语言学课件

3. The dictionary representation of a word must include whether it is a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction. That is, it must specify what grammatical category, or syntactic class, it is in. A word, in this sense, is then a grammatical unit, of the same theoretical kind as morpheme and sentence.
A new form of verb can be created by adding –ity to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may function to account for the existence, or the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ity, such as amplify, simplify, electrify, or falsify. And these constitutive parts in each of these verbs are morphemes.
Lexeme ---词汇单位，词位
语言系统中的最小区别性单位。本术语原来的 用意是为了消除可用于正字/音位、语法及词 汇层次的词这个术语的歧义性，同时也是为了 设计一种更加合适的术语，以有利于对一种语 言词汇的讨论。这样，词位被假设为潜伏在如 下两组语法变体中的抽象单位：walks, walking, walked. 根据定义，成语也可考虑为 词位，如kick the bucket。按规定，词为在词 典里被列为独立的词条。
MoHale Waihona Puke Baidupheme语素
Identification of words
1. Stability 2. Relative uninterruptibility 3. A minimum free form Classification of words 1. Variable and invariable words that have inflective endings E.g.: follow, follows, following, followed words without inflective endings
To account for forms like huckle, boysen, and cran, we have to redefine the notion “morpheme”. Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation but acquire meaning by virtue of their connection with other morphemes in words. Thus the morpheme huckle when joined with berry has the meaning of a special kind of berry which is small, round, purplish-blue, and so on. Just as there seem to be some morphemes which occur only in a single word (that is, combined with another morpheme), there are other morphemes which occur in many words, combining with different morphemes, but for which it is very difficult to find a constant meaning.
We have already defined a morpheme as the basic element of meaning, as a phonological form that is arbitrarily united with a particular meaning and that cannot be analyzed into simpler elements. This definition has presented problems for linguistic analysis for many year, although it holds for most of the morphemes in a language. Consider words like cranberry, huckleberry, and boysenberry. The berry part is no problem, but huckle and boysen occur only with berry, as did cran until the drink cranapple juice came on the market.
out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means of … are now recognized as
prepositions or complex prepositions.
Word class 词类
This is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. noun., pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, particles (小品词), auxiliaries, determiners (限定词)
Lecture Four
Morphology
Morphology: the words of language
morphology在传统上，它跟句法学相区 分，后者研究句中词与词之间的搭配规 则。形态学可分成两个领域：屈折变化 的研究，即屈折变化形态学（inflectional morphology）；构词的研究，即词汇或 派生形态学（lexical／derivational morphology）。
结构语言学(Structural Linguistics)自索绪尔起， 便或者把语素(morpheme)或者把词(word)看 作形态学的基本单位。尤其是四～五十年代美 国结构主义语言学家所使用的技术时，用作语 素学（morphemics）这个术语。从这个意义上 说，“语素分析”只是共时语言学研究的一部 分，而“形态分析”（morphological analysis） 则是一个更具有概括性的术语，也可应用于对 历史的研究。
Free morpheme and bound morpheme --- 自由语素和黏着语素
Those which may occur alone, that is, which may constitute words by themselves, are Free Morphemes. In contrast, some must appear with at least another morpheme and are called Bound Morphemes, e.g.: dis-, -ed. Prefixes and suffixes have traditionally been called bound morphemes. Root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.
All words contain a root morpheme. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Prefix: para-, mini-, un Suffix: -ise, -tion Infix: foot/feet, goose/geese A root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound, e.g.: black-. Few bound morphemes: -ceive, -mit, -tain and –cur.
2. Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme (an abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts).
Knowing a word means knowing both its sound and its meaning.
1. The sounds (pronunciation) and the meaning of a word are inseparable. This was pointed out by the 19th century Swiss linguistic Ferdinand de Saussure, who discussed the arbitrary union between the sounds (form) and meaning (concept) of the linguistic sign. In this sense every word is a linguistic sign.
在生成语言学中，形态学和句法学同属 一个层次：语法的句法规则不仅运用于 短语和句子，而且也运用于词的结构； 形态概念只是在形态音位规则对句法部 分的输出作音位表达时才用到。
Isolating, Inflecting and Agglutinating
Three senses of “word”
Formation of word
Morpheme and morphology Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
2. Closed-class words and openclass words --- 封闭类和开放类
Pronouns, preposition, conjunctions, articles, etc. are closed items. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items. Exceptions: Preposition is relatively open in English. Expressions such as regarding, throughout,