中生生活，再次点题举例：2010北京卷开放作文2.图表作文2.1对比观点2.1.1四段式2.1.2审题：1）数据（单位，因果）2）有无自己观点2.1.3正方观点1）Some people are in favor of the idea of doing X. They point out the fact that 第一个原因。
They also argue that 第二个原因。
讲解：be in favor of …赞成，支持the fact that + 独立的句子（同位语从句）argue – think2）When it comes to (doing) X, the majority of people believe/say/think that 观点。
丁往道英语写作手册
对偶句
When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.
Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct.
Whoever comes is welcome. The question is how he did it. I believe that I can fly. All that glitters is not gold. You are able to go wherever you like.
P35 Ⅱ. Type of Sentences 句子类型
(structure)
2 .simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex sentences 简单句、并列句、复合句或并列复 合句
simple sentence 简单句
It has one subject and one predicate verb. To see is to believe.
About titles关于题目 6）use a question mark if the title is a direct question, but do not use one if the titleia an indirct question 如果题目是疑问句 ，应加问号：如果是间接引语形式 的疑问句，则不加问号
(1) Emphatic sentences 整句强调
1. short sentences 短句 2. sentence fragments 不完整句 3. inverted sentences 倒装句 4. parallel constructions and balanced sentences平行结构和对称句 5. periodic sentences 圆周句
英语专业写作基础教程7-8单元笔记（共五则范文）
英语专业写作基础教程7-8单元笔记（共五则范文）第一篇：英语专业写作基础教程7-8单元笔记一、Definition and purpose of research paper定义：A research paper usually deals with an important issue, factual or theoretical, and it is usually fairly long and well-documented.目的：1.Learn how to use libraries, how to read books critically and efficiently, and how to use them wisely and correctly；2.Familiarize ourselves with the knowledge and mechanics necessary for writing a research paper；3.Gain some experience in writing long papers or reports.二、Steps of preparing research paperWe go through 5 steps or stages in the process of preparinga research paper:1.choosing a topic2.collecting information3.analyzing the information, organizing ideas, and working out an outline4.writing the first draft;and5.revising the draft and finalizing the paper.1.1 Ways of choosing a topic:(原则:from the general to the specific)①selecting a general topic(interested;already have some ideas;could develop it into a research paper)②③narrowing down the scope of our topic to a facet or facets which can be developed ④formulating the final topic1.2 Criteria for our final topic:It should be a topic①which is meaningful and serious.②which we are able to handle.③for which sufficient materials are available.④that can betreated objectively.⑤that is not too topical.2.1Ways of collecting information①using the library②reading③taking notes2.2How can we find books in library?We can find the books according to the first words of the titles of books or the;last names of the authors.2.3书目卡Calllast(姓),first(名)Number1城市：出版社，时间***p2.4 How are the books in libraries arranged?Books are arranged alphabetically according to their authors ,titles and the subjects they belong to.2.5How do you look for A Doll’s House?We go to the title catalogue file and look up Doll’s House and Color Purple ,ignoring the indefinite article “A” in the first book and the definit e article “The” in the second book.2.6 What do you do to get the information of E.M.Foster?We go to the author catalogue file and look up Foster, E.M., for the cards are arranged according to the last names of the authors.2.7 What is the right way of reading ?To read book quickly and critically.We may first look at the title of contents or the index to find out what chapter or parts of a book might give us some useful material.2.8 How can you be sure that your information is not outdated or biased ?We find the latest edition of the book and compare what is said in it with what other books say on the same topic to make sure that the information we have is not outdated or biased.2.9Rules of taking notes①take notes on cards, or on separate pieces of paper②place only one note on a card.③be selective.2.10 Kinds of information on a note carda.the fact, idea or opinion,b.the source.c.the author’s last name and the page number2.11 Kinds of notesa.the direct quotation(a note that takes down the exact wording of a particular effective statement on a subject)b.the paraphrase(a note that takes down the information of a source in our own words)c.the summary(a note that abstracts and condenses a large amount of material into a small space)Whichever method we use, we must cite the source of the information.如果原文有误，但仍就引用过来，须在后面标注[sic]。
《英语写作》课程教学大纲
《英语写作》课程教学大纲课程编码：30613007 学分：4 总学时：72说明【课程性质】英语专业必修课。
【教学目的】提高用英语表达思想的能力。
学生需要了解写作的性质、特点、标准、过程、类型及写作必备的素质，旨在从理论的角度来认识写作这门课程，掌握一些写作技巧，通过大量实践，培养学生写作意识和习惯，帮助学生掌握有关写作的基本信息，提高学生写作能力。
最终要求学生能够用地道的英语写出各种类型的应用文和各种体裁的作文，并且了解和掌握论文写作的各个过程及格式。
【教学任务】研究如何用英语表达思想。
写作涉及的问题很多，除了语言各方面的问题外，还有思想内容和所用材料、组织条理、书写格式等等。
在语言方面，应该注意帮助学生在已有的基础上，不断提高表达思想的准确性与鲜明性，逐渐使他们感觉到英语的极强的表达力，从而喜欢琢磨如何写好文章。
在内容方面，应要求言之有物，观点正确，条理清楚。
在书写格式上，也应有严格的要求。
【教学内容】从最基本的文稿格式开始教授学生掌握英文写作的规则与技巧。
注意措辞，学会如何写出好的句子和好的段落。
提高学生的写作能力，要求学生能够用地道的英语写出各种实用文如便条等和150字左右的小短文。
内容完整，语言简洁流畅，用词准确，克服中国式英语。
同时要求文章结构合理，层次清晰。
最终还必须了解论文写作的五个步骤：选题；收集资料；分析资料、构思、制定提纲；撰写初稿；修改和定稿和特有的格式。
【教学原则与方法】教学原则：理论与实践相结合的原则。
教学方法：教材讲解与作业讲评相结合。
【先修课程要求】本课程为本科二年级学生开设。
学生在第一学年较为全面地学习了语法知识，掌握了一定的词汇量，并具备了一些用英文表达思想的能力，在此基础上修本课程。
【学时分配】教材与主要参考书教材：丁往道《英语写作手册》外语教学研究出版社，1994年。
参考书：Andrew Littlejohn 《剑桥流利英语》写作4 外语教学研究出版社，2000年。
丁往道《英语写作手册(中文版)》复习笔记(摘要和读书报告)【圣才出品】
第六章摘要和读书报告I. 摘要1. 定义摘要是指摘录一篇文章的要点而独立出来的短文。
摘要需简明扼要，用词精确，忠实于原文意思。
2. 用途（1）写摘要有利于提高读书效率和加强理解能力。
（2）写摘要有助于提高写作能力，能训练学生言简意赅、条理清晰地表达所摘原文的中心意思的能力，训练学生思维的逻辑性。
（3）写摘要不仅对工作有益，而且也是必备的本领。
3. 写作程序（1）阅读a. 仔细阅读，抓住文章大意b. 拟定题目，概括中心思想c. 勤做笔记，分清要点主次（2）写作a. 定出字数，长度不要超出原文的三分之一。
b. 用自己的语言，不要简单堆砌或重新编排原文词语。
c. 按照原文的顺序写，不要随便打乱原文内容的顺序。
d. 内容要完整，表达要清晰，不要有重大的遗漏。
e. 学会删除细节；削减范文；简化描述；避免重复；缩长为短；以泛代实；以简代繁；以“间接”代“直接”。
（3）修改a. 对照原文，检查是否遗漏重要内容。
b. 检查字数是否超出限制。
c. 检查标点、拼写、语法和习语是否准确、简单明了。
（4）小说摘要小说或剧本的摘要就是故事梗概，其长度可能只为原文的百分之一，甚至千分之一，且通常使用现在时态。
II. 读书报告1. 作用写读书报告能够帮助提高阅读理解能力以及分析和欣赏作品的能力，同时也是一项很好的写作练习。
2. 主要部分（1）作者生平和时代简介（2）故事梗概（3）评论要结合作者所处的时代特点来写他的生平以及促使作者创作本作品的事件、与作品内容有关的历史及社会背景。
3. 撰写读书报告（1）故事梗概应内容完整，条理清晰，浅显易懂，客观忠实。
（2）评论是读书报告的核心部分，是对作品的评论与评价，应放在读书报告的第三部分。
在这一部分，可以提出对作品内容、作品风格、作者的表现手法等的个人看法，评论优缺点，讨论其对现在及将来的影响等。
（3）小说或剧本的故事梗概通常使用一般现在时；非小说类作品的梗概需使用原著的时态。
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第八章论文
Ⅰ. 目的
1. 定义
论文是指一篇正式的、有一定长度并附有详细参考文献，探讨、研究或分析某一事实性或理论性的问题的学术性文章。
论文可指学士、硕士或博士的学位论文，也可指一般的学术论文或科研报告。
论文的主要特点是论点明确、条理清楚、论述透彻。
2. 目的
开设论文写作课程的目的是对学生进行基本的学术训练。
3. 作用
准备和写作论文可以为学生提供一个用批判性眼光阅读文献、研究资料的机会；让学生有机会学习如何使用图书馆、使用文献，并熟悉论文写作的步骤与技巧，提高撰写长篇论文或科研报告的能力；还可以深入了解和掌握新知识。
Ⅱ. 步骤
论文写作的过程一般可分为五个步骤：选题；收集资料；分析资料，构思、制定提纲；撰写初稿；修改、定稿。
1. 选题
选题可依照由笼统到具体的程序来进行。
（1）选择一个笼统的题目
选择一个你既感兴趣又对其有一定了解的题目，即你对这个题目已有一些想法，并且该题目值得进一步探讨和研究，最后能够扩展为一篇论文。
（2）阅读与思考
多阅读以得到所需的资料，并思考该题目是否已有人做过较为深入的探讨，是否能从新的角度、新的侧面来进一步拓展此题目，提出有创见性的论点。
（3）将题目的范围缩小到某一个或某几个方面，使其有可能成为一篇论文的题目
（4）确定最后的题目
a. 最后选定的题目本身应是有意义而严肃的。
一篇科研论文应能引起人们思考，并让人们读后有所收获。
因此你的分析必须有见地、有深度。
b. 选定的题目应该是你力所能及的、有足够的资料供参阅，否则可能会论据不足。
c. 选定的题目应该是可供客观研究的，尽量避免掺杂着个人好恶、主观性太强的题目。
d. 不应选当前最热门却又无法下定论的题目。
e. 不要急于确定某一个题目，可以想出两三个可供选择的题目备用。
2. 收集资料
收集资料应当贯穿整个论文写作过程的始终，你所掌握的资料的质量和数量将显示出你研究的深度。
（1）使用图书馆
学生可以在图书馆可以从图书、杂志、报纸、电子图书及各类数据库中获取自己需要的信息。
A. 图书目录
图书馆目录大厅内一般有三种图书目录卡片：作者卡(以作者姓名排列)；书名卡(以作品
书名排列)；主题卡(以内容类别排列)。
作者卡和书名卡均按照英文字母顺序排列，极易查找；也可以根据关键词在馆内的检索机上、互联网某个图书馆的网站上查找所需的文献信息。
B. 书目卡片
卡片便于整理，可以随时增删，因此阅读之前，做参考书目时按英文字母顺序为每一本可能对你有用的书做一张书名卡可以节省时间。
做参考书目时，要确保每张书目卡片均包含下列各项内容，且格式要正确：
a. 书的完整的索书号
b. 作者姓名(姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间使用逗号)，姓名之后使用句号(.)
c. 书名：书名应使用斜体或在其下方加下划线，书名后使用句号(.)
d. 如果是一部选集中的一篇文章、一首诗、一个短篇故事或一个剧本，则要写出文章、诗、短篇小说或剧本的篇名，篇名后使用句号(.)，篇名前后使用引号(“”)
e. 出版社所在的城市：城市之后使用冒号(:)
f. 出版社：出版社之后使用逗号(,)
g. 出版日期：日期之后使用句号(.)
如果是选编本或译本，卡片上还须有编者或译者的姓名；如果一本书有数个版本或是修订本，也应在卡片上标明该信息。
如果一部书有数卷，你还需要标明这部书的总卷数及你所需要的卷号。
（2）阅读
阅读是收集资料的主要手段。
要尽可能在最短的时间内找到并评估有用的资料。
A. 学会快速并用批判性的眼先阅读参考书。
首先翻阅书前目录或书后索引，从中找到对你可能有用的章节，浏览与你的题目关系不大的部分，然后重点阅读你所需要的内容。
B. 考虑资料的可靠性。
尽可能找到此书最新的版本，将不同书中对同一论题的观点进
行比较研究，查阅评论家们对此书及其作者的有关评论。
还应确保你所得到的资料没有过时，不带偏见。
（3）做笔记
A. 做笔记的要求
a. 卡片便于随时调整顺序，重新排列，因此笔记要做在卡片或活页纸上，不要做在笔记本上。
b. —张卡片上只做一条笔记。
一条笔记只记录一件事、一个想法或一个观点。
c. 要有选择性。
你和你的读者已经熟知的事实或观点不用做笔记。
B. 笔记的内容
笔记的内容是那些一般不为人所知却与你的题目紧密相关的事实、想法或观点。
做笔记应有的放矢，具有针对性和选择性。
C. 笔记的出处标示
每一条笔记都应包含事实、想法或观点及这些事实、想法、观点的确切出处。
通常，只需标明该资料所属作品的作者的姓及笔记内容所在页码。
读同一作者的两部作品时，需要标明作者的姓及作品的缩写书名以示区别。
如果作者姓名不洋，则要标明书名或文章题目的缩写。
如果笔记内容出自某一杂志，则要标明作者姓名、文章题目、杂志名称、期号、页码等。
D. 笔记的种类
笔记大致可分为三种：直接引语、转述(意译)、摘要。
直接引语指一字不差地抄录某人对某一论题的精辟论述。
转述(意译)是指用自己的话语解释某人对某一论题的论述。
而摘要则是指用自己的话语将大量的信息资料加以概括和提炼。
E. 直接引语的抄录
a. 直接引语必须加引号。
b. 要一字不差地抄录原文。
如果原文有明显的错误，应照抄错误，并在后面加[sic](拉丁文，表示“原文如此”)标记。
若打印或手写，sic—词应加下划线；排印时，sic—词应用斜体(非英语的词通常都要用斜体字或下划线)。
c. 如果只抄录某一页上的部分文字，然后跳过一两段，再抄录下面的一段，应该在整段省略处从卡片的左边到卡片的右边连续使用圆点，点一整行。
这种标记称为“省略号”，但这种省略号是一整行圆点，区别于英语中所使用的省略号(...)。
如果省略的只是一两句话或一句话中的几个词，只需在省略处使用“...”即可；如果省略的是句子的开头部分，引号须放在省略号之前；如果省略的是一个句子的结尾部分，引号须放在省略号和句尾标点(句号、问号或感叹号)之后。
d. 使用省略号时须确保原文的意思不变以及使用省略号之后句子的完整性。
句子中的重要成分如主语和动词不能省略。
因为所抄录的原文脱离了上下文，有时需要对某个词或某个日期加以说明。
如果需要在直接引语中插入一个词、短语或数字，应将它放在方括号内，而不是圆括号内：如He suffered extreme hardships.这一句在笔记卡片上就应He [Mark] suffered extreme hardships.
e. 笔记的大部分应该是转述或摘要。
直接引语的使用不宜过多。
应在每张笔记卡片上标明笔记内容是直接引语、转述还是摘要。
f. 要仔细分辨书或杂志上的内容哪些是作者所陈述的事实，哪些是作者的看法。
可以通过查阅一本公认权威的参考书或百科全书来解决数位作者对同一事实有分歧的陈述。
如果没有足够的依据来决定哪一种观点正确，可以坦诚地承认分歧，并将不同的观点如实地陈述出来。
F. 笔记的整理
首先要把自己做的笔记重读一遍以加深印象，同时按照不同的标题将笔记归类，并在每
张卡片的右上角简要地写上其所属的标题。
剔除对自己无用的笔记，然后可以再回到图书馆，更有针对性地查阅资料。
3. 分析资料，构思、制定提纲
（1）主题
主题即论文的中心思想，通常是阐明论文作者对自己的研究课题所持的主要观点的一句话。
即主题是论文的指南。
你的论文应以此为中心，为其提供依据，证明主题的正确性，反驳与其相对立的论点并指出其错误所在。
（2）制定提纲(Making an Outline)
提纲是一篇论文的框架，可以帮助整理自己的观点，编排好收集到的资料。
如果在撰写论文的过程中，出现新的想法，可以对已拟定的提纲进行修订。
论文提纲通常有两种形式：题目式提纲(提纲中的大小标题都用短语来表述)和句子式提纲(提纲中的大小标题都用完整的句子来表述)。
两种提纲可以选其一，但不可混用。
注意提纲中同一层级的标题要用平行结构表述，且同一层级的小标题应该具有同等重要性。
4. 撰写初稿
撰写论文初稿就是按照制定的提纲、所学到的有关写作的知识和要求，把论点变成一篇论点明确、结构严谨、条理清楚、论述透彻的学术论文。
撰写论文过程中，需注意以下几点：（1）用自己的话语
要认真研究笔记卡片上的资料，确定如何使用这些笔记。
论文必须有自己的篇章结构，用自己的话语论述自己的观点，而不是简单地将笔记内容“串”起来或拼凑起来。
笔记可以用来支持你的观点，但必须注明笔记的出处。